Genetic continuity

- bet. Generation of cells (MITOSIS)

- bet. Generations of sexually producing organisms (MEIOSIS)

Diploid Eukaryotic Cells

- contain their genetic info in PAIRS OF HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES

- 1 pair (maternal); 1 pair(paternal)

- eukaryotic: cells that contain a nucleus and organelles, and are enclosed by a plasma
membrane. Organisms that have eukaryotic cells include protozoa, fungi, plants and
animals.

Mitosis

- CHROMOSOMES DUPLICATED à DISTRIBUTED INTO “PROGENY CELLS”

(descendants) during cell reproduction

- Converts DIPLOID CELL into TWO DIPLOID DAUGHTER CELLS

- During stages of mitosis: genetic material is condensed into discrete structures called
chromosomes

- ex. PROMETAPHASE: (2nd phase of mitosis process that separates the duplicated
genetic material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell into TWO identical daughter cells;
chromosomes line up in one plane or equator.

- ex. (Haemanthus)

Meiosis

- 1 MEMBER OF EACH HOMOLOGOUS PAIR OF CHROMOSOMES à DISTRIBUTED

INTO EACH GAMETE OR SPORE à = REDUCING THE DIPLOID CHROMOSOME
NUMBER TO HAPLOID CHROMOSOME NUMBER

- From DIPLOID (2n) to HAPLOID (n)

- With genetic variability by DISTRIBUTING VARIOUS COMBINATIONS OF MATERNAL

AND PATERNAL INTO GAMETES OR SPORES

- During stages of meiosis: genetic material is condensed into discrete structures called
chromosomes
Genetic material

- Every living thing contains this substance

- EXCEPT in certain VIRUSES (instead it’s NUCLEIC ACID DNA)

DNA

- Linear structure: (segments are called “genes” ; products of which direct the metabolic
activities of cells

- Organized into structure called “chromosomes”

- CHROMOSOMES – vehicles for transmitting genetic information; COILED;SHORT;

(WITH NUCLEIC ACID)

- Manner in which chromosomes are transmitted from one generation of cells to the next
and from organisms to their descendants are: PRECISE

- Visible only during MITOSIS & MEIOSIS

- when cells are NOT undergoing cell division, the genetic material making up chromosomes
UNFOLDS AND UNCOILS called as “chromatin”

- CHROMATIN: UNCOILED; LONG

PROCESSES INVOLVED IN GENETIC CONTINUITY OF NUCLEATED CELLS

1. Mitosis – leads to the PRODUCTION of 2 cells;

- each with the SAME NUMBER OF CHROMOSOMES AS THE PARENT CELL;

- HEREDITARY COMPONENTS ARE EQUALLY PARTITIONED INTO DAUGHTER

CELLS

2. Meiosis – leads to the production of SEX CELLS: gametes or spores;

- REDUCTION OF THE GENETIC CONTENT & THE NUMBER OF CHROMOSOMES IN

HALF;

- essential if sexual reproduction is to occur without doubling the amount of genetic

material in each new generation;

- LEADS TO THE PRODUCTION OF SEX CELLS: gametes or spores;

 - transmission of genetic information: from organism to offspring

*both mechanisms are similar in ways, but outcomes are quite different

2.1 CELL STRUCTURE IS CLOSELY TIED TO GENETIC FUNCTION

- Before 1940: knowledge on cell structure was limited (with light microscope)
- Around 1940: transmission on early microscope was in its early stages of development
- 1950: many details of cell ultrastructure had emerged
- Under electron microscope: cells were seen as:
- HIGHLY VARIED
- HIGHLY ORGANIZED STRUCTURES (forms & function are dependent on
specific genetic expression by each cell type)
- New world of these was revealed:

1. WHORLED MEMBRANES

2. ORGANELLES

3. MICROTUBULES

4. GRANULES

5. FILAMENTS

CELL COMPONENTS INVOLVED DIRECTLY/INDIRECTLY WITH GENETIC PROCESSES

1. NUCLEOLUS
2. RIBOSOME
3. CENTRIOLE

OTHER COMPONENTS WITH THEIR OWN UNIQUE GENETIC INFORMATION

1. MITOCHONDRIA
2. CHLOROPLASTS

Animal cell structure

1. PLASMA MEMBRANE
- ALL CELLS are surrounded by this
- OUTER COVERING that defines the cell boundary
- DELIMITS the cell from its immediate external environment
- Not passive, but ACTIVELY CONTROLS the MOVEMENT of materials INTO
AND OUT OF CELL
- In plant cells: “CELL WALL” - outer covering; major component is a
POLYSACCHARIDE called “CELLULOSE”

2. GLYCOCALYX / CELL COAT

- Covering over the plasma membrane
- Many if not most animal cells only have this
- Consist of GLYCOPROTEINS & POLYSACCHARIDES
 - w/ chemical composition that DIFFERS from comparable structures in either
plants or bacteria
- Provides biochemical identity at the surface of cells
- Components of the coat that establish cellular identity are under GENETIC
CONTROL
- Examples of various cell markers(antigens): FOUND ON SURFACE
OF RED BLOOD CELLS AMONG OTHER CELL TYPES
1. AB
2. Rh
3. MN

ON THE SURFACE OF OTHER CELL:

1. Histocompatibility antigens - elicit an immune response during tissue and organ

transplants, (are present)

2. Receptor Molecules - also found on surface of cells; act as RECOGNITION SITES

that TRANSFER SPECIFIC CHEMICAL SIGNALS across the cell membrane into the
CELL

LIVING ORGANISMS CATEGORIZED INTO 2 MAJOR GROUPS (on whether or not their cells
contain a nucleus):

1. Eukaryotes
- Defining characteristic: PRESENCE OF NUCLEUS & OTHER MEMBRANOUS
ORGANELLES
- NUCLEUS: membrane-bound structure that houses the genetic material (DNA)
which is complexed with an array of ACIDIC and BASIC proteins into THIN
FIBERS;
- (also present inside NUCLEUS is: NUCLEOLUS: amorphous component where
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized & where the initial stages or ribosomal
activity occur.
- NOR/ Nucleolus Organizer Region: portions of DNA that encode rRNA
- During NON DIVISIONAL PHASES OF THE CELL CYCLE: FIBERS ARE
UNCOILED & DISPERSED into CHROMATIN
- During MITOSIS & MEIOSIS, CHROMATIN FIBERS COIL & CONDENSE INTO
CHROMOSOMES
-
2. Prokaryotes - w/2 major groups
- a.) lack a nuclear envelope
- b.) lack membranous organelles
- Ex. eubacteria (other group); E. coli; GENETIC MATERIAL IS PRESENT as a
LONG, CIRCULAR DNA MOLECULE that is compacted into a CLOSED
REGION called “NUCLEOID”
- Part of DNA may be attached to cell membrane, but in general the nucleoid
extends through a large part of the cell
- Although DNA is compacted, it doesn’t undergo the extensive coiling
characteristic stages of mitosis, during which the chromosomes of eukaryotes
become visible. Nor is the DNA associated as extensively with proteins as is
eukaryotic DNA.
- Ex. archaea (more ancient bacteria)
 - DO NOT HAVE DISTINCT NUCLEOLUS but DO CONTAIN GENES THAT
SPECIFY rRNA molecules.

2 bacteria forming by cell division illustrates the nucleoid regions containing the bacterial
chromosomes

3. CYTOPLASM
- Remainder of the eukaryotic cell within the plasma membrane excluding the nucleus
- Includes a variety of extranuclear cellular organelles
- cytosol: in the cytoplasm; non-particulate, colloidal material; surrounds & encompasses
the cellular organelles
- Includes system