The FEECO Handbook

PROCESS SYSTEMS
ENGINEERING & MANUFACTURING
HANDBOOK Revised Edition
TOMORROW'S PROCESSES, TODAY.

FEECO.com
EXPERTS IN CUSTOM EQUIPMENT AND MATERIAL PROCESSING
SINCE 1951
© Copyright FEECO International, Inc. 2019 | All rights reserved.

Value: $75 USD.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Tip: Use the colored bars corresponding with each section to easily navigate through the book.
ABOUT FEECO
A Message from the President.............................................................................................................................................1
Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................................................2
Experience..............................................................................................................................................................................3
Industries & Materials.............................................................................................................................................................4
Engineering Capabilities.......................................................................................................................................................5
In-House Manufacturing Capabilities..................................................................................................................................6
Automation ...........................................................................................................................................................................7
THE INNOVATION CENTER
Customized Testing Solutions................................................................................................................................................9
Agglomeration Testing................................................................................................................................................10
Testing Particle Characteristics...........................................................................................................................11
Thermal Testing.............................................................................................................................................................14
Rotary Dryer Testing.............................................................................................................................................15
Rotary Kiln Testing.................................................................................................................................................18
Table: Material Transformations..........................................................................................................................................20
Table: Commonly Tested Materials....................................................................................................................................22
Tolling.....................................................................................................................................................................................24
Rental Equipment................................................................................................................................................................25
AGGLOMERATION
About Agglomeration.........................................................................................................................................................27
Types of Agglomeration......................................................................................................................................................29

NON-PRESSURE AGGLOMERATION
Pelletizing......................................................................................................................................................................30
Disc Pelletizers.......................................................................................................................................................31
Disc Pelletizers - Operating Principles..........................................................................................................33
Project Profile: Glass Pelletizing.....................................................................................................................34

Project Profile: EAF Dust.................................................................................................................................35
Project Profile: Limestone & Gypsum Pelletizing.........................................................................................36
Project Profile: Gypsum Pelletizing...............................................................................................................37
Project Profile: Limestone Pelletizing System...............................................................................................38
Project Profile: Nickel Ore Pelletizing............................................................................................................39
Project Profile: Chicken Litter to Fertilizer.....................................................................................................40
Agglomeration/Granulation Drums...................................................................................................................41
Drive Assembly Options.................................................................................................................................43
Pipe Reactors.................................................................................................................................................44
Project Profile: Iron Ore Balling Drums..........................................................................................................46

Project Profile: Copper Ore Heap Leaching Drums...................................................................................47
Project Profile: Gold Ore Rotary Drum Agglomerator...............................................................................48
Project Profile: Ore Rotary Agglomerator...................................................................................................49
Project Profile: DAP Fertilizer Granulation Drum & Dryer............................................................................50
Project Profile: Fertilizer Granulation Pilot Plant...........................................................................................51
Project Profile: Complete System - Waste to Value...................................................................................52
Drum or Disc?.................................................................................................................................................53
Conditioning.................................................................................................................................................................54

Project Profile: Phosphate Rock Conditioning Drum.................................................................................57
Pug Mills.................................................................................................................................................................58
Project Profile: Pug Mill for De-dusting Fly Ash............................................................................................60
Project Profile: Pug Mills for Copper Concentrates....................................................................................61
Project Profile: Pug Mills for Steel Mill By-Products......................................................................................62
Project Profile: Animal Feeds Granulation...................................................................................................63
Project Profile: Bio-Fertilizer Processing........................................................................................................64
Project Profile: On-Farm Manure Granulation Plant..................................................................................65
Micro Pelletizing............................................................................................................................................................67
Pin Mixers...............................................................................................................................................................69

Project Profile: Pin Mixers for De-Dusting Coal............................................................................................70
Project Profile: Carbon Black Agglomeration............................................................................................71
Choosing an Industrial Mixer: Pin Mixer vs. Pug Mill..................................................................................................72

PRESSURE AGGLOMERATION

Compaction Granulation...........................................................................................................................................74
Roll Compactors...................................................................................................................................................76

Project Profile: Ammonium Sulfate Granulation.........................................................................................77
Pelletizing vs. Compaction Granulation....................................................................................................................78
Briquetting.....................................................................................................................................................................80
Briquetters.............................................................................................................................................................81
Table: Agglomeration Equipment Summary....................................................................................................................82
CONSIDERATIONS IN AGGLOMERATION
Preconditioning....................................................................................................................................................................83
Choosing a Binder...............................................................................................................................................................84
The Role of Drying................................................................................................................................................................85
Coating ................................................................................................................................................................................86
Project Profile: Coating Drum for Ammonium Sulfate.............................................................................................89
Size Reduction......................................................................................................................................................................90
Hammer Mills.................................................................................................................................................................91
Project Profile: Hammer Mill for Manure Granules............................................................................................93
THERMAL PROCESSING
DRYING ................................................................................................................................................................................95
How Rotary Dryers Work......................................................................................................................................................96
Direct Rotary Dryers.....................................................................................................................................................98
Indirect Rotary Dryers.................................................................................................................................................100
Direct vs. Indirect Drying...........................................................................................................................................102
Sizing & Design....................................................................................................................................................................103
Combustion Chambers.............................................................................................................................................107
Rotary Dryer or Fluid Bed Dryer?.......................................................................................................................................108

Project Profile: Limestone Rotary Dryer............................................................................................................................110
Project Profile: DAP & MAP Rotary Dryer.........................................................................................................................111
Project Profile: Bedding Recovery from Manure............................................................................................................112
Project Profile: Potash Rotary Dryers................................................................................................................................113
Project Profile: Frac Sand Dryer........................................................................................................................................114
Project Profile: Rotary Dryer for Ammonium Sulfate.......................................................................................................115

COOLING ............................................................................................................................................................................116
Table: Typical Rotary Dryer & Cooler Data.....................................................................................................................117
Direct Rotary Coolers.........................................................................................................................................................118
Project Profile: Rotary Cooler for DDGS...................................................................................................................120
Indirect Rotary Coolers......................................................................................................................................................121
ROTARY KILNS
How Rotary Kilns Work.......................................................................................................................................................124
Direct-Fired Rotary Kilns.............................................................................................................................................126
Indirect-Fired Rotary Kilns..........................................................................................................................................128
Direct vs. Indirect........................................................................................................................................................130
Rotary Kiln Processes..........................................................................................................................................................131
Sizing & Design....................................................................................................................................................................132
Increasing Efficiency Through Customization.........................................................................................................135
Options in Air Flow......................................................................................................................................................139
Moisture Reduction: Dryer or Kiln?...................................................................................................................................141
Project Profile: Rotary Kiln Resource Recovery System..................................................................................................142
Project Profile: Production Line for Roofing Granules....................................................................................................143
MATERIAL HANDLING
About Material Handling...................................................................................................................................................146
CONVEYORS & ACCESSORIES
Troughed Belt Conveyors..................................................................................................................................................147
Project Profile: Frac Sand Conveyor System...........................................................................................................149
Project Profile: Gypsum and Limestone Conveyor System...................................................................................150
Project Profile: Potash Handling System..................................................................................................................151
Project Profile: Gypsum Conveying System............................................................................................................152
Project Profile: Woodchips/Biomass Handling........................................................................................................153
Project Profile: Lignite Coal Conveyors...................................................................................................................154
Project Profile: Magnesite Ore Conveyor System...................................................................................................155
Reversing Shuttle Conveyors............................................................................................................................................156
Steep Incline Conveyors...................................................................................................................................................158
Belt Trippers.........................................................................................................................................................................160
Project Profile: Belt Tripper.........................................................................................................................................161

Belt Plows.............................................................................................................................................................................162
Trippers vs. Plows................................................................................................................................................................163
Belt Feeders........................................................................................................................................................................164
Engineering Belt Conveyor Horsepower.........................................................................................................................165
Tables: Belt Conveyor Capacity......................................................................................................................................167
BUCKET ELEVATORS...........................................................................................................................................................168
Centrifugal Elevators..................................................................................................................................................170
Continuous Elevators.................................................................................................................................................170
Bucket Elevator Design......................................................................................................................................................172
Bucket Styles...............................................................................................................................................................173
Project Profile: Frac Sand Bucket Elevators.....................................................................................................................175
Project Profile: Potash Bucket Elevators...........................................................................................................................176
PARTS & SERVICE/AFTERMARKET

Aftermarket Parts & Services.............................................................................................................................................178
Annual Inspections.....................................................................................................................................................181
Laser Alignment..........................................................................................................................................................182
Tire Grinding................................................................................................................................................................183
Knocking System Options..........................................................................................................................................184
Seal Options................................................................................................................................................................186
APPENDICES

Appendix A: Unitized Base................................................................................................................................................188
Appendix B: FEECO & Rockwell Automation: Solutions in Action................................................................................189
Appendix C: FEECO & Microtrac: Advanced Particle Analysis....................................................................................191
Appendix D: Material Weights..........................................................................................................................................193
Appendix E: Metal Corrosion............................................................................................................................................200
Appendix F: Granular Fertilizer Data................................................................................................................................204
Appendix G: Engineering Constants...............................................................................................................................205
Appendix H: Metric Conversions......................................................................................................................................207
DISCLAIMER
FEECO is committed to publishing and maintaining this Handbook. As we continue to grow and evolve, information in this document is subject to change with-
out notice. FEECO does not make any representations or warranties (implied or otherwise) regarding the accuracy and completeness of this document and
shall in no event be liable for any loss of profit or any commercial damage, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damage.
Please note that some images may display equipment without the proper safety guards and precautions. This is for photographic purposes only and does not
represent how equipment should be properly and safely installed or operated. FEECO shall not be held liable for personal injuries.
A FEECO rotary dryer is prepared for shipment
TOMORROW'S
PROCESSES,
TODAY.
ABOUT FEECO | 1
President Dan Madigan (left) with

Founder, Jim Madigan.
A MESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT

FEECO was founded by my father in 1951 as the Fertilizer Engineering & Equipment Company. With a degree
in Chemical Engineering and an appetite for problem solving, my dad quickly found himself solving material
problems and providing process and equipment solutions outside of the fertilizer industry. FEECO soon
developed a global reputation as the company that could solve just about any material problem.
Since our founding, we have been fortunate to grow our company to an international status, not only providing
material testing and process solutions, but also complete process systems, custom equipment, and aftermarket
services to a wealth of industries—fertilizer included.
With such a storied history, it is rewarding to look back at where we've come from and the accomplishments
we've been able to make in partnership with our valued customers. I am equally excited to look forward at
what the future holds for our vibrant, ever-expanding company.
We are incredibly grateful to have such a wonderful family of employees and to be so fortunate to have estab-
lished relationships with forward-thinking companies. Together, our accomplishments are bringing innovations
that will change the world for a better tomorrow.
Dan Madigan
President, FEECO International, Inc.
ABOUT FEECO | 2
THE
FEECO
HANDBOOK
Countries
we’ve served
INTRODUCTION
FEECO International, Inc. was founded in 1951 as an engineering and equipment manufacturer. Since then,
we have provided full-scale process solutions for thousands of satisfied customers (including some of the world's
largest corporations, engineering firms, and start-ups).
FEECO is recognized globally as an expert in providing industry-leading process design, engineering, and
manufacturing to nearly every industry.
The FEECO Handbook serves as a reference for anyone in need of information regarding agglomeration,
thermal processing, material handling, and more.
To find out what we can do for you, contact a FEECO expert today.
FEECO US Headquarters
3913 Algoma Rd. Green Bay, WI 54311, USA
Phone: (920)468.1000
Toll Free: 1.800.373.9347
Fax: (920)469.5110
FEECO.com/contact
Find us on:
ABOUT FEECO | 3
EXPERIENCE
Throughout our many years, we have built an extensive customer base that consists of many of the world’s top
players within their industry. From feasibility testing to custom equipment, global leaders in innovation rely on us
to solve their material problems and help them bring their process or product to market, as well as keep their
processes running efficiently. Some of these customers are listed below. In addition to the many industry mag-
nates we serve, we also continue to be a resource for start-ups and entrepreneurs.
ABOUT FEECO | 4
INDUSTRIES & MATERIALS

As an expert in material processing, our decades of experience in solving material problems has allowed us to
develop and provide custom process and equipment solutions for nearly every industry. Some of the most
common industries and materials we work with are listed below.
MINING & MINERALS FERTILIZER & GRANULATION FOREST PRODUCTS

- Alumina - Ammoniated Phosphates - Biomass
- Bauxite - Ammonium Sulfate - Paper Pulp
- Clay - Biochar - Wood Chips
- Copper - Biosolids
- Frac Sand - Chicken Litter CHEMICAL
- Glass - Composts & other organic - Activated Carbon
- Gold materials
- Carbon Black
- Granite - Gypsum
- Catalysts
- Gypsum - Herbicides & Pesticides
- Detergents
- Iron Ore - Limestone
- EAF Dust
- Kitty Litter - Manures (Poultry, Hog, Cattle,
Dairy) - Pigments
- Limestone - Titanium Dioxide
- MAP & DAP
- Manganese - Zinc Oxide
- MCP & DCP
- Nickel
- NPK
- Phosphate Rock
- Potash
- Potash
- Sulfur
- Silica
- Urea
- Silver
- Superphosphates
- Soda Ash
- Struvite
POWER GENERATION
- Sulfur
- Biocoal
- Talc
- Coal
- Uranium
- Coke & Pet Coke
- Zinc
- FGD Gypsum (Synthetic
Gypsum)
- Fly Ash
ABOUT FEECO | 5
ENGINEERING CAPABILITIES
One of the advantages to working with FEECO is our extensive experience in engineering; our highly qualified
staff of chemical, mechanical, and electrical engineers provides a well-rounded approach to system design,
whether you are in need of a single piece of equipment, or a complete process system.
We can help bring your project to fruition with our versatile capabilities in front-end engineering, including the
provision of:
- Equipment engineering
- Process flow diagrams/Mass balance
- Conceptual plant layouts
- Plant general arrangement drawings
- Civil works guide drawings with static and dynamic loads
- Structural steel and access platform guide drawings
- Chute and ductwork guide drawings
- Vendor interface, bid evaluation and analysis
- P&ID development
- Electrical and control systems engineering
- Material handling engineering
- Installation and commissioning review
- Site supervision for installation & start-up
Our engineering department works closely with our on-site fabrication facility to ensure stringent design and
quality standards are met.
Project managers work to oversee your system is designed, manufactured, and installed to spec—on time and
on budget. All project managers and sales team members are experienced engineers and work with our staff
of fully trained CAD and Inventor users to engineer a system around your unique requirements.
ABOUT FEECO | 6
IN-HOUSE MANUFACTURING CAPABILITIES

Our state-of-the-art fabrication facility is equipped with the latest equipment and technologies, and is operated
by experienced welders, machinists, pipe fitters, and fabricators, allowing us to produce high quality work at
high capacities.
Plant Area 59,000+ square feet
Material Handling Seventeen (17) traveling overhead cranes
Rolling Bertsch Roll: FEECO offers a 1” thick x 10’ wide plate rolling capacity, so heavy-duty
cylinders, tanks, drum fabrications, cyclones, and other difficult sections are easily
and accurately formed.
Cutting FEECO provides various types of cutting services, allowing for a tremendous amount
of versatility:
• Punching MUBEA plate punch 1-1/4” round holes x 1” plate

• Sawing 3-Band Saw 18” maximum automatic feed
• Cutting One (1) 1/4” x 10’ Shear
MUBEA Hydraulic Iron Worker - 88 Ton Capacity
• Burning Messer Titan II Plasma Cutting Table - 10’ x 40’
• Machining 5’ Swing radial drill
Lathes
27” swing x 10’ centers CNC; vertical mill 11” x 54”
Bending 500 Ton x 10’ bed brake press

320 Ton x 12’ bed brake press
Fabrication Since 1951, the skilled hands and technical expertise of our employees have been
servicing the specialized needs of our customers. We have built a reputation for quality,
accuracy, and service.
Welding Carbon, Stainless, Aluminum, and Inconel

Certified for specialty materials such as: mild steel,
alloys, stainless, Inconel, and Hastlelloy.
Mig, submerged arc, and TIG
ASME certified welders
Finishing Painting Enamel, Epoxy, and Urethane coating systems are available
Standards &
Certifications ASME Section IX Welding
In addition to our in-house capabilities, we have relationships with manufacturers around the world,
allowing us to execute projects according to FEECO specifications no matter what the location.
ABOUT FEECO | 7
AUTOMATION
FEECO is a Rockwell Automation partner, providing integrated process control solutions, both
as a service in the Innovation Center, and as part of a system purchase. FEECO and Rockwell
Automation process control solutions are provided with current technology, motor control
centers, programmable logic controllers, and data collection systems with advanced
technologies for reporting. The FEECO Innovation Center features a Rockwell Automation
PLC/MCC system, which utilizes current technologies for optimizing testing operations.
DATA IN REAL TIME UNPARALLELED REPORTING CAPABILITIES

Our system allows you to A control system from Rockwell Automation provides state-of-the-art
monitor, trend, and adjust various data collection and reporting capabilities. Our system allows you to
data points in real time, all from a select only the variables you want to report on, from the exact time
single interface or mobile device. frame you’re looking for. This is especially beneficial in the Innovation
This includes: Center, allowing returning customers to pick up exactly where they
- Current (Amps) left off.
- Feed Rate
FEECO can integrate third party equipment into your control system,
- Flow Rates/Product Flow
giving you complete process tracking and visualization.
- Fuel Usage
- Gas Sampling & Analysis Secure remote access to the system provides unparalleled
- Horsepower troubleshooting capabilities.
- Speed
- System Pressure Additional capability to customize data reporting features the ability to
accommodate a broad range of operational variables.
- Temperature
- Torque
For more information on our automation capabilities, see Appendix B (Pg. 189).
The process control panel in

the FEECO Innovation Center
THE INNOVATION CENTER: R&D FACILITY
THE INNOVATION CENTER | 9
CUSTOMIZED TESTING SOLUTIONS

Testing offers a host of invaluable information, allowing you to gain critical data on your material, work out
process variables, and develop a recipe for process scale-up. The Innovation Center is a unique facility that of-
fers comprehensive testing options for both agglomeration and thermal processes. Our process engineers can
work with you to develop a customized testing program around the answers you’re looking for. Depending on
your needs, we offer testing services in four categories:
1. Feasibility/Proof of Concept - An initial, non-witnessed batch 2. Proof of Product - A more in-depth batch testing phase in
testing phase in which the possibility of creating a product is which more time is spent determining whether a product can be
explored. made to desired specifications.
3. Proof of Process - A continuous testing phase that aims to 4. Process/Product Optimization - An in-depth study to optimize
establish the equipment setup and parameters required for your specific material’s characteristics and/or production
continuous production of your specific material. parameters in an industrial setting.
TESTING EQUIPMENT
Whether you need to test a single piece of equipment, or you’re looking to try various configurations of multiple
pieces, the FEECO Innovation Center is well equipped to suit small batch tests, as well as continuous process
loops. The following equipment is available for testing in the Innovation Center:
AGGLOMERATION THERMAL SUPPORT

BATCH EQUIPMENT BATCH EQUIPMENT BATCH EQUIPMENT
- Disc Pelletizer - Rotary Kiln - Muffle Furnace
- Pin Mixers (2) - Indirect Kiln - Fluid Bed Sample Dryer
- Roll Compactor/Briquetter - Rotary Dryer - Tray Oven

- Flight Simulator
CONTINUOUS EQUIPMENT CONTINUOUS EQUIPMENT
- Disc Pelletizers (2) CONTINUOUS EQUIPMENT - Steam Generator with

- Rotary Kiln Steam Tanks
- Rotary Granulator
- Paddle Mixer/Pug Mill - Indirect Kiln
- Pin Mixer - Rotary Dryer

ON-SITE SUPPORT
- Hammer Mill - Fluid Bed Dryer, Cooler
In addition to the equipment listed
- Rod Mill
here, we are capable of making
- Prater Mill MATERIAL HANDLING
on-site, large-scale modifications to
- Rotex Screen – 2 deck (ALL CONTINUOUS)
our facility in order to accommo-
- Circular Screen - Steep Incline Conveyor
date your testing needs, without
- Pipe Reactor - Bucket Elevator
the hassle of bringing in external
- Littleford Day Mixer - Belt Conveyor
contractors.
- Coating Drum - Various Feeders
ADVANCED PARTICLE ANALYSIS

FEECO utilizes a 3D Dynamic Image Analysis tool to provide advanced
Particle analysis image captured in the
particle analysis during testing. A number of characteristics, including Innovation Center
size, shape, thickness, surface roughness, density, transparency, and
more, can all be measured without disrupting the testing process. Results
are recorded with precision accuracy in real time, with data comparison and trending available through
the integrated software program. Advanced particle analysis systems are also available as part of a system
purchase. For more information on advanced particle analysis, see Appendix C (Pg. 191).
AGGLOMERATION TESTING
Agglomeration testing in the Innovation Center will tell you if your QUESTIONS THAT CAN BE ANSWERED
material is capable of agglomerating, as well as what equipment will THROUGH AGGLOMERATION TESTING:
be required to achieve the results you’re looking for. We can convert • Will my material agglomerate?
dusts, bulk powders, and sludges into free-flowing pellets for dust-free
handling, or to improve product characteristics. We can also test a • Can agglomeration solve my
complete, continuous process with agglomeration, drying, particle material problem?
sizing, and product recycle capabilities to create a highly efficient
process. We can record operating data to assist in process scale-up • Which method of agglomeration
and design a full-scale production plant. will best suit my material?
• What equipment configuration

WE CAN TEST THE FOLLOWING METHODS OF AGGLOMERATION: will be required to produce the
NON-PRESSURE PRESSURE results I’m looking for?
- Pelletizing (Disc, Rotary Drum) - Briquetting • What binder, if any, will work best
- Conditioning (Pug Mill, Pin Mixer, - Compaction Granulation for my material?
Rotary Drum)
• Can my product be improved?
- Mixing (Pug Mill, Pin Mixer,
Rotary Drum) • How can I optimize my existing
- Coating (Rotary Drum) process?
- Micro Pelletizing (Pin Mixer,
Disc Pelletizer) • How much can dust/product loss
be reduced?

MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS
There are a variety of particle characteristics that can be measured and adjusted during processing to
achieve a product with ideal characteristics. The following properties can be measured and fine-tuned:
- Attrition - Flowability - Particle Size Analysis

- Bulk Density - Green/Wet Strength - Solubility
- Compression - Moisture Content - Temperature
- Crush Strength - Physical Characteristics
Potash before (left) and after agglomeration

in the Innovation Center
TESTING PARTICLE CHARACTERISTICS

Each agglomeration method Testing during product develop- breakage. Yet, the pellets must still
can produce pellets or granules ment can help process engineers be capable of breaking down in
of different size, shape, solubility, make adjustments to the process, standard field conditions.
and density, among other things. such as a formulation change, or
Similarly, within each method of addition of binder, in order to re- GREEN/WET STRENGTH
agglomeration, manufacturers are duce the occurrence of attrition. Green/wet strength tests are
often targeting a set of parameters essentially drop tests performed
that will ensure their agglomerates This test is accomplished with an on a wet pellet prior to drying in
perform as intended. The variety attrition tester, a machine that sim- order to ensure that pellet integrity
of processing methods gives man- ulates the conditions under which is maintained throughout the entire
ufacturers control over how they granules rub against each other process; pellets need a certain
want their agglomerated materials and equipment, causing edges to amount of strength to withstand the
to look, feel, and behave during break off into fines. On-size pellets number of drop points during pro-
commercial use. are put into the machine, agitated, cessing, such as moving from one
and then measured to see what conveyor to another.
FEECO process engineers often portion of the sample is still on-size.
perform tests prior to processing a Tests are typically done on com- COMPRESSION
material, during processing, and paction granules, as opposed to Similar to crush strength, compres-
after agglomerates are produced round pellets, since they are far sion tests look at how the agglom-
in the Innovation Center. These tests more likely to have attrition issues. erated material behaves under
are crucial to process and product FEECO can accommodate other stress, but as a whole, instead of just
development, and help us create methods of attrition testing as well. as a single pellet. FEECO process
agglomerates to meet each cus- engineers use a controlled product
tomer’s unique needs. Testing helps CRUSH STRENGTH amount and a hydraulic press to
predict potential behavior in the Crush strength tests are used to perform these tests. This type of test
field by gathering information on determine the strength of an is most commonly utilized on kiln
characteristics ranging from shape, agglomerated pellet, or in other products, and more specifically,
to crushing behavior, and even words, how much pressure it takes on proppants. Proppants must be
attrition, to help manufacturers to crush the pellet. If crush strength able to endure extreme amounts of
determine if the agglomerates will is low, it takes little pressure to break pressure to hold open rock fissures,
fit their anticipated application. pellets during normal handling, but allowing natural gas or oil to flow
if crush strength is high, then the out. If proper strength were not
TESTS PERFORMED IN THE pellet is stronger and can withstand attained, proppants would crush
INNOVATION CENTER more handling without premature under pressure, defeating their pur-
Below are some of the most degradation. Crush tests are per- pose. They would also subsequently
commonly performed tests in the formed on a single pellet, using clog veins to the main wellbore,
Innovation Center: metal plates to gradually apply inhibiting extraction. Furthermore,
increasing pressure to the pellet. compression is important when it
ATTRITION comes to materials like frac sand,
These tests are used to determine Target crush strength is an import- or concrete additives, which are
the amount of degradation that will ant characteristic in creating a required to withstand heavy load-
occur during handling—that is, the pellet that will perform as needed. ing, not as an individual particle,
amount of product that will break Reaching a target crush strength is but as a unit.
down into fines (a phenomenon particularly essential to the fertilizer
known as attrition). As one can industry; fertilizer pellets must be Here’s how the test works: the
imagine, the least amount of attri- strong enough to withstand pro- material sits in the bottom of a
tion is desirable, as it causes prod- cessing, bagging/storage, transpor- cylinder, and a smaller, solid
uct loss, as well as dust issues. tation, and even spreading without cylinder enters the larger one.
The process engineer then presses gram from Nikon captures detailed tion Center to measure the particle
the smaller cylinder onto the mate- particle images, allowing process size distribution of agglomerates.
rial, crushing it at a specified rate of engineers to evaluate the agglom- FEECO also uses advanced particle
pounds per square inch. erate shape, in addition to surface analysis technology to measure
quality and other features unseen particle size distribution in real time.
BULK DENSITY by the naked eye. This in-depth
As the name suggests, bulk view provides tangible confirmation FLOWABILITY
density tests determine the density of FEECO’s agglomeration process- Flowability tests reveal how
of agglomerates. This is measured es, and ensures that a customer’s agglomerates move, or “flow,” as a
by taking a container of known agglomerates have met their pre- unit. Flowability is measured simply
volume, filling it with agglomerates, cise expectations. by pouring material onto a make-
and then weighing it. The weight/ shift chute positioned at various an-
volume reveals the material’s SOLUBILITY gles, and observing how the mate-
bulk density. Also referred to as a dissolving rial moves from point A to B. During
test, solubility tests indicate how a these tests, process engineers are
Bulk density is significantly important material will dissolve in water. These specifically looking at the angle of
in sizing equipment according to tests often require nothing more repose: the steepest angle, from
material and processing needs (i.e., than a simple beaker of water, and, 0-90°, of descent in relation to the
tons per hour of production). An of course, the product to be tested. horizontal surface to which the ma-
operation producing paper sludge Several items are recorded and terial can be piled without falling.
at 10 tons/hour and weighing 20 analyzed during solubility tests:
pounds per cubic foot would look Flowability is particularly imperative
much different than a limestone - Time in regards to the design of material
operation with product weighing 70 - Temperature handling equipment. A conveyor
pounds per cubic foot, for exam- - If the material dissolves transporting pellets may be de-
ple. Certain products may also - How much of the material signed differently than one carrying
require a specific bulk density for a dissolves compacted granules, for example.
variety of reasons, such as packing A round, smooth pellet cannot be
or shipping purposes, consumer These tests are extremely valuable piled as steeply compared to a
use, or maintaining pellet integrity for fertilizer and soil amendment rougher, more jagged granule,
during use. As with other particle products, ensuring that the product because of the angle of repose.
characteristics, the ability to test breaks down at the optimal rate
agglomerate bulk density ensures under standard field conditions. In MOISTURE CONTENT
a product will meet the needs of its addition, solubility tests are useful FEECO process engineers use a
intended application. in testing how well coating agents specialized device, called a
perform. moisture analyzer, to record the
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS amount of free moisture present in
Agglomerate shape is crucial in SIEVE ANALYSIS agglomerates. With most materials,
many industries where the end Sieves are used to measure particle reaching a target moisture range,
product will go directly to market. size distribution, specifically what or even an exact percentage, is
Many companies and industries percentage of on-size pellets are required for the final product. This
want spherical or oblong particles, produced from the agglomeration ensures agglomerates perform as
whereas other customers request process, as well as the amount of desired, and do not result in
different shapes to match their over- and under-size particles. clumping or breakdown issues.
needs. While agglomerate shape
can be determined simply by Sieves are made up of a circular While manual moisture analysis
viewing the final product, it can be metal frame with a screen-like wire testing is still widely practiced, the
evaluated in greater detail using a mesh in the bottom. Various sieves, Innovation Center uses a highly
microscope. FEECO’s state-of-the- each with different standardized advanced, in-line moisture analysis
art microscope and software pro- mesh sizes, are found in the Innova- device. Manual moisture testing
can still be carried out, but this new TESTING: PRIOR TO, DURING, agglomerate and end product
tool allows for real-time measure- AND AFTER PROCESSING characteristics, equipment selec-
ment and analysis without destruc- It’s significant to note that these tion, and data needed for process
tive sampling or disruption of tests are either completed prior scale-up. Furthermore, the overall
the process. to processing, during, or after test goal of these tests is to produce
work has been completed. In some an end product which meets the
TEMPERATURE cases, all tests, or a combination, customer’s unique needs. Thus,
Temperature is often recorded can be performed at each of the testing a sample prior to process-
during testing, especially in thermal testing stages. The chart below ing, then during processing, and
testing applications. Process engi- highlights Innovation Center tests, on the produced agglomerate,
neers measure the inlet tempera- and when they are most likely essentially helps us help you. By an-
ture of a rotary dryer, the gas, air, to occur. Note that this is not an alyzing a sample at various stages
and material, for example—all nec- exhaustive list, and may vary per of processing, sometimes during all
essary to know while configuring discretion of the process engineer. stages, process engineers are able
the most effective drying process. Misc./additional tests may be per- to fine-tune process variables and
formed, depending on the unique make the necessary adjustments.
Temperature is also recorded for material, processing requirements, All tests are recorded and provide
kiln tests, as process temperatures and desired end product. a “recipe for success,” if you will,
are an integral part of controlling on the process used to create
the chemical reaction or physical Each of the tests explained here agglomerates unique to the cus-
change taking place in a kiln. are done to help in determining tomer's application and material.
the material handling components,
TABLE: COMMONLY CONDUCTED PARTICLE CHARACTERISTIC TESTS

The chart below illustrates common particle characteristic tests and when they are most often carried out
during testing in the FEECO Innovation Center.
PRIOR TO PROCESSING DURING PROCESSING AFTER PROCESSING

ATTRITION X
CRUSH STRENGTH X
GREEN/WET STRENGTH X
COMPRESSION X
BULK DENSITY X X
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS X X X
SOLUBILITY X
SIEVE ANALYSIS X X X
FLOWABILITY X X X
MOISTURE CONTENT X X X
TEMPERATURE X X X
THERMAL TESTING
Batch kiln testing in the

FEECO Innovation Center
The Innovation Center offers testing for both high temperature applica-
tions (800 - 3000° F / 430 - 1650° C), as well as drying processes (150 - 250°
PROCESS TESTS AVAILABLE
F / 65 - 120° C); whether you’re looking to enhance product character-
istics, test the feasibility of a new process, or improve upon an existing - Drying
process, the Innovation Center is well equipped to serve your thermal - Calcination
testing needs. - Carbon Activation
- Catalyst Activation
Thermal testing in the Innovation Center allows you to test small samples
- Heat Setting
of material, while simulating process conditions of a continuous, com-
- Incineration
mercial size rotary unit (kiln or dryer). Testing can be conducted at both
batch and pilot scale, and can also be carried out as part of a larger - Metal Recovery
agglomeration or granulation process. - Organic Combustion
- Reduction
FEECO gathers a multitude of data during testing, including process - Sintering
data points and material characteristics, in order to ensure the process is - Thermal Desorption
meeting expectations.
- Upgrading of Ores
FLIGHT/LIFTER DESIGN & PATTERN

When it comes to drying bulk solids, flight (lifter) design and pattern are
commonly customized in order to maximize drying efficiency. For this OPTIONAL TESTING
reason, it is common to test a variety of flight designs and patterns when CONDITIONS & EQUIPMENT
designing a rotary dryer. The Innovation Center offers a flight simulator
- Baghouse
that can be utilized to test various configurations, confirming the most
- Combustion Chamber
ideal design and pattern combination for the material to be processed.
- Direct- or Indirect-Fired
DATA GATHERED - Parallel (Co-Current) or
- Air Volume - Gas Sampling & Analysis Counter Current Flow
- Burner Fuel Usage - Residence Time - Reducing Atmosphere
- Drum Slope - Rotational Speed - Removable Flights, Dams,
and Bed Disturbers
- Emissions - Screen Analysis of Feed
& Product - Thermal Oxidizer
- Feed & Product
Physical Analysis - Temperature Profiles - Water Quench Tower
- Feed Rate - Wet Scrubber
ROTARY DRYER TESTING
AVAILABLE TEST UNITS OPTIONAL TESTING CONDITIONS

& EQUIPMENT:
- 3’ (0.91m) diameter x 20’ (6.1m) long rotary dryer - Baghouse
- Flight/Lifter Simulator (for testing flight design and pattern) - Data Collection &
Trending System
The FEECO Innovation Center offers a variety of testing options to simulate - Direct or Indirect
the conditions in continuous, commercial size rotary dryers. Testing offers - Parallel (Co-Current) Flow
a host of invaluable information, allowing you to gain critical data on your - Removable Flights, Dams,
material, work out process variables, and develop a recipe for process and Bed Disturbers
scale-up. - Thermal Oxidizer
- Water Quench Tower
Our flexible setup, combined with the expertise of our process engineers
- Wet Scrubber
and our experience with hundreds of materials, allows a variety of thermal
tests to be expertly conducted. We can run tests in the dryer alone, or test
your material as part of a continuous process loop as part of a larger ag- COMMONLY TARGETED
glomeration or granulation process. Samples can be gathered throughout PARAMETERS:
testing to assess particle characteristics. - Attrition
- Baghouse Efficiency
In general, testing is typically carried out in two phases: - Bulk Density
- Compression
1. Proof of Process - A continuous testing phase that aims to establish - Crush Strength
the equipment setup and parameters required for continuous - Flowability
production of your specific material. - Moisture Content
- Particle Size Distribution
2. Process/Product Optimization - An in-depth study to optimize your - Solubility
specific material’s characteristics and/or production parameters in
- Temperatures
an industrial setting.
WHY FLIGHT DESIGN MATTERS

Flights, also known as material
lifters, are a key component in the
performance of rotary dryers and
coolers.
As the unit rotates, flights pick up

the material, carry it over, and drop
it through the air stream, creating
what is referred to as a curtain—a
shower of material spanning the
width of the drum’s interior.
The optimal curtain will maximize

heat transfer between the material
and process air. However, all
materials behave differently; some
The diagram above illustrates how flights create the curtain in
may have a high angle of repose; a rotary dryer to maximize heat transfer.
others may tend to stick or cause
buildup. Flights must be designed to
versatile tool can provide a wealth Lifters are mounted equally spaced
work with the unique characteristics
of information. Whether you need along the circumference of the
of the material in order to create
to determine the best flight design test unit and are easily changed for
the ideal curtain.
or pattern for a new system, testing various options. Data from
optimize the flights in an existing existing flight designs can be scaled
A variety of factors work together
unit, or test a change in process for comparison.
to influence how the material will
conditions, the FEECO Innovation
respond: flight size and geometry,
Center can help! A variable speed drive is used
spacing, material of construction,
to adjust the rotational speed of
drum speed, loading, and more.
HOW IT WORKS the drum, while a clear plastic
The 45” (1.1m) diameter x 24” cover allows for visual observation
The FEECO flight simulator is
(0.6m) deep rotating drum can throughout the testing process.
a valuable complement to
simulate process conditions in a
the testing services offered
commercial size unit.
in the Innovation Center. This
The pictures above show the same lifter configuration at two different rotational speeds. The picture on the left shows a good distribution
of solids across the width of the unit. The gaps seen in the picture would be filled in by off-setting the lifters. In the picture on the right, the
rotational speed is increased and the lifters empty later, giving a poorer distribution.
The image above shows the testing of a bed disturber (aka a mixing flight) with a talc material. The goal of the test was to determine how
well the talc was being mixed as a result of the bed disturber. In a process setting, this would ensure uniform temperature throughout the
bed. A black tracer was added to the simulator as a visual indicator of effectiveness. The black disappeared within 3-4 revolutions of the
unit, showing that the disturber was effective.
DATA GATHERED Visual Analysis - Determines the impact of the

The flight simulator tests your specific sample of selected variables on the material behavior; is
material to gather a number of data points that will the material showering or discharging in clumps;
allow process engineers to determine the optimal is bridging between lifters occurring; are the lifters
combination of flight design, pattern, drum loading completely emptying?
and speed to achieve the best results. This includes:
Once process engineers have come to a conclusion,
- Number of flights
parameters can be tested in our continuous, pilot-
- Flight design (radial, single
scale rotary dryer to confirm process success.
bend, double bend)
- Flight pattern (staggered,
The flight simulator is just one of the tools FEECO
in-line, etc.)
process engineers use to engineer custom equipment
- Loading (amount of material
suited to your unique process needs.
in drum at one time)
- Drum speed (RPM)
- Moisture content
- Particle size distribution
Various tests are performed to analyze performance

of the selected variables, including:
Degradation (Attrition) Tests - Analyzes how the

selected variables impact the amount of attrition (the
breakdown of granules into fines)
Flight Fillage Tests - Measures the volume of material in

a flight at a given point to determine the rate at which
material is being discharged
ROTARY KILN TESTING

AVAILABLE
TEST KILNS
The FEECO Innovation Center offers a variety of test kilns that can simulate the conditions in continuous,
commercial size kilns. Our available test kilns are described below.
Capable of operating at temperatures between 800-3000º F (430-1650º C) Capable of operating at temperatures between 800 - 1800º F (430-980º C)
18” X 24” DIRECT-FIRED BATCH KILN (0.46 x 0.61m) 10.5” X 24” INDIRECT-FIRED BATCH KILN (0.27 x 0.61m)
Our direct-fired batch kiln is equipped with a propane Our indirect-fired batch kiln is heated with a
burner with oxygen enrichment, variable speed drive, propane burner beneath the shell. Dams inside
and both bed and gas thermocouples. A reducing the kiln hold material within the heated zone. Two
atmosphere can also be used. The batch kiln is lined thermocouples, located near the shell in the furnace,
with 99% alumina castable refractory and can be are used to measure its temperature. Two additional
operated to simulate either co-current or counter thermocouples are used to measure the bed and
current flow. exhaust gas temperatures. Kiln ends can be sealed
and have an inlet for a purge gas and an outlet for
purge gas exhaust.
Capable of operating at temperatures between 800-3000º F (430-1650º C) Capable of operating at temperatures between 800 - 1800º F (430-980º C)
30” X 20’ CONTINUOUS DIRECT-FIRED PILOT KILN 6.5” X 84” CONTINUOUS INDIRECT-FIRED PILOT KILN
(0.77 X 6.1m) (0.17 X 2.1m)
Our continuous direct-fired pilot kiln is equipped with Our continuous indirect pilot kiln is divided into two
a refractory brick lining, feed system, natural gas electrically heated zones. Thermocouples in each
burner, and cooled screw. Adjustable dams allow for zone near the shell measure temperature and control
a deeper bed depth and longer residence times. The outputs from the heating elements. Both kiln speed
kiln can be operated in either a co-current or counter and slope can be adjusted to alter the bed profile and
current configuration. Kiln exhaust is ducted through a residence time. Kiln exhaust is ducted through a ther-
thermal oxidizer (TO), quench chamber, bag filter, or mal oxidizer (TO), quench chamber, bag filter, or wet
wet scrubber and ID fan. scrubber and ID fan.
3913 Algoma Rd. Green Bay, WI 54311, USA • Phone: (920)468.1000 • Fax: (920)469.5110 • FEECO.com/contact
AGGLOMERATION | 2
Potash pellets undergo a compression test as

part of testing in the Innovation Center
TABLE: MATERIAL TRANSFORMATIONS

The FEECO Innovation Center also works extensively in helping customers to transform materials and process
by-products into value-added products through agglomeration and other processing methods. The list below
looks at some of the transformations FEECO has performed in recent years, as well as what processing methods
were used to transform the material.
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BEGINNING MATERIAL FINAL END PRODUCT
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Ammonium Sulfate Granular Fertilizer
Ash (Wood, Fly) Granular Fertilizer
Bentonite Clay Cat Litter Granules
Biomass Biochar, Activated Carbon
Bone Meal Granular Fertilizer
Calcium Carbonate Granular Fertilizer
Calcium Chloride Ice Melt Pellets
Calcium Sulfate Granular Fertilizer
Carbon Black Dust De-dusted Pellets
Cell Phone Batteries Lithium, Zinc Metal Recovery
Cement Kiln Dust Granular Calcium Fertilizer
Ceramic/Aluminum Refractory
Clay Proppants
Clay Cat Litter, Oil Dry Granules, Encapsulate Seeds
Coal Dust De-dusted Coal Pellets
Composts (Yard Waste) Granular Fertilizer
Copper Dust Metal Recovery Pellets
Corn Cobs Cat Litter, Oil Dry Pellets
Diatomaceous Earth Filter Agent
Dredge Sludges Non-leaching Granules
Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) Dusts Metal Recovery
Ethanol Plant Waste (DDG) Animal Feed
Foundry Dust Metal Recovery
Glass Batch Glass Blend
Gold Ore Dust Precious Metal Recovery
Grain Dust Non-explosive Pellets
Gypsum Granular Fertilizer
Gypsum Wallboard Waste Granular Fertilizer, Cat Litter Pellets
Humate Granular Fertilizer
Iron Ore Metal Recovery Pellets
Iron Oxide Metal Recovery Pellets
Kaolin Clay Paper Coating
Lime (Wastewater Treatment Sludge) Granular Calcium Fertilizer
Limestone Granular Calcium Fertilizer
Manure – Cattle/Chicken/Hog Granular Fertilizer
MAP Fertilizers Granular Fertilizer
Mined Frac Sand Dried Frac Sand
Municipal Wastes Granular Fertilizer, Fuel Pellets
Nickel Ore Metal Recovery Pellets
Nitrogen Fertilizers Granular Fertilizer
NPK Blends Granular Fertilizer
Paper Sludge Granular Fertilizer, Cat Litter
Paper Sludge Bright White Clay
Petroleum Coke Dust Fuel Pellets
Phosphates Powder Granular Fertilizer
Potassium Chloride Granular Fertilizer
Raw Coal Purified Coal
Saw Dust Cat Litter, Fuel Pellets
Soda Bottles Recycled Plastic
Soy Flour Animal Feed
Steel Dusts and Sludges Metal Recovery Pellets
Sugar Sugar Pellets
Sulfur Dust Non-explosive Pellets
Sulfur Stack Emissions Granular Fertilizer
Talc Ore Sterilized Baby Powder
Tar Sands Waste Sludge Substitute Fuel Pellets
Titanium Dioxide Pigment Pellets
Titanium Metal Shavings Metal Recovery
Tungsten Oxide Metal Recovery Pellets
Zinc Oxide Metal Recovery Pellets
Agglomeration: Drum, Pan Pelletizer, Pin Mixer Drying: Rotary Drum Dryer, Fluid Bed Dryer Blending: Pug Mill
Thermal Process: Rotary Kiln Roll Compaction: Roll Compactor

A. Fly Ash F. Raw & Pelletized Coal

B. Sulfur G. Copper Hydroxide
C. Gypsum Wallboard H. Glass Batch
D. EAF Dust I. Paper Sludge
E. Iron Oxide
All samples shown were made using a combination of FEECO

agglomeration and drying techniques.
B C
D E
H I
TABLE: COMMONLY TESTED MATERIALS

There are a number of materials that are seen on a regular basis in the Innovation Center. These materials,
along with common testing methods and considerations, are listed below. This list is only a small representation
of the Innovation Center’s capabilities and serves to provide a general overview of common test practices.
MATERIAL COMMONLY TESTED COMMONLY TESTED

PROCESSES EQUIPMENT
GYPSUM - Pelletizing
- Pin Mixer - Conveyor
Types: - Drying
- Disc Pelletizer - Bucket Elevator
- Gypsum
- Rotary Dryer - Pumping System (to pump
- Synthetic Gypsum binder into a disc pelletizer or
- Screen
(listed below) pin mixer)
- Hammer Mill
LIMESTONE - Pelletizing
- Pin Mixer - Conveyor
Types: - Drying
- Dolomitic Limestone
- Calcitic Limestone binder into a disc pelletizer or
- Screen
- Chalk pin mixer)
- Hammer Mill
POTASH - Pelletizing
- Pin Mixer - Hammer Mill
Types: - Compaction
- Pug Mill - Conveyor
- Muriate of Potash (MOP) - Drying
- Sulfate of Potash (SOP) - Glazing
- Roll Compactor - Pumping System (to pump
- Langbeinite
- Rotary Dryer binder into a disc pelletizer or
- Polyhalite
- Screen pin mixer)
- Various fertilizer and/or
mineral blends
MANURE - Granulation
- Pin Mixer - Screen
Types: - Nutrient Fortification
- Pug Mill - Hammer Mill
- Chicken Manure - Drying
- Disc Pelletizer - Conveyor
- Chicken Litter
- Granulation Drum - Bucket Elevator
- Hog Manure
- Rotary Dryer
- Dairy Manure
SYNTHETIC GYPSUM - Pelletizing

- Drying - Pin Mixer - Hammer Mill
- Screen binder into a disc pelletizer or
pin mixer)
PHOSPHATES - Animal Feed Granulation

- Rotary Kiln - Hammer Mill
Types: - Fertilizer Granulation
- Phosphate Rock - Phosphate Ore Upgrading
- Granulation Drum - Bucket Elevator
- MAP/DAP - Pipe Reactor - Pumping System (to pump
- MCP/DCP - Coating Drum binder into a disc pelletizer or
- SSP/TSP pin mixer)
- Rotary Dryer
- Screen
BIOMASS - Drying - Rotary Kiln - Hammer Mill

Types: - Upgrading to Biochar - Pug Mill - Conveyor
- Wood Waste - Upgrading to Biocoal - Pin Mixer - Bucket Elevator
- Agricultural Waste - Carbon Activation - Disc Pelletizer - Pumping System (to pump
- Granulation Drum binder into a disc pelletizer or
pin mixer)
- Rotary Dryer
- Screen
COMMONLY TARGETED SPECIAL

SPECIFICATIONS CONSIDERATIONS
Most often, customers are looking to create a durable pellet capable of
- Crush Strength/Hardness - Green/Wet Strength
breaking down quickly in standard field conditions, while also counteracting
- Product Formulation - Sieve Analysis dust and improving product handling.
- Bulk Density - Solubility
To achieve this, various binders are also used during the agglomeration tests
- Flowability
to create a pellet that is durable enough to withstand subsequent processing
- Moisture Content and handling.
Calcium-based and ammonium-based lignins are commonly used when

- Crush Strength/Hardness - Green/Wet Strength pelletizing limestone, because of their ability to create a desired pellet
- Product Formulation - Sieve Analysis strength and readily break down in the field. Their economic and nutrient
- Bulk Density - Solubility differences are discussed prior to testing, in addition to other binder options.
- Flowability
- Moisture Content
Just as with gypsum, customers are typically looking to create a durable pel-
- Crush Strength - Moisture Content let or granule capable of breaking down quickly in standard field conditions,
- Abrasion/Attrition - Green/Wet Strength while also reducing dust and improving handling.
- Product Formulation - Sieve Analysis
Again, various binders may be used during the agglomeration tests to
- Bulk Density - Solubility create a pellet or granule that is durable enough to withstand subsequent
- Flowability processing and handling.
Manure sources can vary significantly, even from the same type of animal.
- Crush Strength - Green/Wet Strength This makes testing a critical element to the success of each manure
- Product Formulation - Compression granulation process.
- Bulk Density - Sieve Analysis
Additionally, special consideration will need to be given to preconditioning
- Flowability - Solubility the material in preparation of granulation.
- Attrition
- Moisture Content
Typically used as a soil amendment, the same considerations as limestone

- Crush Strength/Hardness - Green/Wet Strength and gypsum usually apply.
Synthetic gypsum samples vary, especially in percentage of moisture and
the ease of pelletizing. Thus, it’s important to note that because of this
- Flowability variance, FEECO process engineers perform several tests, some of which
- Moisture Content require lengthier processing time, drying prior to agglomeration, and/or
additional binder, if required, depending on the unique synthetic
gypsum sample.
All equipment in the Innovation Center is equipped to handle phosphoric

- Crush Strength/Hardness - Moisture Content acid, allowing a variety of phosphate products and processes to be tested,
- Abrasion/Attrition - Green/Wet Strength including fertilizer granulation, animal feed granulation, and more.
- Flowability
- Crush Strength/Hardness - Moisture Content Biomass sources vary significantly. For this reason, it is almost always neces-
sary to test the unique source of biomass for the intended process, whether
- Abrasion/Attrition - Green/Wet Strength
that be a high temperature thermal process, or agglomeration.
- Flowability
TOLLING
The FEECO Tolling Center is a state-of-the-art facility, staffed by process TOLLING CAPACITY
engineers experienced in product and process development, quality 400 - 1,000 lbs/hr (180 - 455 kg/hr)
control, engineering, and more. With over 65 years of material processing (depending on the material)
experience, we have the unique advantage of familiarity with hundreds
of materials. A variety of process configurations can be accommodated AVAILABLE TOLLING EQUIPMENT:
to meet a customer’s specific processing needs. This is beneficial in many - Pin Mixer
settings, including:
- Paddle Mixer/Pug Mill
- Disc Pelletizer
• Reducing the cost and time associated with entry to market of
new products - Agglomeration Drum
• Confirming the viability of process changes without disrupting - Coating Drum

production or making large-scale changes to the process - Rotary Dryer
• Meeting excess capacity demands - Rotary Kiln
• Testing product formulations in the development stages before - Rotary Calciner
moving on to full-scale production - Product Screening
• Determining capacities for large-scale production - Recycle Loop/Grinding Loop
- Support equipment such as
Prior to tolling, our Innovation Center is often used to test product pumps, screeners, and more
characteristics and confirm variables needed to define process
parameters such as material handling needs, moistures, process rates, CAPABLE OF TESTING:
drying requirements, mass balance, and more. We can also assist in
- Sludges
developing a Process Flow Diagram (PFD) prior to tolling.
- Powders
FEECO is a Rockwell Automation partner. The FEECO facility features a - Flowable Solids
Rockwell Automation PLC/MCC system, which allows for data tracking
and trending during tolling production.
RENTAL EQUIPMENT
Rental equipment can be a valuable tool in a variety of settings. Whether you’re looking for small-scale
processing capabilities, or in-house research and development, FEECO offers a number of rental equipment
options to suit your needs on both a short- and long-term basis.
In addition, FEECO process engineers are also available to answer questions or be present for on-site testing.
AVAILABLE RENTAL EQUIPMENT
AGGLOMERATION EQUIPMENT THERMAL PROCESSING RENTAL EQUIPMENT

-
Disc Pelletizers - Batch Kiln – refractory-lined, and with feed trough
- 24” (0.61m) Diameter
ADDITIONAL SUPPORT RENTAL EQUIPMENT
- 36” (0.91m) Diameter
- Vibrating Screen
- 4’ – 6” (1.37m) Diameter
- Chain Mill
- Pin Mixers - Scales
- 15” (0.38m) Batch - Stands
- 6” (0.15m) | 400 lb/hr (181 kg/hr)
- 10” (0.25m) | 2,000 lb/hr (907 kg/hr)
- 10” (0.25m) (Clam Shell Design)

- 14” x 6” (0.36 x 0.15m) Pug Mill/Paddle Mixer
2,000 lb/hr (907 kg/hr)
- 30” x 9’ (0.76 x 2.7m) Rotary Granulator
- 36” x 9’ (0.91 x 2.7m) Rotary Drum
Disc pelletizer with spray system

AGGLOMERATION
AGGLOMERATION | 27
ABOUT AGGLOMERATION
Agglomeration is the process of Agglomeration continues to evolve Product Benefits: Dust-free
particle size enlargement and as an industry, becoming ever product handling, segregation
most commonly refers to the more important in our day-to- prevention, and improved product
upgrading of material fines into day lives as it finds its way into an characteristics and appearance.
larger particles, such as pellets or increasing number of applications.
granules. In addition to material This has created a flurry of activity Industry Example: Agglomerated
fines, agglomeration is also useful in the field of particle technology, agricultural wastes (such as manure
for sludge-like materials such as with new processes constantly or compost) are easier and less
manure or FGD sludge, in order to being forged and old ones being costly to transport, and more
transform them into a more usable, improved upon. easily applied than unprocessed
more easily handled form. materials. Other improved
BENEFITS OF characteristics include custom
Long used throughout the iron and AGGLOMERATION formulations and the opportunity
steel sector, agglomeration is far There are many reasons why it for storage.
from a new technique. However, might be desirable to agglomerate
it is constantly gaining popularity a material. The choice to Raw Material Benefits: Simplified
in an increasing number of indus- agglomerate often stems from transportation, dust loss prevention,
tries, particularly in the past few a material problem, be it a dust and increased porosity, density,
decades, as the numerous benefits issue, a waste problem, handling and melting abilities.
it has to offer become more and problem, or otherwise.
more evident. Industry Example: Ore agglomera-
When a material is agglomerated, tion creates a uniform particle size
There are many types of you can expect to achieve several distribution, which in turn maximizes
agglomeration, all offering their of the following benefits: the heap leaching process, allow-
own unique advantages and ing a more efficient extraction of
disadvantages. minerals from the ore.
Various agglomerate samples created in the Innovation Center

AGGLOMERATION | 28
Process Benefits: Elimination of dust and fines, Environmental Benefits: Potential to eliminate the
increased process flow effectiveness, and increased need for landfill, improved cost-efficient recycling
process efficiency. capabilities, potential for waste-to-fuel processes,
and improved waste disposal cost efficiency.
Industry Example: Glass powder in its raw state incurs a
great deal of material loss during processing, ultimate- Industry Example: After agglomeration, previously
ly throwing off glass formulas. Agglomerated glass landfilled waste paper sludge is recycled into a
powder reduces product losses, increases process usable product.
efficiency, and ensures that formulas are not skewed
through the loss of dust. In addition to the benefits listed here, the following
chart identifies specific reasons why agglomeration is
Economic Benefits: Conversion of waste to a used in various applications:
marketable product, reduced transportation costs,
and reduced material handling costs.
Industry Example: After agglomeration processing,

previously unsalable limestone fines become a
marketable product as a limestone soil amendment.
TABLE: ADDITIONAL REASONS & APPLICATIONS FOR AGGLOMERATION
REASON TYPICAL APPLICATION

To produce useful structural forms Powder Metallurgy
To provide a defined quantity for dispensing and metering Agricultural Chemical Granules, Pharmaceutical Tablets
To eliminate dust handling hazards or losses Agglomeration of Waste Fines
To improve product appearance and/or performance Food Products
To reduce caking and lump formation Fertilizers
To improve flow properties for further processing Pharmaceuticals, Ceramics
To increase bulk density for storage Detergents
To control dispersion and solubility Instant Food Products
To control porosity and surface-to-volume ratio Catalyst Supports
To improve permeability for further processing Ore Smelting
To create non-segregating blends of powder ingredients Ore Smelting, Agricultural Chemicals, Pharmaceuticals
Source: Lister, Jim and Ennis, Bryan. The Science and Engineering of Granulation Processes. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2004.
AGGLOMERATION | 29
TYPES OF
AGGLOMERATION
While there are many agglomeration techniques available, they generally fall under one of two main catego-
ries: non-pressure agglomeration (a.k.a., tumble growth agglomeration), or pressure agglomeration.
Non-pressure agglomeration technologies use a tumbling process to “grow” material into a spherical pellet
form. A binder is often used to assist in the process.
Pressure agglomeration technologies use mechanical compression to shape a material into a desired form.
Very little, if any, moisture is needed.
A variety of elements are considered when determining which agglomeration method should be used.
Contributing factors include: equipment capabilities, binder properties, industry standards, desired end product
characteristics, and raw material characteristics. While there are many agglomeration techniques available
within these two categories, this handbook will focus on those listed below.
NON-PRESSURE AGGLOMERATION PRESSURE AGGLOMERATION
PELLETIZING: A process whereby material fines are rolled into uniform COMPACTION: Typically a dry
pellets with the help of a binding agent. Sample shown: Fly Ash processed process, compaction presses
using a pin mixer - disc pelletizer combination material fines into a sheet form,
which is then broken up into jagged
granules. Sample shown: Sulfur
processed in a roll compactor
MICRO PELLETIZING: A process in CONDITIONING: A process BRIQUETTING: Briquetting uses

which material fines are mixed which often refers to the mixing pressure to form pillow-shaped
with a binder to form small of material fines with a binding briquettes from material fines.
agglomerates, or prepare the agent in order to reduce dust and Sample shown: Bentonite clay
material for pelletizing. Sample transform the material into a more processed in a briquetter
shown: Copper Hydroxide usable form. Sample shown: Ore
processed in a pin mixer dust processed in a pug mill
AGGLOMERATION | 30
NON-PRESSURE AGGLOMERATION: PELLETIZING
Synthetic Gypsum pellets processed via pin

mixer and disc pelletizer combination
Pelletizing is a form of tumble growth agglomeration, whereby material Pelletizing on a disc has been
fines are “grown” through a tumbling motion and the addition of water or likened to an art, with many
a binding agent. This process is a non-pressure method of agglomeration, variables affecting the success
and instead of pressure, uses a binder (or simply water) to help material of the end product. The most
adhere to itself. As such, this type of agglomeration is categorized as a common variables include:
wet process.
- Binder formulation
Pelletizing is carried out using either a disc pelletizer or rotary drum, - Binder feed rate
with disc pelletizers being the most common choice, and drums being - Material feed rate and
more suited to specific applications such as heap leaching or fertilizer location
production. - Pan speed
- Pan angle
A TYPICAL PELLETIZING PROCESS LOOKS LIKE THIS: - Liquid addition rate and
Material fines are first conditioned in a pin mixer or pug mill. While not all location
processes utilize a preconditioning step, those that do see many benefits
as a result, such as reduced binder usage, increased production, and an Pelletizing is used throughout a
improved product. These benefits are discussed further on page 83. variety of industries, with new
applications developing all the
Once material has been conditioned, it moves on to pelletizing. For time. Some of the most commonly
processes that do not use a preconditioning step, this is where the pro- pelletized materials include:
cess begins. Here, material is fed onto a disc pelletizer (or alternatively,
into a rotary drum) at a continuous rate, where binder is continually - Chemical Powders
added. The material fines are tacky as a result of the binder, and as they - EAF Dusts
tumble against themselves while the disc rotates, they pick up more fines, - Fly Ash
growing in similar fashion to a snowball—a phenomenon known as
- Gypsum
coalescence.
- Limestone
Once pellets have reached the desired size, they exit the disc pelletizer, - Minerals and Ores
and are carried via a conveyor belt to a dryer if moisture removal is - And more…
necessary. Here, the pellets are “cured,” with the desired amount of
moisture removed. Drying is commonly carried out using a rotary dryer.
When this type of dryer is used, the tumbling action helps to further
"polish" the pellets.
AGGLOMERATION | 31
PELLETIZING EQUIPMENT: DISC PELLETIZERS

The disc pelletizer can be used for a variety of materials, and is often chosen for its ability to fine-tune a pellet
product. Disc pelletizers create a refined, round pellet product ideal for use in many applications. They are
especially popular in the soil amendment industry, because they create a premium product that can withstand
handling and transportation, but will still break down as intended upon application.
SIMPLIFIED PELLETIZER-DRYER SYSTEM
TO
BAGHOUSE OR ATMOSPHERE
RAW FEED BINDER SCRUBBER SYSTEM
PIN
XXXXXXXXXX MIXER
PRODUCT
DISC SCREEN
PELLETIZER
PRODUCT
FUEL BIN
BAGHOUSE
BURNER
DRYER
CRUSHING
EQUIPMENT
TRUCK LOAD OUT
RAIL LOAD OUT
PACKAGING LINE
STOCK PILE
COOLER RECYCLE
BIN
The diagram above illustrates a typical disc pelletizing system with a preconditioning step.
TABLE: FEECO DISC PELLETIZER SIZES

DIAMETER DEPTH HP TPH* APPROX WT.
Std (ft-in) Metric (m) Std (in) Metric (mm) Std (HP) Metric (kW) *Approximate Std (lbs) Metric (kg)
2’-0” 0.6 5” 125 1/4 0.19 - 450 200
3’-0” 0.9 8” 205 1 0.75 0.35 1,500 680
4’-6” 1.3 9” 230 3 2.2 1 3,300 1,500
6’-0” 1.8 11” 280 5 3.7 2 6,600 3,000
8’-0” 2.4 13” 330 15 11.0 4.5 11,500 5,220
10’-0” 3.0 15 1/2” 395 25 18.5 7 21,500 9,750
12’-0” 3.6 17 1/2” 445 40 30 12 28,000 12,700
14’-0” 4.2 19 1/2” 495 60 45 17 35,500 16,100
16’-0” 4.8 22” 560 75 55 26 46,000 20,870
18’-0” 5.5 24” 610 100 75 35 50,000 22,680
20’-0” 6.0 26” 660 125 90 44 55,000 24,950
23’-0” 7.0 30” 760 150 110 58 108,000 49,000
25’-0” 7.5 30” 760 200 150 69 156,000 70,760
*Approximate capacities listed are based on processing 60 PCF (960 kg/m3) material and creating nominal 5x10 mesh (2-4 mm) pellets.
AGGLOMERATION | 32
BACK VIEW
Mounting Hub
Gear
Reducer
Spray Drive Belt

System & Pulley
Drive Motor
Plow/Scraper
Assemblies
Disc/Pan
Assembly
Discharge
Chute
Angle
Adjustment
Structural
Steel Base
Pivot
Bearings
FEATURES SIZE | 24” - 25’ (0.6 - 7.5m)

- 6’ (1.8m) and larger discs are lined with expanded metal to reduce
abrasive wear. CAPACITY | 100 lb/hr - 100 TPH
- A hand wheel-operated jacking screw allows for easy adjustment OPTIONAL COMPONENTS
of disc angle. - Reciprocating Scraper
- Partial Hood
- The base and plow support members provide maximum rigidity, while
- Full Hood
simultaneously allowing rapid disc angle adjustment, without the need
for separate plow adjustment. - Stainless Steel Construction
- Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)
- Individually mounted vane-type plows easily control and maintain the
product layer over the disc’s entire surface. *Testing and rental options available
- The pivot base is mounted on heavy-duty, anti-friction bearings.

Automatic lubrication is featured on larger discs.
AGGLOMERATION | 33
DISC PELLETIZERS: OPERATING PRINCIPLES

Material is fed onto the disc/pan, Droplets of moisture will collect of which, in the presence of water,
where it is taken up by the rotation. several particles, and the rotation will dissolve and react with one
As material is wetted at the startup, will impact and densify this loosely or more constituents, resulting in
a coating will form on the pan. This formed nuclei or seed. This densifi- excellent strength. Drying the pellet
coating prevents water from com- cation forces water to the surface, will solidify this bond, increasing the
ing in direct contact with the pan, where it can pick up more particles. strength. In addition, binding liquid
which would cause mud to form The continuous rotation of the pan can be tailored to cause binding
on the plows, creating very large, causes the seed to recycle through reactions, or merely contribute
uneven pellets or lumps. The feed the spray area, being re-wet, and adhesiveness.
material does not need to be total- picking up more particles, and so
ly dry and often is not, but ideally, on. The interstices, or spaces be- In order to maintain product size
should have a lesser percentage tween the particles, are filled with and quality, feed rate to the pan
of moisture than the final pellet smaller particles, and the interstices must be constant. Feed rate must
moisture. between those filled with yet small- be a constant proportion of the
er particles, and so on and so forth. amount of water needed to pro-
Once the material is fed onto duce the desired pellet size and
the pan, centrifugal force causes Surface tension and the capillary quality. Any upset in feed will result
different sized pellets to self-classify forces of the water are the binding in an upset of product. Location of
on the disc. The small seed pellets force that holds the pellet togeth- sprays will also affect the size of the
find their way to the right, and as er. In this case, where water is the pellets, depending on the material.
they grow, work their way to the primary “binder,” drying the pellet
left, where they are eventually will accordingly drive off strength.
discharged at desired size (See However, feed material is often
diagram below). made up of several materials, some
SECONDARY SPRAY LOCATION (APPROX.) 1. FIRST STREAM - SEED (OR NUCLEI)

2. SECOND STREAM - GROWING PELLETS
3. THIRD STREAM - PELLETS
4. PELLETS READY TO EXIT PAN
ROTATION
4 3 2 1
PRIMARY SPRAY LOCATION (APPROX.)
FEED LOCATION
PELLETS EXITING PAN

AGGLOMERATION | 34
Project Profile:
Glass Pelletizing
PROCESS PROJECT SPECS
FEECO supplied multiple disc pelletizers for the pelletization of glass. Customer:
Seattle Batch
Seattle Batch was producing custom glass colors and blends for the blown glass
Equipment Supplied:
industry. However, their precise formulations were being thrown off, because
- 16” (406mm) Disc Pelletizer
glass fines were becoming entrained in the air flow of the melting furnaces. This
- 4’6” (1.3m) Disc Pelletizer
ultimately resulted in inconsistencies in their glass blends.
Project Location:
FEECO worked with the company to pelletize their glass fines, ensuring that Seattle, WA, USA
formulas remained intact during processing.
Industry:
Glass
Material:
Glass
Project Engineer:
FEECO International, Inc.
AGGLOMERATION | 35
Project Profile:
EAF Dust
EAF Dust (Electric Arc Furnace Dust) is an extremely dusty by-product of the steel Customer:
making process. The customer desired to reduce the dustiness of the material, Major US Minerals Recycler
while at the same time, increasing the size of the pellets so they would more (Proprietary)
effectively be processed later in the system. FEECO provided the equipment, as
Equipment Supplied:
well as assisted with the process start-up and process development.
- (2) 14’ (4.2m) Disc Pelletizers
- (2) 18’ (5.5m) Disc Pelletizers
- Belt Conveyors
Project Location:
Illinois
Pennsylvania
South Carolina
Industry:
Metals Recycling
Material:
EAF Dust
(Electric Arc Furnace Dust)
Project Engineer:
AGGLOMERATION | 36
Project Profile:
Limestone & Gypsum Pelletizing
Calcium Products started out using a competitor’s equipment, but when Customer:
customer support was lacking and the equipment was not manufactured well,
they switched to FEECO.
We now have an ongoing relationship to provide agglomeration equipment for Equipment Supplied:
various plant sites and numerous processing lines. - 30” (760mm) Pin Mixer
- 40” (1,015mm) Pin Mixer
We have since worked with Calcium Products on a variety of additional projects - 50” (1,270mm) Pin Mixer
throughout the years.
- 14’ (4.3m) Disc Pelletizer
- 7’ 6” (2.3m) x 50’(15.25m) Rotary Dryer
- 27-6 Chain Mills
Project Location:
Iowa, USA
Industry:
Agriculture
Material:
Limestone
Gypsum
Project Engineer:
AGGLOMERATION | 37
Project Profile:
Gypsum Pelletizing
This project started with FEECO performing lab testing and ultimately led to us sup- Customer:
plying all of the key processing equipment, system design, and start-up assistance DKT
for the facility. All project communication and implementation was accomplished
Equipment Supplied:
over the internet/email due to the customer’s limited English speaking skills.
- Pin Mixer
- Disc Pelletizer
- Rotary Dryer
- Chain Mill
Project Location:
Thailand
Industry:
Aquaculture
Material:
Gypsum
Project Engineer:
AGGLOMERATION | 38
Project Profile:
Limestone Pelletizing System
FEECO assisted Acheson-Glover in developing a new product that utilized Customer:

previously unsalable fines from their quarry operations. Limestone soil amendment Acheson & Glover
pellets were created. We supplied the key process equipment listed, as well as
Equipment Supplied:
assisted with process design and performed extensive site service to train new
operators. - 40” (1m) Pin Mixer
- Fluid Bed Dryer/Cooler
- Rotary Pre-Dryer
- Chain Mills
Project Location:
Northern Ireland
Industry:
Ag Lime/Agricultural Lime
Material:
Limestone Fines
Project Engineer:
AGGLOMERATION | 39
Project Profile:
Nickel Ore Pelletizing
(Pelletizer shown without cover)
FEECO was asked to provide four pelletizing lines to one of the most efficient Customer:
nickel mines in the world - the Barro Alto nickel mine in Brazil. Anglo American
Equipment Supplied:
Each pelletizing line was continuously fed with reclaimed ferronickel dust from
the de-dusting system. Once pelletized, the ferronickel pellets could move on to 4 separate pelletizing lines that included:
subsequent processing. - 16’ (4.8m) Diameter Disc Pelletizer

- Raw Material Storage Hopper
- Weighbelt Feeder
- Chain Mill Fluffer
Project Location:
Brazil
Industry:
Mining & Minerals
Material:
Nickel-Bearing Ore
Project Engineer:
AGGLOMERATION | 40
Project Profile:
Chicken Litter to Fertilizer
A large agribusiness working in broiler production was facing an issue: chicken Customer:
litter from their growing farms was making its way into the Chesapeake Bay. To Proprietary
address the issue, the company opened a centralized recycling center to serve
Equipment Supplied:
the region by processing chicken litter into a marketable fertilizer product.
- Rockwell Control System
- Disc Pelletizer
While the concept was a success, the company encountered issues with the
process; because of the method used to agglomerate the litter, the sand mixed - Chain Mill
in with the chicken litter was causing excessive wear on machines, resulting Project Location:
in elevated maintenance costs. Additionally, because the pellets were of the Southeastern USA
extruded type, the company was experiencing attrition and dust issues with the
end product. The company approached FEECO with their issues. Industry:
Agriculture
Work began in our Innovation Center, where batch agglomeration trials were
Material:
conducted on small samples of the material to determine initial feasibility. After Chicken Litter
success in batch testing, continuous testing was carried out.
Project Engineer:
The spherical pellet produced by our granulation technique was exactly what the FEECO International, Inc.
customer was looking for. The non-pressure granulation method used resulted in
reduced wear on machinery. Furthermore, the spherical pellets were dust free,
and capable of being blended with other fertilizers to create improved blends.
FEECO then provided assistance in putting together a full-scale granulation pilot

plant, allowing them to produce the spherical pellets on their own.
AGGLOMERATION | 41
PELLETIZING EQUIPMENT: AGGLOMERATION/GRANULATION DRUMS

Agglomeration drums, often referred to as granulation drums, or rotary granulators in the fertilizer industry, offer
a reliable solution for high capacity processing in a variety of agglomeration applications.
Agglomeration drums are open-ended, rotating cylinders, which impart a tumbling and growth action to form
granules in the presence of a liquid binder. These drums produce a wider range of granules and are often
operated with screening and recycle. They are a good option when a chemical reaction is combined with
agglomeration, or when a long residence time is needed.
Agglomeration drums are especially robust and offer uniform results in demanding settings. As such, they are
frequently used in heap leaching operations to agglomerate ore fines prior to leaching.
TYPICAL HEAP LEACHING PROCESS FLOW WITH AGGLOMERATION
ORE PILE POSSIBLE

CRUSHING
AGGLOMERATION DRUM
WEIGHING
HOPPER BINDER
ADDITION
NON-AGGLOMERATED AGGLOMERATED
ORE FINES ORE FINES
MOISTURE
ADDITION
AGGLOMERATED ORE
HEAP UNDER LEACH
PREGNANT
SOLUTION POND
The diagram above illustrates a typical agglomeration drum setup in a heap leaching process. Ore fines are
agglomerated prior to leaching in order to improve percolation of the leachate through the heap, as shown in
the illustration of non-agglomerated vs. agglomerated ore fines above.
The leachate is combined with the ore fines in the agglomeration process. In addition to agglomerating the
ore fines, this step can also serve to "jump-start" the leaching process; a homogeneous mixture of ore fines and
leachate is produced, allowing the leachate to begin its work immediately, further improving leach efficiency.
AGGLOMERATION | 42
Outlet to Exhaust Handling System Ring Gear Guard Raw Material Feed Chute
Discharge
Breeching
Riding Ring/Tire
Drive Assembly
Trunnion
Wheel Riding Ring CLOSE-UP:
DRUM BASE
Liner Graphite Block

Lubrication
Assembly
Trunnion Guard
Pillow Block Thrust Roller
Bearing Assembly
FEATURES SIZE | Drum diameters from 36” - 15’ (1 - 4.6m)

- Efficient bed turning/flight designs
- Robust design and construction
OPTIONAL COMPONENTS
- Various material options
- Spray Systems - Automatic Gear Lubrication System
- Various Liner Options - Variable Speed
CAPACITY | 500 lb/hr - 3500+ TPH - Variable Slope
- Machined Bases
- Screw Conveyor Feeder - Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)
AGGLOMERATION | 43
DRIVE ASSEMBLY OPTIONS
CHAIN & SPROCKET DRIVE

Chain and sprocket drive assemblies are reserved for smaller drums,
running up to 75 horsepower (55kW). This type of arrangement is
typically not suitable for larger drums running above 75 horsepower,
but is ideal for smaller jobs, as it is cost-effective and easy to run.
GEAR & PINION DRIVE

The gear and pinion drive assembly is best for heavy-duty
applications running above 75 horsepower (55kW). While this type is
more costly, it operates better in demanding applications and
requires less maintenance.
FRICTION DRIVE
Friction drive assemblies are reserved for small applications requiring
low horsepower. This is commonly seen with drums around 6’ (1.8m)
and under. With a friction drive, two of the four trunnion wheels are
connected by one shaft and driven by a shaft-mounted reducer and
motor arrangement.
DIRECT DRIVE
*Direct drive assemblies are also available.
UNITIZED DRIVE BASE

All FEECO agglomeration drums utilize our unitized drive base. The drive system is mounted on an adjustable,
one-piece drive base, which is bolted down to a sole plate resting on custom-leveled mounting pads. Adjustment
screws are included to easily adjust the entire drive base, avoiding the hassle of having to realign each com-
ponent separately. This results in quicker installation, savings in labor, and increased gear/sprocket life. For more
information on the unitized base, see Appendix A (Pg. 188).
AGGLOMERATION | 44
PIPE REACTORS
The pipe reactor, or pipe cross reactor, is an acid-base reaction vessel that can be integrated into a
granulation drum for the production of some fertilizer products. Initially developed to produce ammoniated
phosphate fertilizer, a pipe reactor in the right setting can add significant value to an operation, substantially
reducing plant energy costs by utilizing the reaction heat as the primary method of drying, ultimately reducing
the burden on the dryer.
Pressure Relief Valve
Rupture Disc
Feedstock
Inputs
Drain Valve
Drain Granulation Drum
FEATURES
- A reaction between ammonia and sulfuric and/or phosphoric acid
- Effective use of the heat of reaction to evaporate water
- Utilization of the reaction temperature and pressure to create a molten product for controllable granulation
in the drum
- Interchangeable sections to minimize downtime on replacement of wear sections
- Reactor designed to integrate effectively with agglomeration drum and supplemental ammonia and steam
sparger equipment
- Available in various materials of construction
AGGLOMERATION | 45
HOW IT WORKS APPLICATIONS

The pipe reactor accepts phosphoric or sulfuric acid into one side of the
pipe, while gaseous or liquid ammonia is fed into the reaction chamber. - Mono-Ammonium Phosphate
The result, either ammoniated phosphate or ammonium sulfate, is a hot (MAP)
“melt” of superheated product. - Di-Ammonium Phosphate
(DAP)
The contained heat of the reaction from the pipe reactor “flashes off” - Ammonium Sulfate
the initial moisture, greatly reducing the dryer fuel requirement for - High Reaction Grades of NPK
the plant.
Pipe reactors can be designed
THE PIPE REACTOR ADVANTAGE into a new system, or retro-
Pipe reactors can deliver significant value by reducing plant energy
fitted into an existing one, with
costs and improving fertilizer production.
the option to replace the
pre-neutralizing stage.
ORGANIC APPLICATIONS
Additional value exists for novel organic-based fertilizer production,
where, in addition to removing odor, pipe reactors offer customizable
nutrient fortification. Feedstock rates can be adjusted to control
nutrient grade. In organic settings, the pipe reactor can be integrated
into either a granulation drum or a pug mill (paddle mixer).
Ammonium Sulfate pellets created in the

FEECO Innovation Center using pipe
FEECO Pipe Reactor reactor granulation
AGGLOMERATION | 46
Project Profile:
Iron Ore Balling Drums
FEECO was contracted to assist the Iron Ore Company of Canada in an Customer:
expansion of their existing operation.
After visiting the plant and working with IOC personnel, we engineered a higher
capacity system consisting of four (4) 16.4’ (5m) diameter x 42.6’ (13m) long Equipment Supplied:
balling drums. At the time, they were the largest iron ore balling drums in (4) Balling Drums
the world.
Project Location:
Iron ore concentrates are fed with a binder to the balling drums, where the Canada
tumbling action agglomerates them into pellets about the size of marbles.
Industry:
Steel
The use of a balling drum increases the efficiency of the steel making process by
significantly reducing the amount of dust and fines that can become entrained in Material:
the blast furnace and lost as waste. Iron Ore
Project Engineer:
The drums included an adjustable slope base, flanged sections, discharge scroll,
and 6mm rubber liner.
AGGLOMERATION | 47
Project Profile:
Copper Ore Heap Leaching Drums
Copper ore being processed

in the agglomeration drum.
FEECO was commissioned to provide two heavy-duty copper ore drums for one Customer:
of the largest and most environmentally advanced copper mines in the world. Proprietary
Equipment Supplied:
Agglomeration drums are a valuable addition to copper heap leaching
(2) 15’ (4.6m) Dia. x 45’ (13.7m) Long
operations, as they improve the uniformity of the ore fines.
Agglomeration Drums
This allows the leaching agent to more effectively percolate through the heap, as Project Location:
seen in the illustration below. Furthermore, the agglomeration stage serves as a Arizona, USA
pre-mixing step to mix the leaching agent with the ore fines, initiating the reaction
Industry:
and creating a more homogeneous mixture, ultimately improving efficiency and
Mining
maximizing recovery rates.
Material:
The success of the ore drums has created an ongoing relationship as a preferred Copper Ore
supplier for the equipment.
Project Engineer:
Fluor Daniel
Left: When ore fines are not agglomerated, small fines clog the spaces between larger
particles, preventing the leaching agent from thoroughly percolating through the heap.
Right: When ore fines are agglomerated, they are more uniform in shape and size, allowing
even and thorough percolation of the leaching agent through the heap.
AGGLOMERATION | 48
Project Profile:
Gold Ore Rotary Drum Agglomerator
FEECO was called in to replace an agglomeration drum that was causing the Customer:
processing plant to run at only half capacity. FEECO was asked to replace the Proprietary
existing drum with a new one that would allow the plant to run at its rated plant
Equipment Supplied:
capacity.
(1) rotary drum agglomerator
FEECO built a replacement drum designed to process low-grade gold ore. After Project Location:
crushing, the ore is run through the rotary drum agglomerator to agglomerate the Turkey
crushed ore fines. This creates a more efficient leach, because when the particles
are more uniform in size and shape, the leaching solution is better able to per- Industry:
Mining
meate through the heap. Adding an agglomeration drum to the heap leaching
process also creates a more efficient leach because the leaching solution can be Material:
applied during agglomeration, creating a more homogeneous mix, and Gold Ore
pre-starting the leaching process.
Project Engineer:
FEECO was chosen for this project because of our extensive experience in FEECO International, Inc.
agglomeration and process design.
AGGLOMERATION | 49
Project Profile:
Ore Rotary Agglomerator
FEECO’s agglomeration drums are used to process low-grade ore. Customer:

An International Mining Company
As the ore is mined, it is crushed to size prior to entering the agglomeration (Proprietary)
process. The crushed ore is then fed into the agglomeration drum, where it is Equipment Supplied:
tumbled, often in the presence of the leaching solution. This not only agglomer-
One 15’-1” (4.6m) dia. by 45’-0” (13.7m )
ates the ore fines into a more uniform shape and size, but also thoroughly mixes long rotary drum ore agglomerator
the leachate with the ore fines, beginning the leaching process.
Project Location:
The uniform particles created by the agglomeration process allow the leaching Arizona, USA
solution to more effectively percolate through the heap. Efficiency is further
Industry:
enhanced from the thorough mixture created in the drum, which begins the
Mining
heap leaching process before the ore has even been heaped.
Material:
FEECO is a preferred partner for this process not only because of our vast expe- Base Metal Ore
rience in the agglomeration field, but also because our custom agglomeration
Project Engineer:
drums are heavy duty and built to remain reliable, even under demanding
conditions like those found in the mining industry.
AGGLOMERATION | 50
Project Profile:
DAP Fertilizer Granulation Drum & Dryer
Shown here: Scraper bar
As the world’s leading provider of fertilizer production equipment, FEECO was Customer:
selected by a global fertilizer producer to engineer a granulation drum and rotary Proprietary
dryer for their Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) fertilizer production plant.
Equipment Supplied:
- Granulation Drum
FEECO engineered and fabricated a custom granulation drum including a
- Rotary Dryer with Combustion Chamber
sparger and scraper in order to produce a high quality DAP product.
Project Location:
The rotary dryer was customized with a grizzly (aka trommel screen) to aid in Florida, USA
breaking up any potential lumps that may have formed during processing.
Industry:
Agriculture
Material:
DAP Fertilizer
Project Engineer:
AGGLOMERATION | 51
Project Profile:
Fertilizer Granulation Pilot Plant
Granulation Drum: The pipe reactor integration Shown here: granulation drum (top), coating
can be seen at left. drum (bottom left), and dryer (bottom right)
As a fertilizer industry veteran with decades of experience, FEECO was selected to Customer:
develop a pilot plant for a global fertilizer producer that would allow them to test Proprietary
various products on a continuous pilot scale at their own facility.
Equipment Supplied:
Complete pilot plant including:
In addition to various methods of granulation, the pilot plant was complete
- Rotary Dryer with Combustion Chamber
with drying, cooling, and coating capabilities. The plant was designed to
accommodate a wide range of product testing, giving the producer flexibility in - Rotary Cooler
their R&D operations and the ability to test specific parts of the process in addition - Coating Drum
to continuous process loops. - Granulation Drum
- Pipe Reactor
- Pug Mill
- Hammer Mill
- Belt Conveyors
- Bucket Elevators
Project Location:
Morocco
Industry:
Agriculture
Material:
Fertilizer
Project Engineer:
AGGLOMERATION | 52
Project Profile:
Complete System - Waste to Value
Encapsulated seed product
FEECO engineered a process to take Encap from idea to full-scale production. Customer:
Encap had the idea to use the short fibers in waste paper sludge left over from
the recycling process as a mulch in lawn and garden products. Through testing in
the Innovation Center, FEECO developed a process to transform the short fibers
into a full line of premium lawn and garden products, including an encapsulated Equipment Supplied:
seed product. A complete system including:
- Pin Mixer
The process involved agglomerating the short fibers, along with Encap’s - Rotary Granulator
proprietary technology, into a uniform product. Once the process was worked - Rotary Dryer
out at batch and pilot scale, FEECO manufactured the custom equipment - Material Handling Equipment
needed and helped to engineer and build a full-scale production facility.
Project Location:
The project was highly successful and remains in operation today. FEECO Green Bay, WI, USA
continues to be a resource to Encap for further process and product
Industry:
development endeavors. Lawn & Garden
Material:
Waste Paper Sludge
Project Engineer:
AGGLOMERATION | 53
DRUM OR DISC?
Many are often faced with the is any upset in conditions, there is that can be adjusted to zero-in on
decision of choosing between a enough recycle in the process to the size range (among other qual-
rotary drum agglomerator and a help “even things out.” However, ities) of the pellets. However, this
disc pelletizer. Though the choice with a pelletizer, there is such little also means a pelletizer requires a
may seem overwhelming at first, recycle, that when there is an upset much more watchful eye than a
there are many things to take into in conditions, the output is almost rotary drum. Where one operator
account that will help you make immediately affected. Additionally, would be capable of watching
the right decision for your material. some material processes require a several drums, one operator should
certain amount of recycle to func- only watch a few pelletizers. Ro-
Many times, the choice between tion efficiently, and whether using a tary drums are far more “limited”
a rotary drum and a disc pelletizer drum or disc, extra recycle is ad- in terms of customization, offering
is dependent upon historical prefer- vantageous. Such is often the case fewer variables for adjusting end
ence; throughout various industries, when a pin mixer is introduced into product, but subsequently requiring
one or the other has been used for the process. Some materials require less monitoring.
generations, and there is no need a certain amount of recycle to be
for change. Taking a look at the mixed in with the feedstock going Another side to consider in the
pros and cons of each can help into the pin mixer in order for the choice between a rotary drum and
to make an informed decision, feedstock to mix efficiently before disc pelletizer, is whether or not a
whether you’re a start-up compa- going onto the pelletizer. For this closed system is desired. Rotary
ny, or a plant looking to optimize reason, it is often a requirement to drums are considered a “closed
your process. have a little more recycle on hand. system,” because the agglomer-
ation happens within the drum,
RECYCLE SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS meaning the vessel can be sealed
There are many differences Another aspect to consider when to help control dust and odor. The
between a drum and a disc, but choosing between a rotary drum disc pelletizer is considered an open
whether the differences are an ad- agglomerator and a disc pelletizer, system, meaning the operation
vantage or a disadvantage is often is the throughput. When it comes to happens in a less sealed atmo-
dependent upon the material. This running a very high capacity, rotary sphere than a drum.
is clear when looking at the amount drums are often the equipment of
of recycle in a process. choice. Typically, a rotary drum MAINTENANCE
can handle a much higher through- In terms of maintenance, pelletizers
Overall, a pelletizer results in far less put than a pelletizer can. Where it typically require less maintenance
recycle than a rotary drum does. might take a few pelletizers to get than a rotary drum. Though pel-
This is ideal in situations where the to the desired capacity, it may only letizers do need to be properly
material goes from a pelletizer to a take a single drum. maintained in order to function
dryer, because the less recycle that efficiently, there are fewer parts to
has to be dried, the more efficient While rotary drums allow for a high- be replaced—usually only scrap-
the process will be (i.e., the more er throughput, pelletizers are the ers and spray nozzles. With rotary
recycle that needs to be dried, the equipment of choice when a tight drums, there are many parts that
more energy spent on drying). window of size range is desired for not only require regular mainte-
the output product. nance, but that also need
While rotary drums may result in replacing now and then. It is im-
a higher amount of recycle, this Creating pellets on a pelletizer portant to note that the perfor-
recycle can also be beneficial to a has been likened to a form of art, mance of either piece of equip-
process. For example, when utilizing allowing for customization and ment is severely hindered if not
a rotary drum agglomerator, the fine-tuning of the end product. Pan properly maintained.
higher amount of recycle can act speed, pan angle, feed location,
as a buffer in the process. If there and binder location, are all things
AGGLOMERATION | 54
NON-PRESSURE AGGLOMERATION: CONDITIONING
Glass batch conditioned via a pin

mixer in the FEECO Innovation Center
Conditioning is a term used fre- REASONS FOR CONDITIONING maximize efficiency, and 2) condi-
quently in the field of bulk solids While there are many potential tion the material so that it cannot
processing to describe a wide reasons for conditioning, they become entrained in the down-
range of material treatments, be it generally fall into one (or more) stream smelter.
for a raw material, a by-product, or of three primary objectives:
a finished product. Similarly, when agglomerating a
- To improve efficiency of material, it is often necessary for
Conditioning is an important com- downstream processing the feedstock to fall within a spe-
ponent in the processing of bulk - To improve material handling cific range of moisture in order for
solids, allowing producers to alter - To improve product agglomeration to occur. This may
the characteristics of a material to performance require the addition of moisture to
suit their specific needs. However, the feedstock, through the use of a
significant variation in how condi- IMPROVING THE EFFICIENCY OF binder applied via an industrial mix-
tioning can be applied, and the DOWNSTREAM PROCESSING er, or, it may require a back-mixing
broad scope of materials to which One of the most common reasons step prior to agglomeration in order
it can be applied, has resulted in for conditioning a material is to to reduce the moisture content of
some confusion around the term. ensure optimal downstream pro- the feedstock. Back mixing is done
Here, we’ll give an overview on cessing. This may involve reducing by mixing dried recycle with wet
how conditioning is used, as well the stickiness of a material to avoid feedstock to reduce the overall
as the equipment commonly buildup in equipment, or improv- moisture content of the feedstock.
employed to carry out the job. ing the flowability properties of a
material to ensure ideal process IMPROVING MATERIAL HANDLING
WHAT IS CONDITIONING flow. Further still, it may involve Dusty Materials
With such variance in application, creating a uniform mix of feedstock Another common reason for con-
conditioning often has different components, or even processing ditioning a material is to improve its
meanings in different settings. In a material in order to prevent its handling characteristics for trans-
general, conditioning can be entrainment in a downstream kiln port, storage, or application. This is
loosely defined as the processing of or furnace. In the copper industry, frequently associated with
a bulk solids material in preparation for example, copper concentrates, dust-related issues.
for something, whether that be to along with reverts, flux, and recy-
improve process efficiency, for cled matte, are conditioned in a A dusty material is highly prob-
depositing a material into landfill, pug mill in order to accomplish two lematic; it can cause material to
or to improve a product’s goals: 1) create a homogeneous become windblown, yielding
performance. mixture of the materials to help undesirable and unpredictable
AGGLOMERATION | 55
application results, it causes ers are looking for a material that Like pin mixers, pug mills also
material loss, it’s difficult to trans- meets their every requirement. This employ a binder (or water)
port, and in some cases, may even is especially true of agglomerates. and spray system to promote a
be a liability. homogeneous mixture and rough
Conditioning can be used as a agglomeration. Pug mills utilize dual
A simple mixing step to cause rough means of meeting some of these rotating shafts affixed with pitched
particle size enlargement can go a product goals. This might include paddles to create a kneading and
long way in reducing dust-related processing to ensure a premium folding over motion in the mixing
issues and improving the handling product is created, targeting a trough. Due to their robust nature
and application of a material. This specific bulk density, or even to and the mixing action they employ,
is frequently seen with fine materials ensure product integrity is main- pug mills are frequently chosen for
that are landfilled, such as fly ash. tained throughout its lifecycle. sludge conditioning applications.
Fly ash is a by-product of coal-fired CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT Rotary drums can also be used as
power generation and is produced Conditioning of a material can a conditioning device. Due to the
in a lightweight, powdery form. be carried out using a variety of tumbling action that occurs within
different processes and types of a drum, this device is often cho-
While there is some opportunity for equipment. The type of equipment sen with granules created via roll
the beneficial reuse of fly ash, this chosen for conditioning is highly compaction; granules created in
material is still commonly landfilled. dependent on the unique charac- this manner have jagged edges
Before it can be landfilled, howev- teristics of the material and that are prone to breakdown (an
er, it must be conditioned so that it the goals of conditioning. undesirable phenomenon known
does not blow away into neighbor- as attrition, which results in dust).
ing areas. Pin mixers, pug mills (paddle The tumbling action in a condition-
mixers), and rotary drums are ing drum can be used to knock
Sludge-Like Materials perhaps the most commonly em- off loose edges and can even
Sludge-like materials also present ployed conditioning equipment, accommodate additives to
handling issues, often requiring with significant overlap between improve product performance or
them to be conditioned. This is them, though each offers its own handling characteristics, such as
typically to reduce the moisture distinct benefits. the addition of anti-caking agents.
content and/or stickiness of the
material to improve handling. Pin mixers are widely used in condi- Conversely, when working with
tioning applications and are espe- round granules, the gentle tumbling
A unique approach to managing cially well suited to conditioning action of the rotary drum can also
both dust and sludge wastes has ultra-fine materials. provide conditioning and can
been to mix the two materials prior further polish rounded granules.
to landfilling. For example, fly ash Combined with a binder (or
and filter cake sludge are com- water) and spray system, the All of the conditioning equipment
monly mixed together to condition spinning action of the pin mixer listed above can be used as a
the two materials in order to miti- creates a homogeneous mixture stand-alone device, or as part of a
gate their associated issues; dust and causes material to densify into larger agglomeration setup (in this
issues are resolved and the sticki- small agglomerates. For this reason, case conditioning may be referred
ness and moisture content of the micro pelletizing (discussed in detail to as “preconditioning”).
sludge material is reduced. on page 67) can also be consid-
ered a form of conditioning.
IMPROVING PRODUCT
PERFORMANCE Pug mills are also used as a condi-
The evolution of bulk solids to meet tioning device. Pug mills are ideal in
intended applications continues to demanding applications requiring
become more specialized; produc- a heavy-duty processing solution.
AGGLOMERATION | 56
A pug mill conditioning process is tested

in the FEECO Innovation Center
CONDITIONING APPLICATIONS In many cases, the specific characteristics of the

Materials that are frequently conditioned include: conditioned material are negligible, so long as the
material serves its purpose. In other cases, the con-
- Cement or lime kiln dust ditioning process may be required to produce very
specific characteristics in the end material.
- Copper and other metallic concentrates
- Fly ash
When specific characteristics such as particle size
- Foundry dust distribution or bulk density are desired, conducting
- Friction material waste tests in a facility such as the FEECO Innovation Center
- Iron oxide can be very valuable.
- Lead fume
- Sludge-like materials such as filter cake sludge Here, testing can be conducted at batch and pilot
scale to determine the best approach to conditioning
- Zinc oxide
and gather the process data necessary for scale-up.
Because there is a significant amount of overlap
between equipment conditioning applications,
various factors need to be considered in selecting
the device that will be the best fit. Factors to
consider include:
- Moisture content of material

- Particle size distribution
- Desired end material characteristics
- Abrasiveness of material
- Opportunity for tramp material
AGGLOMERATION | 57
Project Profile:
Phosphate Rock Conditioning Drum
FEECO provided a conditioning drum for use at a phosphate mining site. Customer:
Proprietary
The drum was used in a proprietary process in the beneficiation of phosphate ore.
Equipment Supplied:
Conditioning Drum
Project Location:
Proprietary
Industry:
Mining
Material:
Phosphate Rock
Project Engineer:
AGGLOMERATION | 58
CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT: PUG MILLS

Pug mills, also known as paddle mixers, are industrial mixers reserved for especially heavy-duty processing
applications, such as those found in the mining industry. These industrial mixers are highly adept at processing
materials in the presence of a binder, to provide thorough mixing of both a liquid and solid feed. Pug mills utilize
dual shafts with pitched paddles to create a kneading and folding over motion inside the mixer, resulting in an
intimate mixture of materials. Pug mills can be used as a stand-alone agglomeration device (conditioning), or
as a precursor to a disc pelletizing or agglomeration drum setup (preconditioning).
Spray System
Exhaust
Port
Heavy-Duty
Roller Bearings
Pinion Gear
Assembly
Chain Drive
Assembly
Drive
Motor
Gear
Hard
Reducer
Facings Drive Shaft
Assembly
High-Grade
Fasteners
Paddle Assembly
FEATURES SIZE | 14” - 78” (356 - 1,981mm)

- Double shaft design for thorough mixing of materials
CAPACITY | 500 lb/hr - 250 TPH
- Heavy-duty construction for years of reliable operation
OPTIONAL COMPONENTS
- Binder spray system to accommodate a liquid feed - Zero Speed Switches
- Mid-Height Cover w/ Spray
- Options in paddle facings to help prevent wear Assembly
- High Cover w/ Spray Assembly
- Bottom doors open for cleanout - Electronic Shock Relay
- Stainless Steel Wetted Parts
- Reversible paddles for modifying mixing pattern
*Testing and rental options available

AGGLOMERATION | 59
PUG MILLS: SIZING & DIMENSIONS

A
E
B
C F
DISCHARGE 10 TPH 30 TPH 75 TPH 125 TPH 175 TPH 225 TPH
CAPACITY Std Metric Std Metric Std Metric Std Metric Std Metric Std Metric
(ft-in) (mm) (ft-in) (mm) (ft-in) (mm) (ft-in) (mm) (ft-in) (mm) (ft-in) (mm)
DIMENSION A 3’-3” 990 3’-9” 1,145 4’-10” 1,475 5’-6” 1,675 3’-10” 1,170 3’-10” 1,170
DIMENSION B 10’-1” 3,075 10’-5” 3,175 11’-8” 3,555 10’-9” 3,275 11’-0” 3,355 11’-0” 3,355
DIMENSION C 15’-0” 4,570 15’-10” 4,825 18’-5” 5,615 18’-6” 5,640 16’-4” 4,980 16’-4” 4,980
DIMENSION D 1’-11” 585 2’-7” 785 3’-5” 1,040 4’-4” 1,320 4’-9” 1,450 5’-0” 1,525
DIMENSION E 2’-4” 710 3’-3” 990 4’-6” 1,370 5’-6” 1,675 6’-8” 2,030 7’-3” 2,210
DIMENSION F 5’-7” 1,700 6’-11” 2,110 8’-3” 2,515 9’-8” 2,945 10’-10” 3,300 11’-8” 3,355
Motor HP: Available from 5 thru 250 (3.7 - 185 kW)
Capabilities are based upon dry, fluidized material weighing 40 lbs./ft.3 (640 kg/m3)
FEECO Pug Mill with inspection/access doors

AGGLOMERATION | 60
Project Profile:
Pug Mill for De-dusting Fly Ash
The customer was landfilling the coal fly ash produced as a by-product of coal- Customer:
fired power generation at their paper mill. Proprietary
In addition to creating a hazardous work environment, the dusty nature of the Equipment Supplied:
fly ash made handling and transporting the material difficult and resulted in the Pug Mill (Paddle Mixer)
material often becoming wind blown upon deposit into the landfill.
Project Location:
Michigan, USA
FEECO provided a custom, 14” x 6’ (355mm x 1.8m) pug mill designed to blend/
condition fly ash with water in order to de-dust the material and alleviate these Industry:
problems. Environmental/Pulp & Paper
Material:
Because fly ash can be a challenging material to work with, in addition to
Coal Fly Ash
providing the pug mill, we also worked with the customer to train operators in
troubleshooting and optimizing the process. Project Engineer:
AGGLOMERATION | 61
Project Profile:
Pug Mills for Copper Concentrates
Several machines were supplied to mix copper concentrates, flux, and reverts, so Customer:
they could be reintroduced into the system. Multiple, Proprietary
Equipment Supplied:
In this process, water is sprayed on the materials to help generate granules. This
Pug Mills (Paddle Mixers)
prevents the material from becoming entrained in the exhaust gas leaving the
smelter. Project Location:
Arizona, USA
Because the material is abrasive, paddles were lined with a ceramic material to Peru
aid in extending the paddle life. Zambia
Industry:
Mining; Processing
Material:
Copper Concentrates
Project Engineer:
AGGLOMERATION | 62
Project Profile:
Pug Mills for Steel Mill By-Products
During the steel making process, large quantities of by-products are produced, Customer:
mainly in the form of dust and scale. These by-products contain valuable iron and Multiple, Proprietary
must be recycled to liberate the mineral. This is done through a complex process Equipment Supplied:
involving a number of pieces of equipment.
- Pug Mills (Paddle Mixers)
- Rotary Dryers
By-product in the form of sludge is first dried in a rotary dryer. This helps to convert
- Belt Conveyors
the material to a fine powder so that it can be uniformly blended with other fine
- Radial Stackers
particle by-products.
- Bucket Elevators
Once dried, the various by-products are blended in a pug mill (also referred to as Project Location:
a paddle mixer), along with a binding agent to produce a uniform feedstock for Multiple
briquetting. Because of the abrasive nature of the materials, paddles are faced
Industry:
with wear-resistant alloys.
Steel
After the feedstock has been prepared, the material can be briquetted and Material:
reintroduced into the steel making process for iron recovery. Throughout the Steel By-Products
process, bucket elevators and belt conveyors are employed to seamlessly move Project Engineer:
material from one step to the next. FEECO International, Inc. &
Mill Services Companies
FEECO continues to be the preferred choice for providing rotary dryers, pug mills,
and material handling equipment to this recovery process, due to our extensive
experience and robust equipment.
AGGLOMERATION | 63
Project Profile:
Animal Feeds Granulation
To produce granular Di-Calcium Phosphate, Mono-Calcium Phosphate, and Customer:

De-fluorinated Phosphate for animal feed supplements and ingredients. Systems Mosaic | Potash Corporation of
are capable of producing up to 50 MTPH. The entire system is automated using a Saskatchewan | Enros
PLC-based control system.
Equipment Supplied:
- Rotary Dryer
Scope: Complete Equipment Supply and Process Plant Design including:
- High-Speed Mixer
- Pug Mill
• Supply of all process equipment, PLC-based control system,
motor control center, and instrumentation - Bucket Elevators
- Chain Mills
• Engineering and design of equipment, connecting chutes,
Project Location:
ductwork, stairways, access platforms, and structural steel design Various
• Equipment installation supervision and start-up services Industry:

(mechanical, electrical, process, etc.) Animal Feed
Material:
• Process Warranty of the system
Di-Calcium Phosphate
Mono-Calcium Phosphate
De-fluorinated Phosphate
Project Engineer:
AGGLOMERATION | 64
Project Profile:
Bio-Fertilizer Processing
FEECO supplied a complete organic fertilizer production facility for Premium Customer:
Standard Farms. The plant agglomerated raw and digested hog manure and
utilized biogas to offset the heat requirements of the process. The facility produc-
es a high quality, fertilizer-grade organic product, which can be handled and
applied with traditional fertilizer equipment. In addition to the plant equipment,
we also supplied process engineering and plant start-up services. Equipment Supplied:
- Paddle Mixer/Pug Mill
Fuel Source: Anaerobic Digester Bio-gas (LP back-up) - Rotary Drum Dryer
- Product Classification & Recycle Circuit
- Material and Gas Handling
- Product Storage & Truck Load-out System
- Emission Control Technology (ammonia,
acid gas, and VOC removal)
- Plant Controls
Project Location:
Missouri, USA
Industry:
Agriculture
Material:
Dewatered Raw and
Digested Hog Manure
Project Engineer:
AGGLOMERATION | 65
Project Profile:
On-Farm Manure Granulation Plant
FEECO was commissioned by a company specializing in biological farming Customer:

products in partnership with a large-scale dairy farm to develop an on-farm Proprietary
granulation plant to process digested dairy manure into a specialty fertilizer.
What Was Supplied:
Batch and pilot testing in the FEECO Innovation Center was crucial to developing - Batch and pilot testing for process and
product development of a specialty
a process that incorporated the farm’s unique source of manure with a multitude fertilizer product combining both organic
of additional components to create the custom, all-in-one fertilizer granule they and inorganic components along with
were looking for. primary and secondary macronutrients
as well as micronutrients
We then scaled up this process and engineered and fabricated the equipment - System engineering and complete
to provide a complete system integrating agglomeration/mixing, drying, cooling, granulation plant utilizing pug mill, rotary
dryer, rotary cooler, screening, recycle,
screening, recycle, gas handling, process controls, and all necessary material gas handling, process controls, material
handling equipment. handling, and ancilliary equipment
In addition to our role in process design and equipment manufacturing, we also Project Location:
provided a variety of systems engineering services, including but not limited Proprietary
to plant general arrangement drawings, vendor interface, bid evaluation
Industry:
and analysis, P&IDs, control system interface, electric plant device drawing Dairy & Fertilizer
development, project management, start-up assistance, and more.
Material:
FEECO worked with vendors and engineering firms to integrate the granulation Digested Dairy Manure & Mineral Blends
plant as part of a complete manure processing line with pre-treatment, storage,
blending, and other necessary support systems to serve as a commercial-scale Project Engineer:
fertilizer production facility.
FEECO continues to serve the project through remote support capabilities

facilitated by Rockwell Automation and Allen-Bradley controls integration.
Copper Hydroxide micro pellets created
in the FEECO Innovation Center
AGGLOMERATION | 67
NON-PRESSURE AGGLOMERATION: MICRO PELLETIZING

WHAT IS MICRO PELLETIZING? excessive amounts of wind-blown dusty and easier to handle, it also
Micro pelletizing is the process of material. This is commonly seen allows for improved application
agglomerating material fines into with fly ash, a by-product of burning and performance in many
small pellets, or “micro pellets.” fossil fuels that comes in the form of instances. A good example of this
an ultra-fine powder. While some is in the agriculture industry, where
Unlike traditional pelletizing, where fly ash can be recycled into other soil amendments are sometimes
slightly larger pellets are produced, products, other fly ash is not usable, micro pelletized, offering significant
micro pelletizing produces pellets and is therefore micro pelletized, benefits, including:
around 20-60 mesh. or conditioned, before it is brought
to landfill, to avoid it being carried More accurate application –
Micro pelletizing can be carried out away by the wind. Micro pellets can move through
either in a stand-alone pin mixer spreading equipment much more
(may be referred to as “condi- Dust reduction is also beneficial efficiently than powdered
tioning” in this case), or with a pin during processing. If not well materials, making application
mixer/disc pelletizer combination. managed, fugitive dust can easily more precise and reliable.
When a full-scale pelletizing opera- escape into the air, which can not
tion is not necessary, or when only only damage equipment if left More predictable results –
smaller pellets or material condi- unchecked, but can also be a Because micro pellets won’t blow
tioning is needed, the use of a pin health and safety hazard. An away like a powdered material
mixer to micro pelletize material extreme example of this can be might, applications stay where
offers a cost-effective alternative to found at coal-fired power plants, they are applied, delivering nutri-
a full-scale pelletizing operation where coal fines are generated. ents where they are needed, and
and can provide sufficient results. Here, coal fines are micro pelletized nowhere else.
because they can be combustible
WHY MICRO PELLETIZE? if sufficiently aerated. Faster product breakdown –
Micro pelletizing is used to process Smaller pellets are more quickly
fine materials in order to make Dust reduction or elimination is also broken down than larger ones and
them easier to handle, transport, valuable because it reduces the thus, in the case of soil amend-
and use. There are several rea- amount of product or raw material ments, nutrients reach the soil
sons why this may be desirable: to lost to waste as dust, a common sooner.
improve how a product performs, problem among dusty materials.
to reduce product lost to dust, to This results in more usable material/ Reduced visibility –
condition a material prior to landfill, product, and a reduction in Micro pellets sink between the
or to reduce other issues associated material waste. grass blades quickly. This is benefi-
with dust. cial because the application does
IMPROVED HANDLING not detract from the beauty of the
AND TRANSPORT
BENEFITS OF turf, a valuable characteristic for
As one can imagine, a fine, dusty
MICRO PELLETIZING applications such as golf courses
material can be difficult to move and lawns. This is a common rea-
Like all agglomeration techniques,
around or haul without losing a son for choosing micro pellets over
micro pelletizing a fine material
significant amount of material. larger particle sizes.
offers a variety of benefits:
Micro pelletizing allows the material
SIGNIFICANT DUST REDUCTION/ to be much more easily handled Micro pellets also offer the opportu-
ELIMINATION and transported. nity to serve as a “core” for appli-
Dust reduction or elimination is cations that require the pellets to
beneficial for many reasons. Some- IMPROVED APPLICATION AND USE be coated, but still need the pellets
times, materials are micro pelletized While micro pelletizing generally to remain in the desired size range.
prior to being landfilled to avoid focuses on making a material less
AGGLOMERATION | 68
MATERIALS THAT ARE COMMONLY through motion, instead of on the disc pelletizer
PROCESSED USING MICRO PELLETIZING with binder.
Because micro pelletizing can benefit nearly any
material that comes in the form of a powder, the After pellet formation is complete, micro pellets are
applications for micro pelletizing are innumerable then discharged from the pin mixer and carried via
(and growing!). Commonly micro pelletized conveyor to a rotary dryer to reduce the moisture
materials include: content of the pellets down to the desired level. Here,
pellets tumble through the rotating drum, while flights
- Carbon Black pick up the material and drop it through the stream of
- Catalysts drying air, maximizing heat transfer efficiency.
- Coal Dust
- Filter Media Pellets are then discharged from the dryer and taken
by conveyor to their next processing stop (screening),
- Fly Ash
or to storage or bagging.
- Pigments and Dyestuffs
- Specialty Powders In some instances, it may also be desirable to cool the
material prior to bagging or storage. This can be car-
MICRO PELLETIZING IN A PIN MIXER ried out in a rotary cooler or fluid bed cooler.
While micro pelletizing can be done in a pug mill, it
is best carried out in a pin mixer. Pin mixers are the Micro pelletizing offers a host of benefits, including
industry standard for micro pelletizing, offering an ideal reduced dust, improved handling, and enhanced
solution for agglomerating material fines into small application. Furthermore, when only rough agglomer-
pellets. For this reason, pin mixers have been used ation is desired, micro pelletizing in a pin mixer alone
extensively for decades in both the coal and carbon offers a cost-effective alternative to a full-scale disc
black industries. pelletizing or drum operation.
Pin mixers utilize a high-speed spinning action that not

only thoroughly mixes liquid and solid feeds, but also
begins to agglomerate material fines as well, resulting
in small, dense pellets. Pin mixers can act as a contin-
uous, stand-alone unit to quickly and reliably produce
micro pellets in a process setting.
A typical micro pelletizing setup looks like this:

Raw feed material is fed into the pin mixer at a contin-
uous rate. Simultaneously, a binder spray system sprays
binder into the pin mixer at a continuous, specified rate.
The material feedstock and binder are thoroughly
mixed, and begin to agglomerate, forming micro
pellets as the mixture moves through the length of
the pin mixer.
At this stage, a disc pelletizer could be utilized to

further grow and/or round the pellets if desired. In
this scenario, the pin mixer prepares the material for
optimal pellet formation on the disc. It also allows the
target moisture level to be reached prior to the disc
pelletizer, which can increase production, and Paint pigment micro pellets created
decrease the amount of binder required, because in the FEECO Innovation Center
densification is being carried out in the pin mixer

AGGLOMERATION | 69
MICRO PELLETIZING EQUIPMENT: PIN MIXERS

Pin mixers are industrial mixers that are ideal for micro pelletizing and de-dusting applications. They are partic-
ularly adept at processing ultra-fine materials in the presence of a binder, and can be used as a stand-alone
agglomeration unit, or combined with a disc pelletizer or agglomeration drum to produce a premium pelletized
product. Pin mixers use a high-speed spinning action to both mix and agglomerate materials in the presence
of a binder. A single shaft affixed with rods (pins) rotates at a constant speed, creating a densified product
through the use of motion.
Spray
Ports Material Actuated Hinged
Inlet Cover (Screw Jack)
Pin & Shaft

Assembly
Integrated
Screw Feeder
Discharge
Chute
Drive
Motor
Mixing
Pins
Abrasion-
Resistant
Coating
Jam/Locking
Nut - High Grade
V-Belt Drive Mixer Shaft

TABLE: PIN MIXER SIZING
MODEL DIAMETER DRIVE HP CAPACITY SIZE | 10” - 50” (254 - 1,270mm)
Std (in) Metric (mm) Std (HP) Metric (kW) cu. ft./hr cu. m./hr
Batch 8” 200 1.5 1.1 Batch Batch CAPACITY | 200 lb/hr - 70 TPH
Batch 15" 380 20 15 Batch Batch
6” 6” 150 3 2.2 5-10 0.14-0.28
OPTIONAL COMPONENTS
10” 10” 255 10 7.5 40-100 1-3
15” 15” 380 20 15 75-200 2-6 - Zero Speed Switches
22” 22” 560 40 30 250-550 7-16 - Raising Cover Assembly
30" 30" 760 100 75 500-900 14-25 - Abrasion-Resistant Pin Coatings
40” 40” 1,015 150 110 800-1,200 23-34
- Two Screw Feeders
50" 50" 1,270 200 150 1,000-1,600 28-45
- Various Pin Arrangements
FEATURES - Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)
- Full sweep pin design
- Polished stainless steel liner to improve machine operation
- Available custom configuration
- Accurate feed ratios of powder to liquid for precise quality control *Testing and rental options available
- Accurate production rates

- Custom designed control panel for housing controls
AGGLOMERATION | 70
Project Profile:
Pin Mixers for De-dusting Coal
If sufficiently aerated, coal fines are combustible, making de-dusting a top priority Customer:
when working with coal in any setting. Multiple, Proprietary
Pin mixers have long been the equipment of choice for de-dusting coal. Their Equipment Supplied:
intense spinning action, combined with an optimized binder spray system, (90+) Pin Mixers
promotes uniform wetting and agglomeration of finely divided powders to
Project Location:
produce densified, conditioned micro pellets. Domestic and International
Pin mixers effectively de-dust coal for improved safety and ease of handling and Industry:
conveying, while minimizing binder requirement. The system provides an accurate Power Generation, Pulp and Paper
and precise ratio of liquid to solid feed.
Material:
Coal Fines, Dust
While pin mixers are utilized as a stand-alone agglomeration device in most
coal settings, they can also be provided as part of a larger disc pelletizer or Project Engineer:
agglomeration drum setup. FEECO International, Inc.
FEECO has been a primary provider of custom pin mixers for de-dusting coal
fines in a variety of settings, having provided nearly 100 pin mixers throughout our
extensive experience.
AGGLOMERATION | 71
Project Profile:
Carbon Black Pelletizing
Process testing and system design/supply provided by FEECO. Raw material is a Customer:
tire-derived carbon black, which is pelletized (agglomerated) into small pellets for Consortium of Entrepreneurs
ease of handling and dosing purposes from waste material.
Equipment Supplied:
- 22” (560mm) Pin Mixer
- Liquid Introduction System
- Fluid Bed Dryer/Cooler
- Product Screen
- Bulk Bag Loading Station
Project Location:
Cyprus
Industry:
Tire Pyrolysis and Carbon Black Processing
Material:
Carbon Black
Project Engineer:
AGGLOMERATION | 72
CHOOSING AN INDUSTRIAL MIXER: PIN MIXER VS. PUG MILL
Pin mixer pins on shaft, pre-installation
When considering the use of an TYPICAL USE makes this type of industrial mixer
industrial mixer, it is often common Mixing, conditioning, or best suited for heavy-duty materials
to run into the question of which agglomerating. and applications. Typical pug mill
mixer will serve the process and material applications include:
material best: a pin mixer, or a PROCESSING WITH A PUG MILL
pug mill. FEECO’s pug mill is a U-shaped, Mixing: FGD scrubber sludge, fly
horizontal trough. Inside the trough, ash and lime for SO2 neutralization,
While both pieces of equipment a series of pitched paddles are municipal sludge for composting
are considered industrial mixers, mounted on dual counter-rotating facilities, and other processes com-
they each have distinct benefits shafts that run the length of the bining moist and dry feed materials.
and capabilities. Typically, the device. The paddles move material
material itself, along with process- from the bottom of the trough, up Conditioning: Fly ash, cement or
ing considerations, will help in the middle, and back down the lime kiln dust, foundry dust, iron
determining which piece of equip- sides, creating a kneading and oxide, friction material waste, lead
ment will best fit the needs of the folding effect that intimately fume, iron ore dust, and zinc oxide.
process and material. The following mixes the material.
information outlines the basics on Agglomeration: Granulation of a
each mixer’s capabilities. The pug mill is also used for condi- variety of materials: agricultural
tioning or agglomerating materials. chemicals, fertilizers, pesticides,
THE PUG MILL In these instances, a liquid spray sys- coke fines, chemical consumer
HOW IT WORKS tem is added to dispense a binder products, carbon powders, cement
Material undergoes tumbling, that assists with the conditioning or kiln dust, flue dust from dust collec-
kneading, and medium-shear agglomerating process. tors, pigments, and dyes.
action, resulting in an intimate
mixture of materials. PUG MILL APPLICATIONS
The kneading motion of a pug mill
AGGLOMERATION | 73
THE PIN MIXER which industrial mixer to use, the material may help
in determining which equipment should be selected.
HOW IT WORKS
Processing system requirements and facility consider-
Material undergoes an intense spinning action,
ations are also used to determine the best equipment
resulting in densification.
solution. However, the best way to choose between a
pug mill and a pin mixer is to evaluate the raw mate-
TYPICAL USE
rial and decide what type of outcome is preferred;
Micro pelletizing, solids mixing, densification, de-dust-
the equipment’s capabilities will lead to choosing one
ing, preconditioning, conditioning, and granulation.
device over the other.
PROCESSING WITH A PIN MIXER
For example, a pug mill tends to handle sticky and/or
The pin mixer is comprised of a stationary cylindrical
abrasive materials a little better, because of its slower
shell that houses a high-velocity central rotor shaft. The
speed. It also offers a significantly higher throughput
rotor shaft extends the full length of the mixer, with
over a pin mixer, making it an attractive option for
numerous rods (or pins) that extend outward. A con-
high capacity operations. Pin mixers would likely get
stant speed motor spins the rotor shaft at several
“bogged down” when trying to process a sticky mate-
hundred RPMs in order to impart agitation forces on
rial, and would not stand up as well to severely abra-
the material. The motion and high rotational speeds
sive materials, due to its high rotational speed.
produced by the pin mixer minimize air and reduce
water volume between particles in the material. This
A pug mill is also more forgiving than a pin mixer,
results in densification many times that of a disc pellet-
an ideal characteristic when working with tougher
izer. A fluid binder material is added in order to aid
materials, or where tramp could possibly enter the mix-
in the agglomeration process.
er. While a stray rock or tramp bolt may cause a few
pins to break off in a pin mixer, the pug mill would likely
PIN MIXER APPLICATIONS
not see any damage. This is also true when working
Pin mixers are ideal for processing fine materials such
with large particle sizes. Large particles could lodge
as powders. Typical applications include:
between the pin tips and the interior wall of the pin
- Calcium chloride mixer. In a pug mill, however, the clearance between
- Carbon black the trough and paddles is greater, decreasing oppor-
tunity for this. There is also typically enough torque in a
- Coal dust
pug mill to dislodge particles as well, in the event that
- Gypsum
any do get stuck.
- Limestone
- Mine fines (such as zinc sulfate) When looking to densify a material, the high-speed
- Pigments spinning action that occurs in a pin mixer can offer
- Sodium aluminum chloride much better results than a pug mill. Pin mixers also
- Other fine particle materials excel in working with ultra-fine materials, such as pig-
ments and dyes. The pin mixer’s ability to effectively
micro pelletize a fine powder is tough to beat.
Pin mixers work well as a stand-alone agglomeration
unit, or as a preconditioner in a two-stage agglom- As can be seen, both pin mixers and pug mills are
eration process involving a disc pelletizer. Pin mixers effective industrial mixers, with each offering their own
are also ideal components in an automated system, advantages and disadvantages.
offering precise quality control and accurate produc-
tion rates.
CHOOSING BETWEEN
A PUG MILL AND A PIN MIXER
Pug mills and pin mixers both provide a wide array of
benefits and processing capabilities. When choosing
AGGLOMERATION | 74
PRESSURE AGGLOMERATION: COMPACTION GRANULATION
Sulfur granules created in the FEECO

Innovation Center via roll compaction
Compaction granulation operates fed through a granulator, where - Distribution of pressure on roll
on the principle that some materi- it is broken up into granules. The faces
als, when put under extreme pres- granules then typically go through - Moisture content of raw
sure, will bind to themselves. Not all screening, where over- and under- material
materials are capable of this, so in size granules are separated out - Consistent feed to roll
some cases, compaction granula- from the on-size granules. The overs compactor
tion is not an option. But for other are then crushed down to be put - Binder distribution
materials, such as salts like potash, back into the process as recycle,
it is an extremely effective, while the unders do not typically Materials that are commonly
cost-efficient option. require crushing, and can be put processed using compaction
back into the process as is. granulation include:
In the compaction process, be-
- Catalysts
cause the material often adheres While the granules can be
to itself, typically no binder (or considered a final product at this - Chemicals
very minimal binder) is needed to point, a variety of options exist for - Clays
agglomerate the material fines. further improving them. - Detergents
Therefore, this is considered a dry - Fertilizers
process, and most often does not Granules may be tumbled in a - Minerals
require an additional drying step. polishing drum to remove any
- Oxides
loose edges; or, they may be
- Pigments
Compaction granulation is carried conditioned in a pug mill or rotary
out using a double roll press, or roll drum where additives such as - Polymers
compactor. coating or anti-caking agents can - And more…
be added. Additionally, they can
The diagram on the next page be wetted in a pug mill and dried
illustrates a simplified compaction in a rotary dryer to fill in surface
granulation process, with the cracks, remove loose edges, and
addition of a polishing drum. polish the granules.
Material is fed between two Variables that affect the success of

counter-rotating roll presses. The compaction granulation include:
rolls apply extreme pressure to
press the material into a sheet-like - Particle size distribution
form. This sheet of material is then
AGGLOMERATION | 75
SIMPLIFIED COMPACTION GRANULATION SYSTEM
DIAGRAM KEY:
1. Raw Feed Materials 5. Protecting Screen 9. Screen

2. Mill 6. Compactor 10. Polishing Drum
3. Surge Hopper 7. Flake Breaker 11. Screen
4. Humidificator Mixer 8. Granulators 12. Screw for Recycles
Potash granules created in the FEECO

Innovation Center via roll compaction
AGGLOMERATION | 76
COMPACTION GRANULATION EQUIPMENT: ROLL COMPACTORS

Compactors produce dense, jagged granules. Because pressure is utilized to form agglomerates, typically
no binder is needed, though sometimes a binder is desirable. Compactors are often used to process fertilizers,
pigments, catalysts, detergents, and other types of chemicals. Compactors use mechanical force to press
material fines into a compacted sheet, which is then broken up into granules.
Force Feeder
Drive ADDITIONAL
FEED SYSTEM
OPTIONS
Motor
Hopper Feed System
Feed System:
Roll Drive Reducer
Force feeder
with one or
two conical
screws
Shaft Couplings
(Under Guard)
Hydraulic Jacks
Rolls
CAPACITY | 100 lb/hr - 50 TPH FEATURES

(0.5 kg/hr - 45 MTPH) - Double-output gear box and internal gear couplings for preventing
misalignment caused by traveling roll movement
*Testing options available
- Optional drive systems for specialty applications (high torque, etc.)
- Optimized feed system
- Various options for material of roll construction

AGGLOMERATION | 77
Project Profile:
Ammonium Sulfate Granulation
To produce a marketable fertilizer product using ammonium sulfate waste crystals Customer:
from a nickel refining facility. The system is capable of producing 20 TPH of
ammonium sulfate in the size range of 2-4mm. The entire system is automated (United Farmers
Co-Operative)
using a PLC-based control system.
Equipment Supplied:
Scope: Complete Equipment Supply and Process Plant Design Including:
Compaction Granulation System
• Supply of all process equipment, PLC-based control system, Project Location:

motor control center, and instrumentation Perth, WA, Australia
• Engineering and design of equipment, connecting chutes, Industry:

ductwork, stairways, access platforms, and structural steel design Fertilizer
Material:
• Equipment installation supervision and start-up services Ammonium Sulfate
(mechanical, electrical, process, etc.)
• Process warranty of the system
AGGLOMERATION | 78
PELLETIZING VS. COMPACTION GRANULATION
Left: Potash pellets created via tumble growth

agglomeration; Right: Potash granules created
via roll compaction
When it comes to agglomerating withstand handling, but can still Additionally, the pelletizing process
material fines, compaction gran- quickly break down upon applica- offers the opportunity to include
ulation and pelletization are often tion, an ideal characteristic for soil additives to further customize and
both investigated. amendments, fertilizers, and other enhance the end product.
applications that benefit from fast
Both methods are an effective material breakdown. DISADVANTAGES TO
solution, but each has distinct PELLETIZING
advantages and disadvantages. LESS DUST AND FINES HIGHER PROCESSING COSTS
And while operating and capital Compared to compaction granules, The use of a binder, and the
costs are often the deciding factor pellets produce less fines; since pel- required drying step results in higher
between the two, there are many lets are round, there are no edges to processing costs when compared
things to consider when choosing break off and create dust. to compaction granulation.
which method best suits your
material and processing needs. BINDERS CAN SERVE AS
ADVANTAGES TO
Additionally, some materials may BENEFICIAL ADDITIVES
Pelletization offers the opportunity
COMPACTION GRANULATION:
respond well to only one of these
to control formulation through the LOWER PROCESSING COSTS
methods, making the choice
addition of specially-formulated Processing costs are usually lower
clear. Other materials, however,
binders, in order to create optimum compared to pelletizing, because
will respond well to both (such as
pellet characteristics. a binder and drying step are not
bentonite, coal, humate, potash,
typically needed.
urea, and others) and will require
further consideration. LOWER CAPITAL COSTS
The pelletizing method often DISADVANTAGES TO
ADVANTAGES TO PELLETIZING requires a lower capital investment COMPACTION GRANULATION
than compaction granulation. ATTRITION
FASTER NUTRIENT DELIVERY
Attrition is the breakdown of
Because pellets are not created
A PREMIUM PRODUCT IS PRODUCED granule edges into material fines
through pressure, they are less
The round, smooth pellets pro- and dust. This is common with
dense than their compaction gran-
duced in the pelletizing process are compaction granules because
ule counterparts. The less dense
considered a premium product. of the rough, jagged edges. As
pellets created in pelletizing can
mentioned, however, there are
AGGLOMERATION | 79
methods to aid in reducing attrition, but they can increase production costs.
Sometimes, it’s also sufficient to simply condition or micro pelletize material in a pin mixer or pug mill, instead
of pelletizing or granulating it. This is common for applications where the material only needs to be de-dusted,
such as in cases where transportation to landfill is made difficult because of a dusty product.
Oftentimes, it is not clear which method of agglomeration will produce the desired results, and in these cases,
testing may be required.
AGGLOMERATION TESTING
Running testing trials with samples of your material in a facility such as the FEECO Innovation Center will offer
a number of benefits; it will not only tell you if your material is capable of agglomeration, but it will also help to
determine the best method of agglomeration to achieve the end product you’re looking for. Taking it a step
further, in addition to running batch tests on a single piece of equipment, the FEECO Innovation Center can
also carry out testing in a continuous process loop, utilizing many pieces of equipment. This is useful in determin-
ing the best equipment configuration and the process variables needed to produce desired product
characteristics.
TABLE: HOW PELLETIZING AND COMPACTION COMPARE

The chart below provides a summary of the differences between pelletizing and compaction granulation.
PELLETIZATION COMPACTION GRANULATION

Produces round, smooth pellets considered a premium product Produces coarse granules
Relatively dust-free Significant amount of attrition likely
Binder usually required Typically no binder required
Drying required Usually no drying required

Faster product breakdown Delayed product breakdown
Lower capital investment Reduced processing costs
AGGLOMERATION | 80
PRESSURE AGGLOMERATION: BRIQUETTING
Sodium chloride briquettes created in a

briquetter in the Innovation Center
Briquetting is employed when large The produced briquettes may Materials that are commonly
agglomerates are desired, such as undergo further mechanical, processed using a briquetter
in the production of charcoal or chemical, or thermal treatment to include:
water softener briquettes. Because produce an end product with the
small briquettes are difficult to desired characteristics. - Carbon Black
make and have a low volume, the - Clays
smaller the briquette, the higher the VARIABLES THAT AFFECT - Coal
price of the equipment. As such, SUCCESS - Copper
briquettes are typically produced Due to the similar nature of - Detergents
no smaller than roughly a ½” briquetting to the compaction
- Ferro-alloys
square by ¼” thickness. granulation process, there is
- Graphite
significant overlap between the
The briquetting process utilizes a two processes regarding factors - Oxides
roll press referred to as a briquet- that influence the success of - Sponge Iron
ter. Here, the material is fed be- producing agglomerates: - Water Softener Salts
tween counter-rotating rolls, each - And more…
of which has half of the desired - Particle size distribution
briquette shape (often a pillow-like - Distribution of pressure on roll
shape). As the rolls come together, faces
the two halves unite and through - Moisture content of raw
the imparted pressure, the material
briquette is formed. - Consistent feeding
- Binder distribution
If a binder is employed, a pug
mill or other mixer may precede
the briquetter to produce a
homogeneous mixture of solid
and liquid feed.
AGGLOMERATION | 81
BRIQUETTING EQUIPMENT: BRIQUETTERS

Briquetters produce large, pillow-shaped briquettes. Briquetters use mechanical force to press material fines into
a desired shape, and are typically reserved for instances where larger agglomerates are desired, such as in the
making of water softener or charcoal briquettes. Material fines are fed between two counter-rotating rolls. Each
roll has one half of the desired “pillow” shape, and as the rolls come together, the halves unite, pressing the
material into one complete pillow form. Briquetters typically require a binder if the cohesive forces between
the particles are low.
ADDITIONAL
FEED SYSTEM
Hopper Feed OPTIONS
Motor System
Force Feeder Drive
Roll Drive Reducer
Distributer & Feed Box

System
Shaft Couplings
(Under Guard)
Hydraulic Jacks
Rolls
CAPACITY | 100 lb/hr - 100 TPH FEATURES

(0.5 kg/hr - 91 MTPH) - Double-output gear box and internal gear couplings for preventing
misalignment caused by traveling roll movement
*Testing options available
- Optional hinged frame for ease of maintenance
- Optimized feed system
- Heavy-duty frame constructed to withstand high pressure operation

AGGLOMERATION | 82
TABLE: AGGLOMERATION EQUIPMENT SUMMARY
EQUIPMENT OTHER PRESSURE OR BINDER NORMALLY USES

NAME NAMES NON-PRESSURE? REQUIRED?
Disc Pelletizers Disc Granulators Non-Pressure Yes Pelletizing

Pan Pelletizers
Pan Granulators
Granulators
Rotary Drums Agglomeration Non-Pressure Yes Pelletizing

Drums Granulating with a Chemical Reaction
Balling Drums Coating
Agglomerators
Ore Drums
Granulators
Granulation Drums
Pug mills Paddle Mixers Non-Pressure Yes Mixing

Conditioning
Agglomerating
Pin Mixers Pin Agglomerators Non-Pressure Yes Micro Pelletizing

Mixing
Conditioning
Agglomerating
Compactors Roll Press Pressure No Granulation

Double Roll Press
Briquetters Roll Press Pressure No Briquetting

Double Roll Press
AGGLOMERATION | 83
CONSIDERATIONS IN AGGLOMERATION: PRECONDITIONING

When considering an industrial agglomeration ROTARY DRYERS
solution for a material, most focus is placed on what Rotary dryers reduce moisture in a material using a
agglomeration process and equipment will yield the rotating drum with customized lifting flights. As materi-
greatest and most cost-effective final product. While al travels through the drum, it cascades off the flights
these are vital primary considerations, an equally and comes in direct contact with a heated air stream,
important concern should be how to precondition which effectively dries the material. Because moisture
a material for the desired agglomeration process. is critical to the agglomeration process, material at or
Preconditioning is essential, because it prepares near its critical moisture requires drying before being
material for other processing steps, and in doing so, agglomerated. Using a rotary dryer to reduce moisture
assists in creating the best final product possible. allows for the addition of a binder and improves the
desired tackiness necessary for pellet formation.
PRECONDITIONING BENEFITS
Many different materials benefit from preconditioning, PUG MILLS
even materials that do not undergo agglomeration Pug mills use paddles to create a kneading and
(in this case, the process may be referred to as simply medium-shear action as material travels through the
“conditioning”). Besides creating an optimal final barrel-shaped trough. These mixers provide precon-
product, preconditioning provides a variety of other ditioning benefits such as wetting, standard mixing,
advantages as well… granulating, and back mixing dried material (recycle)
into the process.
Each step in the agglomeration process works to make
the next step easier. Preconditioned material provides PIN MIXERS
an early advantage to the entire process, resulting in Pin mixers use pins mounted on a rotor shaft to
easier handling for all subsequent steps. deliver preconditioning benefits such as standard
mixing, granulating, and back mixing dried material
Preconditioned material enhances size control and into the process. As the pins rotate at a high velocity,
the ability to create a uniform product. In fact, numer- the turbulent agitation forces imparted on the material
ous issues can be avoided by gaining greater control also deliver densification.
of the overall size of the material. For example, size
control can reduce excessive recycle of small (unders) Both pin mixers and pug mills are ideal for use when
or large (overs) pellets. wet and dry feedstock must be thoroughly mixed as
part of the preconditioning process.
By creating an easy to handle material, precondi-
tioning creates a consistent feedstock that permits VACUUM DEAERATION
increased production rates versus unconditioned Some compaction granulation circuits utilize a vac-
material. uum system to extract air from a material in order to
precondition the material for ideal processing in the
Preconditioning allows for more control during roll compactor.
agglomeration, which in turn creates a better
final product.
PRECONDITIONING EQUIPMENT
Once the final product result is determined, the
required level of preconditioning should be evaluated
in order to ensure a material can achieve the
desired results.
The following list examines common methods used to

precondition material.
AGGLOMERATION | 84
CONSIDERATIONS IN AGGLOMERATION: CHOOSING A BINDER

Choosing the right binder for your
material is one of the most import-
ant aspects of the agglomeration
process. A binder not only aids in
pellet formation, but can also be
used to optimize product character-
istics and performance.
Borax pellets produced on a disc
pelletizer in the Innovation Center
WHY USE A BINDER?
There are three main reasons for
3. TO ASSIST IN THE ACTUAL ation process and achieve desired
using a binder in the agglomeration
AGGLOMERATION PROCESS strength characteristics, but would
process:
A binder helps to achieve the tacki- not break down and would leave
1. TO ACHIEVE THE DESIRED FINAL ness needed for a material to stick cement in soil. Molasses, starches,
DRY PELLET CRUSH STRENGTH to itself. Though some materials may and other organic binders, however,
Achieving the appropriate dry agglomerate without a binder, most not only function well as binders for
crush strength is necessary to ensure materials require some sort of bind- fertilizer products, but also allow the
the pellets are durable enough to ing agent to pull and hold particles product to break down quickly, and
survive all handling points prior to together while forming the pellets. could even add micronutrients to
and during end product use. From And while ideally water will do the the soil.
screening and packaging, to ship- job, many times it does not have the
ping, distribution, and application, tackiness to give the pellet enough Some industries, such as the steel
product breakage and dust needs wet strength to hold up to the rolling, industry, may require that the binder
to be kept to a minimum. A dry tumbling, and dropping that a pellet be able to withstand high amounts
pellet crush strength that is too low is exposed to during processing. of heat in order to hold up in rotary
will break up too easily, while a dry kilns or other thermal processing
pellet crush strength that is too high SELECTING A BINDER equipment.
won’t break up easily enough, or Binders are available by the
will take too long to dissolve. Adjust- hundreds, from waxes, to starches, Another important factor in binder
ing binder concentration, or testing latexes, and even plastics. Choosing selection is choosing a binder that is
different binders, can help to hit the a binder can seem overwhelming cost effective. Binders vary greatly in
target dry crush strength. with all of the choices available, but price, with water typically being the
oftentimes, industry and end use will least costly.
2. TO ACHIEVE THE help to decide which binder will be
DESIRED GREEN STRENGTH the best solution. Additionally, not all binders are
Green strength refers to the strength available in all areas. You may find
of a pellet in its "wet" state, prior to One example of how industry and that a binder works perfectly for
drying. Oftentimes, materials need end use can quickly narrow down what you’re looking to achieve, but
to be able to hold up as they move the choice between binders is in the cost of getting it to your area
throughout the process before they the fertilizer industry; though coal tar may override these benefits.
are dried. A material with a green might function as a perfect binder
strength that is too low has the for other industries, coal tar contains There are many aspects to consider
potential to break up as it drops toxins that could be passed to the when choosing a binder in the ag-
off of conveyors or goes through soil and plants, and therefore would glomeration process. Industry, use,
chutes. Achieving the appropriate be unacceptable to use in a fertiliz- cost, and availability will all have an
green strength will help the product er product. The same holds true for effect on which binder will be most
to stay intact through the end of a cement binder; a cement binder suitable for the job.
the process. may work well during the agglomer-
AGGLOMERATION | 85
CONSIDERATIONS IN AGGLOMERATION: THE ROLE OF DRYING

Drying plays a critical role in the moisture level of the end product. and therefore require a drying
agglomeration process. When This improves handling, as well as stage, a dryer may be added to
used prior to agglomeration, drying end product characteristics by cre- reduce the moisture content down
prepares material feedstock for ating a strong pellet that is capable to the desired level to produce the
agglomerate formation, and has a of withstanding further handling final agglomerate.
direct effect on how material will and transportation, but can still
perform during agglomeration. break down when needed. When HOW DRYING WORKS
Used after agglomeration, drying carried out in a rotary dryer, the With most materials, reaching a
cures pellets into their final, strong drying stage has the added benefit target moisture range (or even an
form. In both applications, drying is of “polishing” the pellets—further exact percentage) is required for
vital to producing a premium rounding them as they tumble the final product. Choosing a dryer
end product. through the drum. that is designed around the unique
requirements of the material to be
PRE-DRYING With some materials, a co-current processed will produce the best
In order for agglomeration to air flow serves to flash off residual results.
occur, feedstock must be in the moisture as material enters the
preferred moisture range. As such, drum. This creates a hardened, Characteristics such as a material’s
it can be necessary to dry material recrystallized surface on the pellet angle of repose, bulk density, par-
prior to the actual agglomeration or granule. ticle size distribution, specific heat,
stage of processing (as mentioned, and more, will all have an effect on
this may sometimes be referred to To reduce potential caking issues how the material will behave in a
as preconditioning). during the drying stage, knocking dryer, and subsequently, how that
systems are often utilized to dis- dryer should be designed to work
Implementing a drying stage prior lodge any material that may be with the material to produce the
to agglomeration brings material sticking to the interior of the drum. desired results.
feedstock down to the level of Again, this may be needed in situ-
moisture needed for optimum ations where hygroscopic materials Rotary dryers work by tumbling
agglomeration to occur. This are being processed. agglomerates in a drum for a set
reduction in moisture also helps to retention time. As the drum rotates,
improve subsequent processing DRYING IN THE flights pick up material, carrying
steps by reducing the potential for COMPACTION PROCESS it over and showering it through
issues like clumping, which can be Because compaction is a dry the drying air. This maximizes heat
common with hygroscopic materi- process, typically not requiring a transfer between the material and
als, such as potash. If not dried first,binder, drying is often not needed. drying air, and offers a uniform,
materials such as these can quickly However, a drying stage is some- efficient drying solution.
clog subsequent processing equip- times added in order to improve
ment, causing processing issues, resistance to attrition. As men- It is also worth mentioning that
inefficiencies, and even problems tioned, granules formed in the cooling is sometimes desirable
with the end product. compaction process can be after drying. Cooling agglomerates
wetted and then dried, a process is useful when material will need
DRYING IN THE PELLETIZING PROCESS which serves to fill in any surface to be immediately packaged or
As a post-agglomeration step, cracks and dissolve loose edges. stored in a silo, helping to prevent
drying helps to refine the end prod- Again, when carried out in a rotary caking issues during storage.
uct. In pelletizing, drying essentially dryer, this breaks off any loose
cures the “green” (wet) pellet into edges, polishing the granules.
its final, hardened form. This is done
by removing moisture to bring the For materials that do utilize a binder
pellet down to the desired during the compaction process,
AGGLOMERATION | 86
CONSIDERATIONS IN AGGLOMERATION: COATING

Coating is a finishing process used
prolifically throughout industries
working with agglomerates to
meet a wide variety of objectives.
A surface treatment for particles,
coating can be used to enhance
specific characteristics of a pellet,
granule, or other agglomerate, be
it a mineral, chemical, or otherwise.
Coatings are frequently applied in
order to maintain product integrity,
mitigate issues such as dust and/or
attrition, or even to improve prod-
uct performance.
REASONS FOR COATING

Coatings can offer a variety of
benefits depending on the mate- A coating process is tested in a coating
drum in the Innovation Center
rial and application. The diverse
market of available coatings has
created an opportunity to meet a Coatings can be used to reduce Caking often occurs during trans-
variety of goals concerning the per- the opportunity for the creation of portation and storage, or while on
formance and handling of agglom- dust and fines by creating a barrier product shelves and can occur
erates. Some of the most common on the exterior of the granules that with many types of materials.
reasons for coating a material are helps to prevent product break-
listed below. down. A common example of this Anti-caking agents can be used as
can be seen in the fertilizer industry, a coating on granules to prevent
REDUCED DUST & ATTRITION where granules and pellets are crystalline structures from forming
Dust is not only a nuisance, but often coated with anti-dusting between agglomerates, ultimately
depending on the material, may agents to mitigate issues associated reducing caking and maintaining
be hazardous as an air pollutant. with dust. This ultimately improves the integrity of the product.
Additionally, the creation of dust handling and transportation, as
and fines can affect the bottom well as application. Similarly, various oils, waxes, clays,
line; dust can become windblown polymers, latexes, and more, can
in some applications, yielding Similarly, products that are “soft” all be used to prevent moisture
unpredictable and undesirable can benefit from coating; coating absorption. This is commonly
results, and often resulting in prod- can prevent the breakdown of seen in fertilizers such as urea,
uct loss. For these reasons, the product during transportation. KCl, ammonium sulfate, and more,
control of dust is one of the most which become very soft and have
common reasons why agglomer- MITIGATION OF CAKING the potential to cause caking if
ates are coated. & MOISTURE ABSORPTION they absorb moisture.
The undesirable clumping of parti-
Dust is an especially common issue cles, referred to as caking, is often IMPROVED FLOWABILITY
with granules that were created via a challenge when working with bulk The flowability of a product can
roll compaction, due to the jagged materials and also accounts for one sometimes be a challenge when
edges of the granules that can of the primary reasons for which working with bulk materials. Flow-
break down into fines (a phenome- agglomerates are coated. ability refers to the flow and han-
non referred to as attrition). dling properties of a material in
AGGLOMERATION | 87
bulk. This affects how material will IMPROVED PRODUCT of coatings, may be required to
move through a processing facil- PERFORMANCE achieve the desired results.
ity, including discharge from rail Coatings can also be used to influ-
cars, moving from one conveyor to ence the way a product performs. In selecting a coating(s) for a
another, from a hopper to process A coating can affect the solubility particular application, many fac-
equipment, and more. of a product, or be used to control tors need to be taken into consid-
the release properties, such as in eration. Some of the most critical
As a surface treatment, coatings the fertilizer industry. Coatings can factors to consider in coating
can help to improve the flow prop- also be used to add another ingre- selection are explained here.
erties of a material by adjusting the dient to the product formulation.
surface characteristics. Granules For example, cat litters are fre- INDUSTRY AND APPLICATION
with a rougher surface quality will quently coated with a clay material Much like binder selection, the
have a higher angle of repose to promote the clumping action industry and/or end use of a prod-
(the angle at which a material cat owners desire. uct may dictate which coating(s)
can be piled before it begins to would be most appropriate. For
slide against itself). A high angle of In other cases, “coatings” are used example, coatings that may pose
repose can cause issues in terms as the carrier themselves in order to toxicity risks to soil would not be an
of flowability. Conversely, a mate- improve product performance. This appropriate coating for a fertilizer
rial with a smooth surface quality is seen in the fertilizer industry where product, while a vegetable deriv-
will have a lower angle of repose, clay pellets are coated with mate- ative would provide an effective
meaning that it will slip against rials such as herbicides, pesticides, coating and could also possibly
itself at a lower angle. This helps to or fungicides. The clay pellets are add value to the product.
ensure that granules move more highly absorbent and can effec-
freely through bins and hoppers tively absorb the applied materials. COST
and between transfer points and The resulting pellets are similar in As with any other project
the like. size and weight to fertilizers, allow- consideration, cost is often a
ing them to be spread easily with major factor in coating selection.
Various coating types can be used the same equipment. Some coatings may offer a high
to improve the surface characteris- performance solution, but be
tics of a granule, ultimately improv- MAINTAINING too costly to be practical. This is
PRODUCT INTEGRITY
ing the flowability and handling especially a concern in industries
As has been shown, coatings can
qualities of the material. where margins are already slim.
be used to ensure product integrity
is maintained in a way that allows
ENHANCED APPEARANCE EASE OF APPLICATION
granules to arrive at their end use
Coating is also frequently used for Ease of application is also an
in the form in which they were
aesthetic purposes; a coating can important consideration. Some
intended. Maintaining the integrity
lend a smooth, shiny surface to oth- materials are easily applied and
of some products may also serve as
erwise dull granules. This can take a distributed throughout a bed of
a safety measurement. For exam-
product from average to premium, material (such as oils, waxes, some
ple, coal dust and sulfur pellets can
increasing its marketability. polymers, and latexes). The contact
be a risk of explosion; coatings can
action of rolling and tumbling be-
be used to reduce this dangerous
Coatings can also be used to color tween the pellets aids in transferring
potential.
particles. This is frequently seen in the coating uniformly across all the
the roofing industry, where granules pellets. Conversely, other coatings
COATING SELECTION
are coated in a variety of pigments might be good in theory, but are
There are many types of coatings
to create specific colors for use on challenging and costly to apply.
available, from mineral oils, clays,
asphalt shingles. This is often the case with materials
and waxes, to polymers, latexes,
such as hot melts, dyes, and acids,
and silicas, and just about every-
because the material does not
thing in between. In some cases,
readily spread on contact.
multiple coatings, or a combination
AGGLOMERATION | 88
These difficult coating materials play as well. With both types of and then fired in a rotary kiln to
may require a specially designed equipment, two factors are espe- produce the end product.
spraying system to assure uniform cially important in achieving opti-
coating distribution. mal results: the spray system and COATING: THE
the movement of the pellets. IMPORTANCE OF TESTING
THE COATING PROCESS Because there are so many vari-
Coating is typically carried out A good spray system is needed to ables (base material, coating type,
using a pug mill (paddle mixer) or effectively and uniformly distribute equipment and process variables),
coating drum, with the latter being the coating across the bed of it is often desirable to test coatings
the most common. In each case, material. Choosing the right spray to determine which type will offer
the equipment should be designed system is particularly important the best results, both in terms of
to promote a uniform coating of when working with a challenging processing and performance, as
particles. Variables such as spray coating, such as a hot melt. well as the process and equipment
location, flow rate, nozzle type, variables needed to produce the
and more can all be tailored to The bed action is also important; desired results.
achieve optimal results. the bed of pellets needs to move in
a way that maximizes exposure of Testing in a facility such as the
PUG MILLS the pellets to the coating to enable FEECO Innovation Center can help
Pug mills utilize a kneading and all pellets and all sides of the pellets to work out these variables and
folding over motion that promotes to be evenly coated. The action fine-tune the process parameters to
a homogeneous mixture of liquid of the bed and the spray system meet the unique objectives of the
and solid feed. When a pug mill is chosen will need to work seamless- project. Variables might include:
utilized, the process may sometimes ly together to obtain the desired
be referred to as conditioning. results. - Coating type and
concentration
Granules are fed into the inlet of The choice between the two types - Material and coating flow rates
the pug mill and a spray nozzle of equipment is dependent on - Nozzle type
system tailored to the coating many factors, including:
- Retention time
sprays the coating over the mate-
- Spray locations
rial. The mixing action thoroughly - Which approach will yield
coats the product. the most uniform coating - And more…
distribution
COATING DRUMS - Capacity
Coating drums are similar to - Product Degradation
agglomeration drums; a rotating - Spatial Footprint
drum imparts a tumbling action on
- Coating Tackiness
the bed of granules. As the drum
- And more…
rotates, a spray system affixed to
the interior of the drum sprays the
tumbling bed with the desired CURING
coating material. Coatings are typically applied in
a very thin layer and often do not
PUG MILL OR require an additional drying step.
COATING DRUM? However, some coatings may
The choice between which type require a “curing” step, in which
of equipment will suit the needs the coated agglomerates are pro-
of a particular project is a com- cessed in a rotary kiln to essentially
monly faced choice. While testing bake on the coating. This is seen in
is integral in determining the best the roofing industry where granules
approach, other factors come into are coated with a coloring agent
AGGLOMERATION |89
Project Profile:
Coating Drum for Ammonium Sulfate
FEECO supplied a coating drum for producing a fertilizer granule fused with Customer:
ammonium sulfate and sulfur bentonite. Proprietary
Equipment Supplied:
Seed pellets are fed into the drum on the inlet end. Lifters inside the drum pick
Coating Drum
up and drop the seed pellets onto a stationary sloped pan. The seed pellets roll
down the pan and as they drop off the edge, a curtain of material is created, Project Location:
onto which a molten solution is sprayed. Alberta, Canada
Through the use of the FEECO flight simulator in the FEECO Innovation Center, in Industry:
Fertilizer
combination with customer-gathered data, FEECO designed custom lifting flights
that would allow the drum to discharge material completely onto the pan. Material:
Ammonium Sulfate and
Sulfur Bentonite
Project Engineer:
AGGLOMERATION | 90
CONSIDERATIONS IN AGGLOMERATION: SIZE REDUCTION

Agglomeration processes often Employing a recycle loop aids in Hammer mills are flexible and can
rely on the ability to break down minimizing product lost because be used in a variety of applica-
over-size material, in order to it was not on-size, making sure as tions. Because of their heavy-duty
reach ideal particle size distribution much product is produced as construction and high capacity
for feedstock, or to put over-size possible. processing capabilities, hammer
product back into the process as mills are most commonly utilized in
recycle. In order to break down Some processes require a certain mineral agglomeration and fertilizer
over-size product, size reduction amount of recycle in order to production applications.
equipment is employed. And while provide a process buffer, should
there are a variety of size reduction any upsets in the process occur. In a typical pelletizing process
equipment types available, one Having recycle on-hand to put into where the hammer mill is used in
option—the hammer mill—offers a the process can mean the differ- the breakdown of over-size pellets,
reliable size reduction tool for many ence between reliable, continued the hammer mill is placed after
applications. production of the desired product, screening in the process flow. In
or downtime and product lost. In certain low-energy impact situa-
Sometimes referred to as crushers, these cases, hammer mills are a key tions where the hammer mill is
hammer mills provide an efficient component to operational success, intended to break down raw
solution for breaking down over-size helping to continuously reduce material to reach ideal particle size
granular materials at a high rate particle size and provide a distribution, the hammer mill would
of production, without the use of a reliable source of recycle. simply be placed at the beginning
grinding action. They are particular- of the process.
ly robust and adept at processing PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
demanding materials. Oftentimes, in order to achieve WHY A FEECO HAMMER MILL?
the desired end product charac- FEECO hammer mills are robust and
PARTICLE SIZE REDUCTION: teristics, a range in particle size built for reliable processing in a high
WHY IT’S IMPORTANT distribution is desirable. This range in capacity setting; with a heavy steel
Particle size reduction is most often particle sizes helps to create a more housing, over-sized bearings and
desirable for one of two reasons: to cohesive pellet or granule, because specially hardened chain hammers,
provide recycle for the process, or smaller particles will fill in the spaces they are built for longevity, despite
to provide the necessary particle between larger ones. A feedstock rigorous processing conditions. In
size distribution to create a product with too large a particle size would addition to their heavy-duty build,
with the desired characteristics. result in a weak pellet, due to the FEECO hammer mills feature a re-
increased amount of void space movable quarter panel for easy ac-
RECYCLE between particles in the final pellet. cess and simplified maintenance,
After pellets have gone through In this case, particle size reduction a removable screen, as well as a
the process loop, they are typical- provides the feedstock with the non-clogging design; ample clear-
ly screened by size, where on-size smaller particle size needed to cre- ance within the machine helps to
product is separated out to move ate a pellet of optimum strength. aid the flow of material, preventing
on to packaging or shipping, and buildup and subsequent downtime.
under- and over-size pellets go HOW HAMMER MILLS WORK
back into the process, so they can FEECO hammer mills utilize a central
be processed into on-size pellets, rotating shaft, fitted with several
a process referred to as “recycle.” “hammers” affixed to pivots on the
Here, under-size pellets typically shaft. As the shaft spins, the ham-
go right back to the start of the mers are swung via rotational ener-
process loop, while over-size pellets gy, causing them to collide with the
must be broken down prior to material, breaking it up into smaller
re-entering the process. particles.
AGGLOMERATION | 91
SIZE REDUCTION EQUIPMENT: HAMMER MILLS

Heavy-duty
Casing/Housing
Material
Drive Guard
Inlet
Drive Motor
Roller Bearing
Removable Structural Steel

Screen/Basket Mounting Base
Hammer & Chain Hardened

Shaft Assembly Hammers
Heavy-duty
Chain Link Shaft
FEATURES ADVANTAGES
- Heavy-duty design & construction - Specifically Designed – For breaking over-size granular materials
efficiently and at high rates of production.
- Removable top quarter panel of
steel plate construction - Cracking Action – No grinding – Full stream of over-size is directed into
rotating chains without pulverizing action. Two sets of chain/bar links
- Baffle plate are utilized in order to effectively reduce dry and semi-moist materials
with minimal caking, plastering, and fines creation.
- Pre-drilled mounting base with
chain/bar links consisting of two - Non-Clogging Design – Ample clearance throughout helps flow of
links, 3/4” coil chain, and solid material, helping to prevent buildup and production downtime.
steel bar attachment—all case
hardened - Easy Access – Quarter section of housing can be removed by taking
out only eight bolts, providing easy accessibility.
- Drive assembly consisting of a
motor, motor slide base with - Simplified Maintenance – All component parts can be easily removed
mounting bolts, bushings, sheaves, and replaced.
and V-belts
- Durable Construction – Heavy-duty steel housing, over-sized bearings,
- Removable Screen and specially hardened chain hammers provide dependability.
- Removable Screen – Helps to control the particle size distribution of the

material that exits the machine.
AGGLOMERATION | 92
HAMMER MILL MODELS

FEECO offers three separate models in different sizes. The three models are robust and built for increasingly
demanding jobs. Like all of our equipment, our hammer mills are also highly customizable to suit exacting speci-
fications. FEECO hammer mills efficiently convert over-size agglomerates into the desired recycle range. Double
rotor designs are also available.
MODEL 27-6 MODEL 45-6 MODEL 69-6
CAPACITY | 5 - 15 TPH CAPACITY | 9 - 24 TPH CAPACITY | 14 - 40 TPH
CHAIN LINKS | 27 sets CHAIN LINKS | 45 sets CHAIN LINKS | 69 sets

of chain/bar links of chain/bar links of chain/bar links
HORSEPOWER | 15 - 25 HP HORSEPOWER | 15 - 30 HP HORSEPOWER | 30 - 50 HP

(11 - 18.5 kW) (11 - 22 kW) (22 - 37 kW)
AGGLOMERATION | 93
Project Profile:
Hammer Mill for Manure Granules
As part of the supply of a complete manure granulation plant, FEECO supplied Customer:
a Model 45-6 hammer mill (in addition to the necessary granulation, drying, and Proprietary
handling equipment).
Equipment Supplied:
Hammer Mill as part of a
The hammer mill served to crush dried, over-sized granules to be reintroduced to
complete granulation system
the process as recycle. The Model 45-6 hammer mill is a heavy-duty mill designed
with 45 sets of chain/bar links to efficiently break down tough materials in a high- Project Location:
capacity setting. USA
Industry:
The hammer mill utilizes a cracking action to avoid pulverizing or grinding of
Agriculture
material, promoting a breakdown of over-size granules with minimal fines and
caking or plastering. Material:
Manure
Project Engineer:
THERMAL PROCESSING
THERMAL PROCESSING | 95
THERMAL PROCESSING: DRYING
FEECO Rotary Dryer
When it comes to processing bulk solids, the term thermal processing is an umbrella term used across industries
to cover a wide range of processes and equipment.
From drying and cooling to high-temperature applications such as roasting, calcining, and sintering, the
thermal treatment of bulk solids can be used to execute a wealth of objectives.
The field of industrial drying has been around for centuries, even if rudimentary at first; drying began with only
the wind and sun as its tools, but as civilization demanded faster drying methods, people began to use these
tools in a more controlled manner to maximize the drying process. Soon, basic ovens were tasked with drying
goods and materials, and as industrial needs continued to expand, so too did drying technologies.1
Today, advanced drying systems allow us to produce materials and products at unprecedented speeds.
Industrial drying systems continue to become more advanced, further increasing efficiency and effectiveness
of the drying process.
When it comes to drying bulk solids, rotary dryers are often the industrial drying equipment of choice. For over a
century, their robust build, reliability, and tolerance for variation in feedstock has made them an ideal choice
for efficiently drying bulk solids of nearly all types.
The flexibility of rotary dryers has allowed them to expand into nearly every industry, from food and specialty
chemicals, to minerals, fertilizers, and nearly everything in between.
1. R. B. Keey. Drying: Principles and Practice. Oxford, 1972. Print.

HOW ROTARY DRYERS WORK

Rotary dryers use a tumbling action mechanical components, and combustion chamber is important
in combination with a drying air in add-ons, among other items. to the quality of the product, and
order to efficiently dry materials. the energy consumed to get to
Most often, rotary dryers are of The diagram on pages 98-99 the end product. When a low-
the direct type, meaning that the shows some of the basic standard quality combustion chamber is
drying air is in direct contact with components found on a rotary used, many problems can result,
the material. Some dryers, however, dryer. from inefficiency, to product
are of the indirect type, whereby breakdown, and in some cases, a
the dryer is heated externally, to SHELL short combustion chamber lifespan.
avoid direct contact between the The shell of a rotary dryer can be
material and the drying air. made from a variety of materials, BURNER
including carbon steel, stainless The burner is the engine behind
Rotary dryers are comprised of steel, hastelloy, Inconel, and a any dryer, determining the output
a rotating drum, into which the variety of other alloys. The shell of BTUs/Watts. Burners can be
material is fed, in combination may also be customized in different designed for a multitude of fuel
with the drying air. Flights, or lifters, ways, depending on the needs of sources, including natural gas,
pick up the material from the bed, the material and the process. For propane, diesel, and more.
carrying it over, and dropping it example, shell thickness can be
through the air stream to maximize adjusted for situations where heat Choosing the appropriate burner
heat transfer between the material retention inside the dryer is of the specifications is essential for proper
and drying air. utmost importance. The shell may and efficient drying of the material.
also be insulated in order to aid FEECO can design burners to meet
Material is processed for a specified in retaining heat. Manufacturing a wide variety of process needs.
amount of time (referred to as techniques are vital on the shell;
the retention time) at the desired the shell needs to run true and RAW MATERIAL FEED
temperature, in order to produce a concentric in order to work proper- The raw material feed area is where
product with the required moisture ly. A poorly manufactured drum will feedstock is fed into the system,
content. promote wear on all components typically by a feed screw or chute.
and reduce equipment efficiency. The feed chute is specifically
While rotary dryers are available designed to be robust, resistant to
in standardized models, designing THE COMBUSTION CHAMBER wear, and to reduce material
a rotary dryer around the unique The combustion chamber houses buildup.
characteristics of the material and the actual combustion reaction
process needs will produce the best and directs the air flow of the AIR SEAL
results and offer the most reliability. rotary dryer. Combustion chambers Where the combustion chamber
Various aspects of the dryer are can be integrated into either and discharge breeching meet
considered during initial design in co-current (air flow in direction of the drum, a seal is needed to
order to reach the exact desired material flow) or counter current connect the stationary component
parameters of the end product. dryers. The goal is to keep the to the rotating drum and prevent
material from coming into direct exchange between the internal
ROTARY DRYER contact with the burner flame. A and external atmosphere. Many
CONSTRUCTION variety of combustion chambers different seal options exist, again,
While FEECO rotary dryers are are available, with customizations depending on the needs of the
custom designed around the including single or double shell, material being processed. See
material to be processed, the refractory lined, and angled. page 186 for more information.
basis of a rotary dryer is somewhat Combustion chambers can also
standard, with customizations accommodate a wide variety
coming in terms of sizing, materials, of burners. Finding a quality
DRIVE ASSEMBLY
The drive assembly is the mechanism that facilitates
the rotation of the drum. Several options are available
here: a chain and sprocket, gear and pinion, friction
drive, or direct drive setup. A chain and sprocket setup
is ideal for smaller rotary drums running up to 75
horsepower (55kW).
Gear and pinion drive assemblies are reserved for

more heavy-duty applications running above 75
Installation of trunnion bases for a rotary dryer
horsepower (55kW). A reducer decreases the speed
of the motor for higher torque applications with both
drive assembly types. up material, carry it over, and shower it through the
air stream as the drum rotates, promoting efficient
Friction drive assemblies are used for very small drums heat transfer. Both flight design and flight pattern are
with low horsepower, typically drums around 6’ (1.8m) customizable.
and under. In this setup, two of the four trunnion
wheels are connected by one shaft and driven by a ADVANCING FLIGHTS
shaft-mounted reducer and motor arrangement. Advancing flights help to advance material into the
drum, in order to prevent buildup near the wet feed
The direct drive setup is used for small- to medium-size discharge. Incorporating advancing flights into a
drums with motor sizes up to 75 horsepower (55kW). rotary dryer also gives material a chance to dry before
The design consists of a shaft mounted to a solid dis- it reaches the next flights, which can help prevent
charge end plate at the outlet of the dryer. The motor potential sticking issues.
and reducer are either directly connected to this shaft
with a coupling, or a shaft mount arrangement. Drive DISCHARGE BREECHING
assembly options are discussed in greater detail on The discharge breeching is where two main functions
page 43. occur: product exits the dryer, moving on to screen-
ing, cooling, storage, or shipping, and the exhaust gas
RIDING RING system removes off-gases from the system. Exhaust
Riding rings add structural support for the drum and gas systems provide a place for spent gases and hot
serve as a place for pressure to be absorbed. The riding air (and small particulates) to exit the system. This then
ring rides on the support roller. typically goes to a cyclone, scrubber, or baghouse
to remove contaminants before exhaust gas is dis-
charged into the atmosphere.
THRUST ROLLERS
Thrust rollers push on the riding ring to stop the drum COMMON ADD-ONS
from drifting, or moving horizontally.
KNOCKING SYSTEMS
TRUNNION WHEELS Knocking systems help to prevent buildup within the
The trunnion wheels act as the cradle for the rotating dryer by “knocking off” material as the drum rotates.
drum shell. They ensure smooth and concentric ro- Various options are available for knocking systems. For
tation during operation. The wheels are mounted to more information, see page 184.
steel support bases with sealed roller bearings. Support
rollers bear the weight of the drum.
FLIGHTS
Available in several designs, material lifters, or
flights, help to maximize efficiency of heat transfer
between the material and the drying air. Flights pick
Combustion Raw Material Feed Chute:
Chamber The dryer feed chute is offset to maximize the
area where the hot gases enter the dryer.
Riding Ring/Tire
Burner
Riding Ring
Graphite Block
Lubrication
Assembly
Thrust Roller
Assembly
Trunnion
Wheel
Drive Assembly: FEECO’s unique

CLOSE-UP: unitized base is a single base for
all drive components, which are
DRUM BASE laser aligned at the factory for
Trunnion Guard easy adjustment of gear back-
Pillow Block lash. For more information, see
Bearing Appendix A (Pg. 188).
DIRECT ROTARY DRYERS

Direct rotary dryers are the most common choice of equipment for drying bulk solids. These robust industrial
dryers offer heavy-duty construction, efficient processing, and uniform results, even when working with variance
in feedstock. When used with agglomerates, rotary dryers have the added benefit of polishing—further round-
ing pellets and refining rough edges.
Direct dryers rely on direct contact between the material and drying air. This direct contact, combined with the
use of lifting flights, maximizes the heat transfer between the material and drying air, offering a highly efficient
processing solution.
While all FEECO dryers are custom engineered around the material to be processed and the unique processing
goals, the base design of a direct unit can be somewhat standard. The 3D illustration above shows the build of
a basic rotary dryer.
To Exhaust Handling
System
Gear/Sprocket Flights: Internal flights

Guard maximize the
air-to-material
contact.
Discharge Breeching:
Designed to minimize
dust carryover to the
cyclone
ACCOMMODATES
VARIOUS FUEL TYPES
- Fuel Oil
- Natural Gas/Propane
Coupling Girth Product Discharge
Guarding Gear - Waste Heat
Pinion - Biogas
Gear Gear
Reducer
CLOSE-UP:
DRIVE ASSEMBLY
CAPACITY | 1 TPH - 200 TPH+ OPTIONAL COMPONENTS MATERIAL OPTIONS

(1 MTPH - 181 MTPH+) - Various Seal Options - Carbon Steel
- Knocking Systems - Stainless Steel
DIAMETER | 3’ - 15’ (1 - 4.6m) - Trommel Screen - Specialty Alloys
- Liners - Explosion Bonded
FEATURES - Machined Bases - AR Steel
- Specially designed lifting flights - Screw Conveyor Feeder
- Heavy-duty design and construction - Automatic Gear Lubrication System DRIVE OPTIONS
- Process and mechanical warranties - Exhaust Handling Equipment - Chain & Sprocket
- Co-current or counter current design - Various Burner Configurations - Girth & Pinion Gear
- Ductwork - Friction Drive
- Direct Drive at
discharge end
Exhaust Vent(s)
Gear/Sprocket
Guard
Inlet Breeching
Gas and Air

Piping
INDIRECT ROTARY DRYERS

When direct drying is not an option, FEECO offers state-of-the-art indirect dryers to suit your drying needs.
Indirect dryers are similar in design to direct dryers, but instead of using direct contact between the material
and drying air to reduce moisture, the heating medium is kept separate from the material to avoid contact
between the two.
The drum shell is heated externally and fitted within a heat shroud. The material is dried through contact with
the shell of the drum.
Indirect dryers offer three major distinctions when compared to direct rotary dryers:
1. When processing fine materials, an indirect dryer avoids the risk of entrainment. When processing in a
direct dryer, fine materials can become entrained in the drying air and carried out to the baghouse. An
indirect dryer avoids this issue because there is minimal drying air moving through the drum.
2. Less exhaust air treatment is required; because no drying air is moving through the drum, and the
furnace exhaust is kept separate, significantly less exhaust air treatment is required.
3. Processing in an indirect dryer allows temperatures to be adjusted along the length of the drum,
providing precise process control.
Furnace
Riding
Ring
Spring/Leaf Seal
Seal Mounting Flange
Seal Wear Surface
Discharge
Breeching
ACCOMMODATES
VARIOUS FUEL TYPES
- Fuel Oil
- Natural Gas/Propane
- Electricity
- Waste Heat
Burners - Biogas
CAPACITY | 1 TPH - 200 TPH+ OPTIONAL COMPONENTS MATERIAL OPTIONS

(1 MTPH - 181 MTPH+) - Various Seal Options - Carbon Steel
- Trommel Screen - Stainless Steel
DIAMETER | 3’ - 15’ (1 - 4.6m) - Liners - Specialty Alloys
- Machined Bases - Explosion Bonded
- Screw Conveyor Feeder - AR Steel
FEATURES - Automatic Gear Lubrication System
- Heavy-duty design and construction - Exhaust Handling Equipment DRIVE OPTIONS
- Process and mechanical warranties - Various Burner Configurations - Chain & Sprocket
- Ductwork - Girth & Pinion Gear
- Friction Drive
- Direct Drive at
discharge end
DIRECT VS. INDIRECT DRYING

Direct dryers are used more Exhaust Gas/Furnace Exhaust
frequently than their indirect coun-
terparts, because of the efficiency
they offer. And while direct rotary
dryers are most often the select-
ed drying method, indirect rotary
dryers are a valuable alternative for
specific processing requirements.
OPERATION Sweep Air

While both types of dryers are com-
prised of a rotating drum in which
the processing occurs, these two
types of dryers utilize very different
methods to process the material.
Furnace Shroud
Direct dryers rely on direct contact
between the material and drying
air to efficiently dry materials. Effi- Diagram: The diagram above illustrates the air flow in an indirect rotary dryer.
ciency is further increased by the
addition of lifting flights affixed to
the internal walls of the dryer.
dust particles from inside the INDUSTRIAL USE/
Conversely, indirect dryers do
dryer, to the exhaust system at the APPLICATIONS
discharge breeching. This process Direct rotary dryers account for
not utilize direct contact with the
ensures that the material is being most of the bulk solids drying appli-
drying air to reduce the material’s
dried to the required moisture cations, and are used throughout
moisture content. In fact, this is the
percentage. a multitude of industries, includ-
precise advantage of an indirect
rotary dryer; indirect drying allows ing agriculture, mining, specialty
Furthermore, because the furnace chemicals, and more. They offer
you to tightly control the processing
exhaust is kept separate from the heavy-duty processing and consis-
environment—an ideal characteris-
drying air, indirect dryers have the tent reliability.
tic when working with materials
added benefit of requiring less exit
that can be combustible in
gas treatment. This exit gas can be Indirect rotary dryers are better
certain settings.
used to pre-heat the combustion suited for niche applications, and
air and increase burner efficiency. are ideal for processing dusty, fine
Indirect dryers rely on the heat
transferred through the drum’s shell materials, or materials that cannot
to dry the material via conduction
MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION be exposed to drying air during
Unlike their direct counterparts, processing. This is commonly seen
and radiation. Subsequently, indi-
which are typically constructed with highly combustible materials,
rect dryers would not benefit from
of carbon steel, indirect rotary organics such as grains and pulps,
the addition of lifting flights, and
dryers are constructed using a and fine materials such as pigments.
instead utilize tumbling flights, which
high-temperature alloy, in order to
aid in material rotation and help to
maintain the integrity of the drum,
ensure process consistency.
despite the constant exposure to
high temperatures that the shell
Indirect rotary dryers also require
must endure.
an internal flow, referred to as
sweep air. Sweep air carries the
evaporated moisture, along with
SIZING & DESIGN

The process of sizing a rotary dry- BULK DENSITY different amounts of energy to
er is one of precise engineering, The bulk density of a material will reach the desired level of moisture.
involving complex calculations and also figure in to the equation for
meticulous design. While the pro- sizing a rotary dryer. Typically, this MATERIAL LIMITATIONS
cess is not well simplified into a few is calculated in pounds per cubic Materials are often accompanied
paragraphs, an explanation can foot (or kg/m3 in metric units), and by limitations that will steer the
be offered as to some of the refers to the weight of a material design process in one direction
concepts behind the process per a specific volume. For example, or another. Such is the case with
of rotary dryer sizing. a material with a high bulk density, materials that have the potential
such as metal ore, will require for combustion in certain settings, or
Many of the calculations behind significantly more energy per cubic when a material requires absolute
sizing a dryer are based upon the foot than a material with a low sterility. In unique cases such as
characteristics of the material to bulk density, such as paper fluff. these, a direct rotary dryer would
be processed. The combination How much energy is needed per not be an option, so an indirect
of characteristics such as moisture cubic foot will in part determine dryer would be used instead. The
content, bulk density, specific heat, how hard the dryer will have to need for sterility can also dictate
and heat transfer properties help work, and subsequently, will dictate the material of construction used
predict how the material will be- the load on bearings, gear train, for the shell of the dryer. Other
have in the dryer, and subsequent- trunnion wheels, and the motor. This examples of material limitations
ly, how best to address the needs will determine the sizing of these that can affect the design
of that material through design and components to ensure they are fit process include:
construction. These characteristics to withstand the operational load.
will not only help to determine the Fragility: Some materials may be
sizing of the actual drum itself, but SPECIFIC HEAT too fragile to withstand lifting flights
also the operational mechanics of The specific heat of a material at the inlet of the dryer. Here, a
the dryer as well. also works into the sizing equation. “bald” section (a section where
Specific heat is defined as how flights are not used) would allow
CHARACTERISTICS THAT much energy it takes to raise one the material a chance to harden
AFFECT ROTARY DRYER gram of material by one degree before gradually being introduced
DESIGN Celsius. In other words, it refers to the dropping action.
to how resistant a material is to
RAW MATERIAL MOISTURE heating. Put simply, the specific Consistency: Sludge-like materials,
Because the primary job of a rotary heat of a material will help to figure or other sticky materials, have the
dryer is to dry the material, the first out how much energy is needed potential to stick to the shell of the
material characteristic to look at to cause the desired change in dryer. The material then continues
is the percentage of moisture the temperature for that material. to stick and dry, until it becomes
material holds in its raw state, as dry and poses a potential risk of
well as the desired moisture per- HEAT TRANSFER PROPERTIES fire. Materials like these will require
centage of the output, commonly The heat transfer properties of a extra attention to ensure efficient
referred to as the inlet and outlet material will also have an impact drying.
moisture, respectively. The differ- on dryer sizing and design. While
ence between actual and desired some materials carry their moisture Use: Some materials, particularly
percent moisture sets the stage for on the surface, other materials those that will be used by consum-
what the rotary dryer will need to carry moisture on the inside of the ers, must remain sterile, and drying
accomplish and how hard it will material, making it more difficult with an air stream would not be an
have to work to reach the end to dry. So while two materials may option. Again, in situations such as
product goal. have the same percentage of these, an indirect dryer would be
moisture, they can require very the drying method of choice.
PROCESSING ENVIRONMENT
In addition to material character-
istics, the processing environment
can also have an effect on dryer
design and sizing. Things such as
humidity, elevation, and tempera-
ture can all change how a dryer
will perform and how much energy
will be required to produce the
desired results.
FLIGHT DESIGN
The flight design inside the rotary
dryer is also engineered around the
material’s unique characteristics.
The objective with flight design is to
create the ideal “curtain” of ma- Diagram: The diagram above illustrates how flights create the curtain in a rotary dryer to
maximize heat transfer.
terial. The curtain refers to the span
of material created as the material
drying process. The selection of ture, such as glass. These materials
is dropped from the flights, through
which air flow configuration will require immediate heat to efficient-
the drying air. Ideally, the curtain
best suit the process is based on ly dry the material, while minimizing
will span the width of the interior of
the material’s properties, as well as the opportunity for overheating.
the drum, evenly falling from one
overall process requirements. Even
side to the other. The optimal
though the material characteristics COUNTER CURRENT DRYING
curtain is created through design-
are ultimately the deciding factor, Counter current drying occurs when
ing the flights and flight pattern
it is important to understand how the drying air flows in the opposite
around material characteristics
each air flow option is designed to direction of the material flow. In
such as angle of repose, flowabili-
fully understand the benefits each this design, the wettest material
ty, and more. As mentioned, both
has to offer. comes in contact with the coolest
flight design and flight pattern can
drying air. Unlike the co-current
be customized to maximize
CO-CURRENT DRYING system, the material will come in
processing efficiency.
Co-current drying is also referred to contact with the hottest drying
as parallel flow, and occurs when air at the discharge end of the
AIR FLOW
the drying air flows in the same dryer, at its most dehydrated state.
Another critical factor in designing
direction as the material flow. This Because of this, the counter current
a rotary dryer that produces the
puts the wettest material in contact method provides increased thermal
desired end product characteristics
with the hottest drying air, resulting efficiency for materials that need
is the air flow configuration, or the
in quick initial drying. This system to be heated to high temperatures.
direction in which the drying air
also causes rapid cooling of the For example, some mineral and
flows through the dryer in relation
drying air, which results in a cooler ore processing applications require
to the material.
surface temperature of the dryer the material to be heated up to
shell compared to a counter cur- several hundred degrees. A counter
Direct rotary dryers are available in
rent dryer. Furthermore, this design current system is also beneficial
two types of air flow configurations:
makes it much easier to control the for materials that retain moisture
co-current and counter current.
temperature of the dried material, internally and require higher heat
Both options have been developed
because it correlates directly with and a longer drying cycle to draw
through extensive research and
the air temperature. Co-current out the moisture.
development in order to maximize
dryers work best with materials that
the thermal efficiency of the rotary
have high external surface mois-
COUNTER CURRENT ROTARY DRYER
CO-CURRENT ROTARY DRYER
Both air flow configurations have at a higher rate to accommodate the facility could be used; or, in
their unique and varying benefits heating of the ambient air, which the case of an indirect dryer, the
for drying. Understanding how increases the amount of combustion heated furnace exhaust air could
each air flow system works is only fuel needed and decreases burner be recirculated into the combus-
one of the many steps in designing efficiency. tion process since the air does not
the most efficient rotary dryer for come into contact with any of the
the job. One option to reduce the con- material being dried.
sumption of combustion fuel, is to
A Note on Pre-Heating Combus- use waste heat to pre-heat the Recycling heated air from a direct
tion Air with Waste Heat: Rotary combustion air. The ambient air dryer is less desirable, because
dryer burners require combustion is introduced to the waste heat the exhaust air leaving the dryer is
air, dilution air, and a fuel source system before traveling to the dryer contaminated with dust particles
(natural gas, propane, fuel oil, etc.) (usually with an air-to-air or steam- that would need to be filtered
for proper combustion. In most to-air heat exchanger), raising the before entering back into the
cases, this combustion air source temperature significantly, which in combustion process. The filtering
comes from a blower that is forc- turn, lowers the amount of com- process (e.g., wet scrubber system,
ing ambient air into the burner. This bustion fuel needed for the desired baghouse, etc.) may drop the
air is usually substantially lower in dryer temperature. This waste heat temperature of the recycled air to
temperature than the process air can come from a couple of differ- a point where it would no longer
temperature inside the rotary dryer. ent sources. For example, leftover be beneficial for pre-heating.
As a result, the burner needs to fire steam from another process in
Both lifting (left) and advancing flights (right)

can be seen in this rotary dryer
RETENTION TIME ferent coefficients of surface heat Though highly simplified, the
Retention time is also an important diffusion. Because these variables concepts here offer a basic
consideration during dryer design. are somewhat interdependent and explanation for some of the theo-
This is the duration of time that difficult to measure or predict, the ries behind the design and sizing
a material will need to remain in selection of rotary dryers cannot be of a rotary dryer, and demonstrate
the dryer in order to achieve the calculated, although some engi- the importance that material char-
desired characteristics. Retention neering analysis is required acteristics hold in the sizing process.
time is determined through looking for proper size. Sizing a rotary dryer often means
at the specific heat, heat transfer finding the balance between how
properties, and moisture content of DRUM DIAMETER SELECTION a material will behave in the dry-
the material, and can be controlled Diameter of the drum is generally er, the needed capacity, and the
through a combination of many selected on the basis of velocity desired end product.
factors, including dryer length, of air flow. The velocity of air flow
drum slope, dam plates, and more. needs to be determined so minimal FEECO encourages that each
A material that requires a lengthy dust is carried over to the exhaust material go through a research
retention time, for example, may gas handling equipment. A larger and development process at our
require a longer dryer, where a pro- diameter yields lower velocities with on-site, concept testing facility, The
cess with a high throughput may less carryover, as well as increased Innovation Center. The information
require a dryer that is larger drying volume, but practical limits of gained through our proven testing
in diameter. diameter are generally established procedures allows us to design the
by price, space limitations, and most efficient and beneficial drying
DRYER SIZING consideration of particle breakage system for the requirements of a
In order to select a dryer with prop- and attrition when falling in large given application.
er diameter x length, the total mois- diameter drums.
ture load to be evaporated must
first be determined. Total moisture DRYER LENGTH SELECTION
is related to such items as amount Because of the variables
of recycle, water added for proper mentioned, and such individual
granulation, amount of chemical considerations as flighting pattern,
heat (available and utilized), final rotational speed, efficiency of seals,
moisture desired, ambient tem- and retention time, length must
perature and humidity. In addition, generally be related to diameter.
different materials have different
specific heat values and vastly dif-
COMBUSTION CHAMBERS
COMBUSTION
CHAMBERS
Refractory Steel Shell
Burner
Multiple Air Inlets
Burner Flame
(totally contained inside chamber)
Combustion chambers are the end product. When a low- LESS COOLING CAPACITY REQUIRED
employed when it is important to quality combustion chamber is Lower temperature of product
keep material from coming into used, many problems can result, leaving dryer results from no direct
direct contact with the burner from inefficiency, to product firing on product
flame in either rotary dryers or kilns. breakdown, and in some cases, a
The combustion chamber serves short combustion chamber lifespan. CUSTOM DESIGNED
to house the actual combustion Custom designed for optimum
reaction, and directs the airflow ADVANTAGES OF A FEECO drying efficiency based on the
into the rotary dryer or kiln. COMBUSTION CHAMBER specific conditions and application
Combustion chambers can be LOWER DRYING COST HIGH QUALITY

integrated into either co-current Less fuel consumption because of Materials of construction are of the
or counter current units. A variety more complete combustion of fuel highest quality and workmanship—
of combustion chambers are made for many years of service
available, with customizations UNIFORM DRYING
including single or double shell, More complete and uniform
refractory lined, and angled. heating of drying air increases its
Combustion chambers can also capacity to pick up and retain
accommodate a wide variety moisture
of burners.
AVOIDS PRODUCT BREAKDOWN
Finding a quality combustion With no direct flame impingement
chamber is important to the on product, critical breakdown
quality of the product and the temperature is not reached
energy consumed to get to
ROTARY DRYER OR FLUID BED DRYER?

When it comes to buying an Conversely, fluid bed dryers have bed dryers are smaller, and have
industrial dryer, people are often a very tight window when it comes the advantage of being modular,
faced with the decision to choose to variability in feedstock, requiring allowing them to be added on to,
between a rotary dryer and a fluid as much uniformity in particle size and making them ideal for situa-
bed dryer. Historically, rotary dryers distribution and moisture content tions where there is a likelihood for
have been used for more industrial as possible. Where a rotary dryer operational growth.
applications, such as minerals, fer- will just keep running with little to no
tilizers, and aggregates, while fluid process upset, variability in feed- OPERATIONAL
bed dryers have been used in the stock with a fluid bed dryer has the CONSIDERATIONS
pharmaceutical, specialty chemi- potential to leave an operation at Rotary dryers require significantly
cal, and food industries. a standstill; feedstock with lumps or less supervision than their fluid bed
inconsistencies in moisture content counterparts. Rotary dryers are
Despite some industry preferences, can cause serious problems when largely unaffected by fluctuations
the drying capabilities of these two processed in a fluid bed dryer. in feedstock and other processing
industrial dryers have allowed for conditions, such as reduced feed,
a significant amount of overlap in Additionally, rotary dryers are better or lapses in energy. They offer a
applications, and subsequently, suited for heavy-duty processing consistently reliable solution in set-
confusion for which dryer is ulti- loads, such as those found in the tings where inconsistencies in feed-
mately the best choice for a mining industry; because it takes stock and instabilities in processing
given application. significant energy to fluidize large or are to be expected.
heavy materials, it is not practical
Though the choice between a rota- to process these types of materials Fluid bed dryers are much less
ry and fluid bed dryer can be main a fluid bed dryer. Fluid bed dryers suited for these types of situations,
terial or industry specific, ultimately, are best reserved for applications requiring a consistent processing
each dryer has its own advantages processing lighter-duty materials. environment. Variations in feed-
and disadvantages. With compara- stock, or power outages can cause
ble capital costs, the decision often Materials that must not suffer deg- major problems when working with
comes down to customer prefer- radation are better served in a fluid a fluid bed dryer.
ence and what will best suit the bed dryer. Rotary dryers often result
processing conditions, with a few in some, albeit little, degradation to ENERGY CONSUMPTION
considerations to keep in mind. material, because of the fact that The choice between a rotary dryer
the material is being picked up and or fluid bed dryer is also a matter of
MATERIAL CONSIDERATIONS dropped. This is not an issue with all energy. Fluid bed dryers work by
Rotary dryers have been called the materials, but can be an issue fluidizing the material, which
“workhorse” of the industrial drying with some. requires a high magnitude of air.
industry, due to their heavy-duty Additionally, because it takes a
construction, their high capacity Rotary dryers do offer the advan- certain amount of energy to fluidize
capabilities, and most of all, their tage of “polishing” granules; a material, energy is not reduced
ability to tolerate variance in feed- because of the rolling action on when running at lower capacities.
stock. Because of this, rotary dryers the bed of material, loose edges As mentioned, because material is
are better suited for heavy-duty are knocked off and granules are fluidized, it is not always practical to
materials where a lot of variety in further rounded, or “polished.” run high-volume, heavy materials
feedstock is a given, such as in the through a fluid bed dryer, because
case of various minerals. Rotary SPATIAL FOOTPRINT of the extra energy required to
dryers are known for their ability Rotary dryers are typically larger fluidize the material.
to take what is given, big or small, than fluid bed dryers, and there-
wet or dry, lumpy or uniform, and fore require a larger spatial foot- Rotary dryers require less energy to
produce a quality product. print in the processing plant. Fluid dry material, and unlike fluid bed
FEECO Rotary Dryer at a frac

sand processing plant
dryers, energy consumption is reduced when running at decreased capacities. In terms of thermal efficiency,
the two dryers are comparable.
MAINTENANCE & LIFESPAN

In terms of maintenance and lifespan, rotary dryers and fluid bed dryers are comparable.
TABLE: COMPARING ROTARY DRYERS & FLUID BED DRYERS

The chart below summarizes some of the most important considerations to examine when choosing between a
rotary and fluid bed dryer.
ROTARY DRYER FLUID BED DRYER

Electrical Energy Consumption Requires less energy Requires more energy
Thermal Efficiency Comparable
Capital Costs Comparable
Spatial Footprint Large footprint Small footprint
Modular design allows for easy operational
growth
Maintenance Comparable
Feedstock Variance Insensitive to variance Highly sensitive to variance
Industry Minerals Pharmaceuticals
Fertilizers Specialty Chemicals
Raw Materials Foodstuffs
Project Profile:
Limestone Rotary Dryer
Drying is often a vital step in the initial stages of limestone processing. Limestone Customer:
dryers, or rotary dryers, are utilized when subsequent manufacturing steps require
a reduction in moisture in order to precondition the material. Calcium Products
sought a rotary dryer for that very purpose.
Equipment Supplied:
The dryer, 7’ x 50’ (2.1 x 15.2m) in size, was used to reduce the limestone’s - Rotary Dryer
moisture before grinding and pelletizing. We have worked with Calcium Products
- Dust Collector/Baghouse
on a variety of additional projects throughout the years.
Project Location:
Gilmore City, IA, USA
Industry:
Agriculture
Material:
Limestone
Project Engineer:
Project Profile:
DAP & MAP Rotary Dryer
FEECO provided this 12’ x 90’ (3.7 x 27.4m) rotary drum dryer for use in the Customer:
production of Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) and Monoammonium Phosphate Proprietary
(MAP).
Equipment Supplied:
Rotary Drum Dryer
The rotary dryer removes moisture from the granular product in order to cure
it into its final form. The use of a rotary dryer has the added advantage of Project Location:
“polishing” the granules—further rounding them as they tumble through the Proprietary
rotating drum.
Industry:
Fertilizer
Material:
Diammonium Phosphate (DAP)
& Monoammonium Phosphate (MAP)
Project Engineer:
Project Profile:
Bedding Recovery from Manure
Like many large-scale farms, Matsche Farms, a near 5,000-head dairy farm, had Customer:
made the switch from more traditional types of bedding to recycled manure Matsche Farms
solids (coarse fiber).
Equipment Supplied:
5 1/2’ x 30’ (1.7 x 9.1m) Rotary Dryer
Recycled manure solids are recovered after manure is flushed or scraped from
the barns. However, before the material can be used as a bedding, it must be Project Location:
sterilized to reduce bacteria and pathogens. Birnamwood, WI, USA
While the farm had a composting setup in place, they found they still needed to Industry:
Agriculture/Dairy
add lime to the bedding in order to sterilize it thoroughly. In short, they needed a
better solution, and for this, they turned to FEECO. Material:
Recycled Manure Solids/
Through testing in the FEECO Innovation Center, we were able to confirm the Dried Manure Solids
feasibility of sterilizing the farm’s bedding through drying. Once testing was
Project Engineer:
complete, we used the data gathered during testing to engineer a custom
rotary dryer.
The rotary dryer dries the recycled manure solids in order to reduce the moisture
content of the material, as well as reduce the bacteria and pathogen content
down to a safe level. The result is a dried manure solids (DMS) product that can
be effectively used as bedding.
Project Profile:
Potash Rotary Dryers
FEECO continues to be a preferred provider of rotary dryers for the potash mining Customer:
and processing industry. Multiple, Proprietary
Equipment Supplied:
FEECO potash dryers are designed with the unique characteristics of potash in
17 Rotary Dryers designed and built since 2007
mind to produce an optimal drying solution built for years of reliable service.
Project Location:
As the drum rotates, flights scoop up the potash and drop it through a heated Canada, USA
air stream to maximize heat transfer efficiency. A co-current air flow is utilized to
maintain the integrity of the product, while avoiding issues such as discoloration Industry:
Mining; Processing
or attrition.
Material:
Potash
Project Engineer:
Project Profile:
Frac Sand Dryer
As a leading supplier of robust thermal processing equipment, FEECO was Customer:

tasked with engineering a custom replacement rotary dryer for Badger Mining Badger Mining Corporation
Corporation’s frac sand processing plant.
Equipment Supplied:
The co-current (parallel flow) dryer takes mined sand and reduces the moisture 8’-6” (2.6m) Dia. x 50’ (15.2m) Long
Rotary Dryer
content to the desired amount through an optimized, efficient dryer design.
Project Location:
Wisconsin, USA
The dryer included an additional 5’ (1.5m) shell length (for a total of 55’ (16.8m) in
length) to incorporate flame-cut openings for supporting an externally mounted Industry:
wire mesh trommel screen. The trommel screen aids in assuring that only material Mining
of proper particle size distribution moves on to storage/transport.
Material:
Frac Sand
The discharge breeching also utilized an oversize design to reduce dust load
to the scrubber or baghouse. The carbon steel-constructed hood included an Project Engineer:
access door and sight window. FEECO International, Inc.
Additionally, the dryer included forward kicker flights at the inlet and high
efficiency flights throughout the remainder of the drum to maximize heat transfer
efficiency and ensure an optimal drying solution.
Project Profile:
Rotary Dryer for Ammonium Sulfate
Custom ducting connector
As the preferred provider for fertilizer production equipment, FEECO was Customer:
commissioned to engineer and manufacture a custom, stainless steel rotary dryer Proprietary
with combustion chamber for use in the production of Ammonium Sulfate (AS).
Equipment Supplied:
Rotary Dryer with Combustion Chamber
The 8’ (2.4m) diameter x 40’ (12.2m) long dryer included flights (material lifters)
and was designed to provide optimum drying efficiency and offer a reliable, Project Location:
long-term industrial drying solution in a demanding setting. Virginia, USA
This project presented a challenge in terms of limited available space for the Industry:
Fertilizer
dryer; FEECO had to engineer a system that would fit perfectly into the allotted
space, while still providing maximum drying impact. Material:
Ammonium Sulfate
As a result of the space limitations, the combustion chamber for the dryer was
located on a different floor. FEECO engineered a custom duct (shown above left) Project Engineer:
to connect the dryer and combustion chamber. FEECO International, Inc.
The specially designed, stainless steel combustion chamber prevents the burner
flame from coming into direct contact with the product, avoiding product
breakdown, providing uniform drying, and lowering the overall drying cost due to
a more complete combustion of the fuel.
THERMAL PROCESSING: COOLING
A FEECO Rotary Cooler is prepared for shipment
When working with bulk solids, cooling is often a process requirement for many materials. Cooling, which
typically occurs after a material has exited a rotary dryer or kiln, serves to bring down the temperature of a
material so that it can move on to subsequent handling, packaging, or storage.
Cooling can lend many benefits to a product and process; it helps to reduce caking during storage, protects
downstream equipment from hot material, and can also create a more resilient pellet product.
Much like dryers, rotary coolers have become a staple in industrial processes requiring a reliable, high
throughput cooling system.
Rotary coolers operate very similarly to their drying counterparts, with the only difference being the use of
chilled or ambient air over combustion gases.
While most rotary coolers are of the direct configuration, some specialty applications may call for the use of
an indirect cooling option. In this setting, an indirect water deluge cooler would be employed. Indirect water
deluge coolers consist of a rotating drum through which the solids tumble. The exterior of the drum is bathed in
chilled water, causing the surface temperature to reduce, and cooling the material through contact with the
shell. Since there is no air flow moving through the cooler, flights are not necessary, though a bed disturber may
be desirable in some settings to ensure proper and even heat transfer throughout the material bed.
TABLE: TYPICAL ROTARY DRYER & COOLER DATA

The chart below illustrates common rotary dryer and cooler data points. Please note that all FEECO equipment
is custom engineered around the project at hand, and this data is only a general representation.
STANDARD METRIC
DIAMETER LENGTH CAPACITY DIAMETER LENGTH CAPACITY HEAT SOURCE DRIVE SPROCKET
HP kW
(Ft.) (Ft.) (STPH)* (m) (m) (MTPH)* (Dryer only) OR GEAR
3’ 20-30 8 7 1/2 0.9 6-9 7 5.5 Gas or Oil Sprocket
4’ 20-30 20 10-15 1.2 6-9 18 7.5-11 Gas or Oil Sprocket
5’ 20-40 30 15-25 1.5 6-12 27 11.0-18.5 Gas or Oil Sprocket
6’ 30-50 45 25-40 1.8 9-15 41 18.5-30 Gas or Oil Sprocket
7’ 40-60 60 50-60 2.1 12-18 55 37-45 Gas or Oil Sprocket
10’ 50-80 125 100-200 3.0 15-24 114 75-150 Gas or Oil Gear
11’ 60-90 150 150-250 3.4 18-27 136 110-150 Gas or Oil Gear
12’ 60-90 180 200-300 3.6 18-27 164 150-220 Gas or Oil Gear
13' 70-100 210 250-350 4.0 21-31 191 185-260 Gas or Oil Gear
14' 70-100 250 300-400 4.3 21-31 227 225-300 Gas or Oil Gear
*Varies with materials to be dried. Capacity based on 60#/Cu. Ft. granular fertilizer materials having up to 10% moisture removal.
Installation of a FEECO Rotary Dryer

Flights: Internal flights

maximize the
air-to-material
contact. Riding Ring
Material
Discharge
Breeching
Graphite Block
Lubrication Trunnion
Assembly Wheel
Riding Ring
Thrust Roller
Assembly
Trunnion Guard
Pillow Block CLOSE-UP:
Bearing DRUM BASE
Product Discharge
DIRECT ROTARY COOLERS

Similar to direct dryers, direct rotary coolers are the most common choice of equipment for cooling bulk solids.
Heavy-duty construction, efficient processing, and uniform results are all benefits of working with a direct cooler.
Direct coolers rely on direct contact between the material and cooling air. This direct contact, combined with
the use of lifting flights, maximizes the heat transfer between the material and processing medium, offering a
highly efficient cooling solution. The feed end can be lined in order to protect from incoming hot materials.
While all FEECO coolers are custom engineered around the material to be processed and the unique process-
ing goals, the base of a direct unit can be somewhat standard. The 3D illustration above shows the build of a
basic rotary cooler.
Discharge Air
Raw Material Feed Chute
Gear/Sprocket
Guard
Coupling Girth
Guarding Gear
Pinion
Gear Gear
Reducer
CLOSE-UP:
DRIVE ASSEMBLY
Drive Assembly: FEECO’s unique

unitized base is a single base for
all drive components, which are
laser aligned at the factory for
easy adjustment of gear back-
lash. For more information, see
Appendix A (Pg. 188).
CAPACITY | 1 TPH - 50 TPH OPTIONAL COMPONENTS MATERIAL OPTIONS

(1 MTPH - 45 MTPH) - Various Seal Options - Carbon Steel
Maximum capacity is - Trommel - Stainless Steel
dependent on process
variables unique to each - Liners - Specialty Alloys
application
- Machined Bases - Explosion Bonded
- Screw Conveyor Feeder - AR Steel
DIAMETER | 3’ - 15’ (1 - 4.6m)
- Automatic Gear Lubrication System
DRIVE OPTIONS
- Exhaust Handling Equipment
FEATURES - Chain & Sprocket
- Ductwork
- Specially designed lifting flights - Girth & Pinion Gear
- Heavy-duty design and construction - Friction Drive
- Process and mechanical warranties - Direct Drive at
- Counter current design discharge end
Project Profile:
Rotary Cooler for DDGS
As a pioneer in the agriculture industry with a global reputation for custom Customer:
thermal processing equipment, United Wisconsin Grain Producers sought out United Wisconsin Grain Producers
FEECO to engineer a custom rotary cooler for processing their dried distiller’s
grains (DDGS). Equipment Supplied:
9’ (2.7m) Dia. x 50’ (15.2m) Long Rotary Cooler
DDGS is a by-product of ethanol production that holds nutritional value and can
Project Location:
be used in livestock feed. Upon drying, it is desirable to cool DDGS in order to Wisconsin, USA
avoid product caking during storage or transport, as well as to reduce potential
for mold or mildew. Industry:
Agriculture
FEECO engineered a custom rotary cooler for the task of cooling the DDGS. The
Material:
cooler was of a counter current air flow configuration to maximize heat transfer
Dried Distiller’s Grains (DDGS)
and provide optimal cooling efficiency. Flights, or lifters, affixed to the interior
of the drum, lift material and drop it through the chilled air stream to maximize Project Engineer:
contact between the material and chilled air. FEECO International, Inc.
While the counter current air flow provides many benefits, including improved
product quality, lower discharge temperature, lower operating costs, reduced
cooling air requirement, and decreased issues associated with storage, the main
benefit is that it reduces dryer energy requirements. Through evaporative cooling,
the rotary cooler can further reduce the moisture content of the material, essentially
providing “free” drying energy—nominal 2% moisture removal is common.
The cooler provided UWGP with a reliable, low-maintenance cooling solution that
produced a high quality, stable DDGS and reduced overall energy requirements.
INDIRECT ROTARY COOLERS

Indirect coolers, or indirect water deluge coolers, are a specialized type of industrial cooler used in applications
where the processing environment must be tightly controlled, or when the material to be processed risks
entrainment in a direct processing configuration.
This is commonly seen with fine or lightweight materials that could be picked up and carried out in the
presence of an air stream. Similarly, materials that may oxidize or burn in the presence of a cooling air must be
carefully processed in a controlled environment in order to avoid such issues.
Water Trough Cooler Feed
Product
Discharge
Water Collection
System
From Cooling
Water Supply
Cooler Feed
To Cooling Return Product Discharge

The diagram above illustrates the

FEECO Indirect Water Deluge Cooler cross-sectional view of an indirect cooler
with a water bath.
HOW IT WORKS
Unlike their direct counterparts, indirect water deluge coolers avoid contact between the cooling medium and
the material being processed. Instead, material is tumbled through a sealed rotating drum, which is externally
bathed in cool water. The water cools the exterior of the drum, which in turn cools the material within.
A water collection system collects the used water and passes it through a heat exchanger to re-cool it if
needed. It is then recirculated to the trough above the drum for reuse in the bathing process.
Indirect water deluge coolers are typically constructed of stainless steel in order to protect the drum from the
constant exposure to water, which can result in corrosion. Specialty alloys can be employed at the inlet of the
drum to accommodate materials that are coming in at especially high temperatures.
ROTARY KILNS
HOW ROTARY KILNS WORK

Rotary kilns are an advanced prompting many questions and The diagram shown on pages 126-
thermal processing tool used the need for further research and 127 illustrates some of the common
for processing solid materials at development. standard components found on a
extremely high temperatures basic direct-fired kiln. A diagram of
to cause a chemical reaction Rotary kilns are used to heat solids an indirect-fired kiln can be seen on
or physical change. They are to the point where a chemical pages 128-129.
commonly used to carry out reaction or physical change takes
processes such as: place. They work by holding the DRIVE ASSEMBLY
material to be processed at a The drive assembly is the compo-
- Calcination specified temperature for a precise nent that causes the kiln to rotate.
- Heat Setting amount of time. Temperatures and A variety of drive assembly ar-
- Organic Combustion retention times are determined rangements are available: chain
- Sintering/Induration through creating temperature and sprocket, gear drive, friction
profiles, based on thorough drive, and direct drive assembly.
- Thermal Desorption
chemical and thermal analyses Unlike most other rotary kiln compo-
- And more…
of the material. nents, there is not a need for further
While rotary kilns were originally customization in terms of the me-
developed for use in the cement A rotary kiln is comprised of a chanical components of the drum;
industry, due to their flexibility, they rotating cylinder, sized specifically the need for one drive type over
can now be found throughout to meet the temperature and another is based on drum diameter
a variety of industries, aiding in retention time requirements of the and the amount of horsepower.
processing commodities, as well as material to be processed. The kiln
in highly specialized applications. is set at a slight angle, in order to Chain & Sprocket: A chain and
Some of the most common kiln allow gravity to assist in moving sprocket arrangement works much
applications in use today include: material through the rotating like a bicycle; there is a large
cylinder. sprocket wrapping around the
- Activated carbon production & rotary drum with a chain on it that
re-activation Rotary kilns can either be of the goes to the reducer and motor.
- Biochar production direct-fired type, or the indirect- The spinning motor turns a gear
- Catalyst activation fired type (sometimes referred to box, which spins a small sprocket
as a calciner). In a direct-fired kiln, that is attached by the chain
- Ceramics processing
a process gas is fed through the to the large sprocket wrapping
- Desorption of soil contaminants
drum, processing the material via around the rotary drum. Chain and
- Gypsum and bauxite calcining direct contact. In an indirect-fired sprocket drive setups are reserved
- Mineral roasting kiln, material is processed in an for small rotary kilns running up to
- Plastics processing inert environment, and is heated 75 horsepower (55kW). This type
- Proppant sintering through contact with the shell of arrangement is not suitable
- Upgrading of phosphate ores of the kiln, which is heated from for larger kilns running above 75
the outside to maintain an inert horsepower, but is ideal for smaller
- Waste incineration
environment. jobs, as it is cost-effective and easy
- Waste lime recovery
to run.
Rotary kilns have become the ROTARY KILN CONSTRUCTION
backbone of many new industrial Gear Drive: The gear drive is best
While FEECO rotary kilns are custom
processes that make the world for heavy-duty applications running
designed around the material to
a more efficient and sustainable above 75 horsepower (55kW). Simi-
be processed, in general, there are
place. As new applications lar to the chain and sprocket drive,
some standard components that
continue to be developed, much instead of a sprocket wrapped
serve as the basis of a rotary kiln.
experimental work is being done, around the girth of the drum, this
drive has an actual gear around DISCHARGE BREECHING Burners can be designed to
the drum. This gear meshes with The discharge breeching serves accommodate a variety of
a small gear drive, which rotates two purposes: to provide a place fuel sources, from natural gas,
it. This type of drive is more costly, for product to exit the kiln, and to to propane, diesel, and other
but operates and wears better in mount the kiln burner in a common fuel sources. They can
heavy-duty applications. counter current system. also allow for flame shaping, which
sets the temperature profile within
Friction Drive: Friction drive PRODUCT DISCHARGE the length of the kiln for higher
assemblies are reserved for The product discharge area is temperature operations.
small applications requiring low where product exits the kiln, moving
horsepower. This is commonly seen on to cooling or subsequent pro- RAW MATERIAL FEED
with drums around 6’ (1.8m) and cessing if needed. The raw material feed is where
under. With a friction drive, two feedstock enters the drum. This is
of the four trunnion wheels are EXHAUST GAS SYSTEM typically carried out using a feed
connected by one shaft and driven The exhaust gas system is typically screw or chute and is often made
by a shaft-mounted reducer and much larger when working with a from a more heat-resistant alloy.
motor arrangement. direct-fired kiln. Here, exhaust gases This area must be designed to be
(both products of combustion and robust and to lessen the opportunity
Direct Drive: Direct drive assemblies any loss on ignition from the mate- for buildup to occur.
are used in small to medium sized rial) and small particulates exit the
drums, with motors up to 75 horse- system and typically go through AIR SEAL
power (55kW). In this design, a shaft exhaust gas treatment to remove The seal connects the stationary
is mounted to a solid discharge contaminants before being dis- breeching to the rotating drum
end plate at the outlet of the kiln. charged into the environment. The and helps to prevent the escape
The motor and reducer are either exhaust gas system on a kiln often of process gas from the system,
directly connected to this shaft requires an afterburner and heat as well as preventing air from
with a coupling, or a shaft mount exchanger/quench tower to cool leaking in. Holding the appropriate
arrangement. Drive assemblies are the gases before they enter either temperature within a rotary kiln is
discussed further on page 43. a scrubber and/or bag filter (bag- what allows the desired chemical
house), or electrostatic precipitator. reaction to occur. Sustaining
RIDING RINGS that temperature, however, can
The riding rings provide a surface REFRACTORY be difficult if the right seal is not
for the kiln load to be distributed. Refractory serves the purpose chosen. Various seal options exist.
They also provide strength for shell of insulating and protecting the For more information on choosing
ovality and integrity. shell of the drum from the high the right seal, see page 186.
temperatures within, and also
THRUST ROLLERS serves to minimize heat loss. Many SHELL
Thrust rollers prevent the drum from types of refractory are available, Direct-fired kilns are typically made
drifting or moving horizontally by and refractory layers can be out of carbon steel (with refractory
pushing against the riding rings. customized to suit the unique lining). Indirect-fired kilns must be
application. Refractory is more resistant to high temperatures,
TRUNNION WHEELS discussed further on page 137. and are therefore made out of a
The trunnion wheels act as the cra- more heat-resistant alloy.
dle for the rotating drum shell. They BURNER
ensure smooth and concentric ro- The burner of a rotary kiln supplies
tation during operation. The wheels the energy required by the process.
are mounted to steel support bases Instead of utilizing a combustion
with sealed roller bearings. Support chamber, typically the burner on a
rollers bear the weight of the drum. kiln is mounted on the discharge/
inlet end housing.
Riding Ring
Discharge
Breeching Refractory
Lining
Burner
Trunnion Base
Discharge Chute
Shown: Counter current rotary kiln.

Co-current configurations are also
available.
DIRECT-FIRED KILNS
Direct-fired rotary kilns offer efficient processing for high temperature applications. A direct-fired rotary kiln heats
material by passing the combustion gases through the rotary kiln. The combustion can either occur in a com-
bustion chamber if direct flame radiation is to be avoided, or the flame can be directed down the length of
the rotary kiln.
Direct-fired rotary kilns can operate in either the co-current mode, where combustion gases and solids move in
the same direction, or in the counter current mode, where the gases and solids move in opposition to
each other.
While all FEECO kilns are custom engineered around the material to be processed and the unique processing
goals of the customer, the base of a direct-fired unit uses standard components. The 3D illustration above shows
a basic rotary kiln.
Counter Current
Exhaust System
Inlet Chute
Gear/Sprocket
Guard
Inlet Breeching
Leaf Seal
CLOSE-UP:
Drive Motor DRIVE ASSEMBLY
Girth Sprocket Drive Chain

CLOSE-UP:
TRUNNION BASE
Pinion/Drive Sprocket
Gear Reducer Pillow Block Bearing
Drum Shell Riding Ring
Graphite Block
Thrust Roller Lubrication Assembly
Assembly
Trunnion Wheel
Pillow Block Trunnion Guard
Bearing
CAPACITY | 1 TPH - 200 TPH+ OPTIONAL COMPONENTS FUEL TYPES

(1 MTPH - 181 MTPH+) - Various Seal Options - Fuel Oil
- Machined Bases - Natural Gas/Propane
SIZE | Up to 15’ dia. x 100’+ long - Screw Conveyor Feeder - Waste Heat
(Up to 4.6m dia. x 30.5m+ long) - Automatic Gear Lubrication System - Biogas
- Exhaust Gas Handling Equipment
- Ductwork
FEATURES DRIVE OPTIONS
- Various Burner Configurations
- Optimized refractory linings - Chain & Sprocket
- Components for increasing
- Engineered shell to eliminate distortion efficiency (flights, dams, bed - Girth & Pinion Gear
and misalignment due to high disturbers, etc.) - Friction Drive
operating temperatures
Furnace Exhaust Vent(s)
Kiln Exhaust Gear/Sprocket

Guard
Inlet Breeching
Gas and Air

Piping
INDIRECT-FIRED KILNS
While direct-fired kilns offer an efficient processing option, this method of processing is not always appropriate.
Numerous applications exist where an indirect-fired kiln can provide more effective processing.
An indirect-fired kiln is enclosed in a furnace, which is then heated externally (as shown in the diagram above).
This avoids contact between the combustion gases and the material to be processed. Indirect kilns offer three
major advantages over their direct-fired counterparts:
1. When processing in a direct-fired kiln, fine materials can become entrained in the gas and carried
out to the baghouse. An indirect kiln avoids this issue, because there is minimal air moving through
the drum.
2. Smaller exhaust gas treatment equipment is required, because the heating medium is kept separate.
3. The processing environment can be more tightly controlled. Processing in an indirect-fired kiln allows
temperatures to be adjusted along the length of the drum, providing precise temperature control.
Additionally, because there is no contact with the combustion gases, the internal processing
environment can be kept inert.
Furnace
Riding
Ring
Spring/Leaf Seal
Seal Mounting Flange
Seal Wear Surface
Discharge
Breeching
Burners
CAPACITY | 200 LB/HR - 20 TPH OPTIONAL COMPONENTS MATERIAL OPTIONS

(91kg/hr - 18 MTPH) - Various Seal Options - Carbon Steel
- Machined Bases - Stainless Steel
SIZE | Up to 15’ dia. x 75’+ heated - Screw Conveyor Feeder - Specialty Alloys
length (up to 4.6m dia. x 23m+ - Automatic Gear Lubrication System - Cladded Steel
heated length)
- Ductwork - AR Steel
- Components for increasing
efficiency (flights, dams, bed
FEATURES disturbers, etc.) FUEL TYPES
- Heat-resistant alloy shell - Internal Bed Temperature - Fuel Oil
- Engineered shell to eliminate distortion Measurement - Natural Gas/Propane
and misalignment due to high
- Electricity
operating temperatures
- Waste Heat
- Separate zones for temperature control
- Biogas
- Integrated cooling zone can be added
DIRECT VS. INDIRECT

When designing a thermal pro- - Limestone gases can carry particles
cessing operation, confusion often - Minerals through form drag. The degree of
results on whether a direct-fired or - Proppants entrainment depends on a variety
indirect-fired kiln is the better of factors, such as gas velocity,
- Specialty Ceramics and Clays
option. And while there can be gas density, particle density, and
some overlap in applications, in shape. Due to entrainment poten-
INDIRECT-FIRED KILNS
general, each type of kiln is better tial, direct-fired rotary kilns process-
Conversely, indirect-fired kilns
suited for different processes. Below ing fine materials require the design
can process material in an inert
is a brief overview on these two to be centered on permissible gas
environment, where the material
types of kilns. velocities as opposed to heat trans-
never comes into contact with the
fer requirements. Examples of fine
process gas. Here, the kiln is heated
materials commonly processed in
DIRECT-FIRED KILNS from the outside, using a heat
an indirect-fired kiln include:
As mentioned, direct-fired rotary shroud, and the material is heated
kilns rely on direct contact between via contact with the hot kiln shell.
- Activated Carbon
the process gas and the material While this method is significantly less
- Biochar
in order to heat the material to the efficient than a direct-fired kiln, it is
specified temperature. Direct-fired - Carbon Black
necessary in some processes that
kilns can be either of the co-current require a more tightly controlled - Chemical Precipitates
design, or counter current design, environment. This might include - Filter Cakes
referring to the direction that the instances where an undesirable - Finely Ground Solids
process gas flows through the drum oxide compound will form in
in relation to the material. Air flow is the presence of oxygen at high Because the heat is being trans-
discussed further on page 139. temperatures. Similarly, some ferred through the shell, an indirect
materials may form an undesirable rotary kiln is not lined, in order to
Direct-fired rotary kilns are most compound with nitrogen at high maximize the heat transfer through
often the equipment of choice in temperatures. In situations such the shell. Therefore, an indirect
thermal processing, because they as these, the use of an indirect- rotary kiln is usually made out of a
are more efficient than their indi- fired kiln provides the necessary temperature-resistant alloy, instead
rect counterparts. There can be inert environment for effective of carbon steel.
disadvantages to a direct-fired kiln, processing.
however. For example, because a While direct-fired kilns offer
process gas is used to treat the Indirect kilns also allow for precise maximum efficiency, they are
material, direct-fired kilns subse- temperature control along the not always appropriate for the
quently produce more off-gases length of the kiln. This is advanta- intended process. In settings such
that will require treatment. geous in settings where a mate- as these, an indirect-fired kiln
rial will need to be brought up to would offer the best processing
Additionally, some materials must temperature and held there for a solution. In some process situations,
be processed in an inert environ- specific amount of time as it moves a combination of a direct and
ment, so as not to be exposed to through the kiln. indirect rotary kiln is required; the
oxygen or nitrogen. In applications direct-fired rotary kiln is used to
such as this, a direct-fired kiln would Indirect-fired rotary kilns can also be burn off the organic fraction of the
not be an option. Materials that are beneficial when the material to be material being processed, while
commonly processed in a processed consists of finely-divided further polishing of the resultant ash
direct-fired kiln include: solids. In a direct-fired rotary kiln, material is conducted in a specialty
the heat source is hot gas (products indirect kiln.
- Cement of combustion and air), which flows
- Iron Ore with an inherent velocity. These
ROTARY KILN PROCESSES

Because rotary kilns simply serve
as a vessel to cause a chemical
reaction or physical change, there
are many types of processes that
they can be used for. Below is an
overview of some of the processes
that are commonly carried out in a
rotary kiln and how they work.
CALCINATION
The calcination process requires
heating a material to a high
temperature with the intent of Proppants produced in a kiln in the Innovation Center
chemical dissociation (chemical
separation). Calcination is
commonly used in the creation heat for desorption, without the another, less heat-resistant coating
of inorganic materials. One of material coming into direct contact material. Much like other coating
the most common examples of with the flame. processes, there is a core material
this process is the dissociation of and a coating material (usually
calcium carbonate to create ORGANIC mixed with a binding agent). The
calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. COMBUSTION difference between this process
Organic combustion is the thermal and a non-heated coating process
The calcination process can also treatment of organic waste with is that a rotary kiln heats the coat-
be used in the removal of bound the intent of reducing mass and ing material to just below its lique-
moisture, such as that which is volume. This is commonly seen in faction point. At this heated state,
chemically attached in Borax. waste treatment plants to reduce the material can coat the heat-re-
the volume of waste for depositing sistant core evenly and, since this is
THERMAL DESORPTION in landfills. Direct-fired rotary kilns a chemical phase change, more
Thermal desorption uses heat to are the most common style for this securely, than a traditional coating
drive off a volatile component, application, because air is required process. A common application
such as a pesticide, that has mixed to combust the organics. of this process can be found in the
with an inorganic mineral like sand. manufacturing of roofing granules,
It is important to remember that SINTERING/INDURATION where a mineral such as granite is
this is not incineration, which may Sintering is the process of heating coated with a colored pigment,
produce harmful pollutants and the raw materials to a point just producing a durable and aestheti-
would require a more extreme before melting. The objective cally pleasing granule.
exhaust treatment system; instead, of this process is to use the high
it is a separation process that uses internal temperature of the rotary REDUCTION ROASTING
the different reaction tempera- kiln to increase the strength of the Reduction roasting is the removal
tures of absorbent minerals and material. The most common use of oxygen from a component of
chemicals. The organic chemical of this process is in the creation of an ore usually by using carbon
(e.g., pesticide) is vaporized at the manufactured proppants, where monoxide (CO). An example of
increased temperature, causing the sand or ceramic material needs this is the reduction roasting of a
a separation without combustion. to have high strength. hematite-containing material to
An indirect rotary kiln is best for this produce magnetite that can be
application, because the volatile HEAT SETTING magnetically separated.
chemicals may be combustible. This is a process of bonding a
The indirect kiln would supply the heat-resistant core mineral with
SIZING & DESIGN

Every material is different in terms ABRASIVENESS & CORROSIVENESS THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
of how it will behave in the kiln and While the abrasiveness or Similar to specific heat, the ther-
at what temperatures different corrosiveness of a material mal conductivity of a material
reactions will occur. When designing may not have a direct effect also plays a part in the design of a
a process around a rotary kiln, as on the sizing aspects of the kiln, rotary kiln. How a material transfers
well as in the design of the kiln itself, it does influence the materials of heat will have a direct effect on
the material must undergo thorough construction. Working with abrasive how the material behaves in the
chemical and thermal analyses. or corrosive materials may require rotary kiln: will it transfer its heat
Various material characteristics will parts, or all, of the kiln to be lined easily, causing even heat distribu-
play a part in how the material will or constructed with a corrosion/ tion and low retention time, or will
perform in the kiln, and subsequently, abrasion-resistant refractory. it hold onto its heat, causing cold
how the kiln will need to be designed pockets of material, longer reten-
around the material to accomplish SPECIFIC HEAT tion time, and possibly the need for
the process goal. For example, The specific heat of a material additional accessories like dams or
will the material melt, vaporize, or is another central factor in the bed disturbers?
combust at certain temperatures? design of a rotary kiln. Specific
Much of this data can be gathered heat is how resistant a material is TEMPERATURE PROFILES
through testing (discussed on to heating. By definition, it is how A Thermal Gravimetric Analysis,
page 14). much energy (i.e. calories) it takes or TGA, can be performed on a
to raise 1 gram of material by 1 material to determine changes in
The following provides an overview degree Celsius. Some materials, mass as a function of temperature.
of some of the common material such as water, have a very high A TGA describes the temperature
characteristics that can influence the specific heat, meaning it takes ranges at which mass loss occurs.
design of a rotary kiln. a significant amount of energy This is critical in determining the
to raise the temperature. Other required temperature profile in a
CHARACTERISTICS THAT materials, such as metals, have a kiln. As an example, free water
AFFECT ROTARY KILN DESIGN much lower specific heat, meaning will show primary removal at
it takes much less energy to cause around 212º F, where tightly bound
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION a change in temperature. chemical water may show a mass
& BULK DENSITY loss upwards of 500º F.
The particle size distribution and bulk HEAT OF REACTION
density of a material will influence In many kiln applications, heat is A TGA also helps to show where
the sizing of some kiln components. required in order for a reaction a reaction begins and ends, as
For example, a material with a high to occur. For example, in the often, the curve on a TGA starts at
bulk density will likely require more calcination of limestone to lime, a specific temperature, but does
horsepower, and therefore a more energy is required to dissociate not complete until a much higher
robust drive system. Additionally, CaCO3 into CaO and CO2. In temperature. Overall, a TGA helps
a material that has been agglom- addition to energy, an elevated determine the temperature profiles
erated into pellets (or has a larger temperature is required for most that will be required in a rotary kiln
particle size distribution) will not reactions to occur; the dissociation by showing at what temperature
require as large of a kiln diameter of limestone will not happen at a reactions are occurring.
as fines would. This is because when temperature below 900° C.
processing fines, a lower air velocity Additionally, while the intent of
must be used to minimize entrain- The temperature and energy a process may be to convert a
ment. When processing pellets, how- required for a reaction can be material in a specific way, a TGA
ever, a higher air velocity can be found in published data or by will reveal reactions that might
utilized, and therefore, the kiln does running a DTA test (described on occur between the start and end
not need to be as large. page 133). point, helping to indicate where
40 0
20
0
-1
-20
-40
-2
-60
PERCENT WEIGHT CHANGE

-80
DELTA T (Microvolts)
-100 -3
-120
-140 Sample 2 -4
Initial Weight (g) = 0.3163
-160 Cold to Cold Weight Change = -4.43
Sample 3
-180 Initial Weight (g) = 0.2698
Cold to Cold Weight Change = -6.04 -5
-200
N DTA H-C 01 2
-220
N DTA H-C 02 3
-240 N TGA H-C 01 2 -6
N TGA H-C 02 3
-260
-280 -7
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
TEMPERATURE ºC
Diagram: TGA and DTA Analyses for Two Samples
unpredicted reactions may occur. creating more heat than was put SIZING
into the rotary kiln. In cases such as After the material has been
A Differential Scanning Calorimeter these, the rotary kiln will need to be thermally and chemically analyzed,
(DSC) or Differential Thermal designed to withstand those excess sizing can begin. Sizing is a complex
Analysis (DTA) is also useful at this amounts of heat. In other cases, process not easily explained in brief;
stage, as it shows the amount materials may need a particular the process of sizing a rotary kiln
of heat required to perform the chemical atmosphere for a reaction is one that combines engineering
reactions and to heat the material to occur—for example, an atmo- principles with the thermal and
to the final temperature. sphere devoid of oxygen, or rich in chemical analyses, along with
carbon dioxide. Still another reason experience, to design a kiln that
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION to understand the chemical make- meets its intended processing goal.
Knowing the chemical composition up of a material, and how those The size of a rotary kiln is not only
of a material is a valuable asset chemicals react together at certain a function of capacity, but also
in rotary kiln design for several rea- temperatures, is to predict what ex- of the amount of heat that can
sons. One important reason is that haust gases will be generated and be generated inside the rotary
many materials will combust inside subsequently, what type of exhaust kiln from the volatizing and/or
the rotary kiln at high temperatures, gas treatment will be necessary. combustion of the material.
43.93% 25ºC to 110ºC

(3.261 mg) In Air
90.4425
88.53% 25ºC to 545ºC
(6.572 mg)
70.4425
Weight (%)
50.4425
30.4425
91.23% 25ºC to 1000ºC
(6.772 mg)
10.4425
-9.5575
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 9001 000
TEMPERATURE ºC Universal V3.1E TA Instruments
Diagram: TGA Analysis for a Sample
The diameter and length of the rotary kiln are calculated based on the maximum feed rate, the required
retention time, and what the bed profile (how full of material the rotary kiln is) will need to look like. In the FEECO
design process, once we have engineered a rough design of the rotary kiln, we use several computer programs
to help predict and model how the material will behave in the rotary kiln we have designed. We review the
combined analyses, and if our design does not meet the appropriate criteria, we adjust accordingly.
Once we have our preliminary rotary kiln size, we can start to think about the details of the rotary kiln internals,
such as if there will be a need for a dam, or what type of refractory will best suit the process.
FEECO encourages that each material go through a research and development process at our on-site, concept
testing facility. The information gained through FEECO’s proven testing procedures allows us to design the most
efficient and beneficial thermal processing system for a given material's requirements. Testing is discussed further
in the Innovation Center section (begins on page 8).
INCREASING EFFICIENCY THROUGH CUSTOMIZATION

Rotary kilns are extremely custom- air is warmest (at the discharge end possible. For this reason, when pro-
izable, and can be configured to in a counter current kiln). Internal cessing material in an indirect-fired
fit nearly any process needs. There dams can also be used if a dis- kiln, it is often desirable to employ
are various ways to customize a kiln charge end dam is not sufficient. a bed disturber. Bed disturbers
in order to attain the most efficient are also commonly used in a di-
processing possible. Below are FLIGHTS rect-fired kiln for the same reason;
some of the common customiza- Flights are most commonly seen in the bed disturber helps to prevent
tions used to maximize the perfor- rotary dryers. They are, however, the bed from sliding, as well as
mance of a rotary kiln. sometimes utilized in low tempera- promotes more uniform heating.
ture kilns in order to shower the
DAMS material and increase heat A bed disturber, often custom
For various reasons, it is often desir- transfer efficiency. designed to create maximum,
able to increase retention time or material-specific efficiency, is
bed depth in the rotary kiln. This is BED DISTURBERS essentially anything affixed to the
done by adding what is called a Indirect rotary kilns create heat inside of the rotary kiln that helps
“dam.” A dam in a rotary kiln works transfer by conduction through the to mix the bed of material. Ideal-
much like a dam in a river; material shell of the rotary kiln, rather than ly, the bed should tumble, turning
builds up behind the dam, forcing by means of contact with a process over and minimizing dead spots, or
retention time and bed depth to gas. Because all of this heat trans- temperature variations within the
increase. Material then spills over fer is occurring through the shell, it bed. Unfortunately, not all mate-
the dam, and discharges from the is essential that the bed rolls rather rials tumble well, which results in a
rotary kiln. Since most kilns utilize a than slides in order to expose fresh slipping bed with poor mixing and
counter current air flow, end dams material, allowing for even heat large temperature variation. Bed
are the most commonly used (see distribution throughout the bed of disturbers can be attached to the
illustration below). End dams effi- material. This will assure that the interior of the rotary kiln in order to
ciently hold the material where the transfer of heat is as efficient as disturb the bed and turn it over.
Dams are put in place when retention time needs to be increased using the same size rotary kiln. Dams allow the loading to be
increased, which increases retention time and bed depth by forcing the material to build up in the rotary kiln. Shown here: end dam
Diagram: The illustration above shows the gradations that can occur in a bed of material that is poorly rotated (left). The addition of a
bed disturber helps to rotate the bed, ensuring even distribution of heat throughout the bed (right).
However, what seems like a simple of thermal expansion is at work, it disrupt the process. This is why it is
task can get complicated quickly, is usually best to look at alternative crucial to have a quality seal.
as thermal stresses must be bed disturbers.
accounted for. Sealing the ends of a rotary kiln can
Flights, or lifters, can also be used as be a difficult task, because of the
A common bed disturber used in a bed disturber. In this case, flights fact that you’re trying to seal some-
an indirectly heated kiln is a bar are welded with one weld point thing moving to something station-
that runs the length of the interior each to the inside of the rotary kiln. ary. The stationary part, referred to
of the rotary kiln. Material pushes This method of disturbing the bed as the breeching, is typically where
up against the bar, building up and is designed to accept the different leakage will occur. One option is a
rolling over it, so material that was thermal expansion stressors, making leaf seal. Leaf seals are the stan-
on the top of the bed now gets it ideal for drums with temperature dard seal used on both rotary kilns
redistributed to the bottom of the gradations. and rotary dryers.
bed. The disadvantage to using a
bar bed disturber is that they can SEALS How Leaf Seals Work: Leaf seals
sometimes bend and break with Almost all rotary kilns run at a nega- are similar to a fanned out deck
the thermal stresses of the rotary tive pressure, meaning gas doesn’t of cards. The “cards,” or leaves,
kiln. A rotary kiln naturally has gradi- leak out, but rather, air leaks in. are made out of spring steel. These
ents of temperature, usually cooler Because rotary kilns are always run- fanned out leaves are bolted to the
on the ends of the rotary kiln, and ning at a higher temperature than breeching, and the springy leaves
hotter in the middle. This gradation ambient air, any air leaking into the are forced to push against the seal/
in temperature causes differential rotary kiln will cause the tempera- wear plate of the rotating kiln, natu-
thermal expansion on the rotary ture inside of the rotary kiln to drop. rally keeping pressure on the rotary
kiln shell. Because of this, the bar, Not only will this result in an unnec- kiln to create a good seal.
welded to the shell, is pulled in dif- essary amount of energy being
ferent directions, which can cause used and wasted, but if the leak is For more information on seals, see
the weld to break. When this kind severe enough, it could potentially page 186.
high temperatures are involved,

often it is desirable to use multiple
layers of refractory: a “working”
Spring/Leaf layer and an insulating layer. The
Seal working layer is what is in direct
contact with the material being
Seal Wear processed. Because of this, the
Surface Seal Mounting working layer is a dense lining that
Flange
can withstand the high tempera-
Leaf Seal
tures within the rotary kiln and the
constant abrasion from the ma-
REFRACTORY castable and brick. Each kind of terial. However, when it comes to
Arguably one of the most critical refractory has its advantages and refractory, the denser it is, the less
components of a direct-fired rotary disadvantages. The choice of insulating capabilities it has. This
kiln, the refractory is what protects refractory is dependent on the means that even though there may
the shell from the high tempera- rotary kiln temperature, material be a tough, durable, thick working
tures within and maintains heat chemistry, and how abrasive the layer in place, the heat can easily
retention. A quality refractory is of material is. pass through to the shell of the
the utmost importance, and many rotary kiln. For this reason, an insu-
options are available, depending Castable and brick refractory lating layer is needed beneath the
on the needs of the rotary kiln. are comparably priced for similar working layer (See figure at left).
Refractory is specific to direct-fired refractory compositions. However, The insulating layer does just that; it
kiln shells; the addition of refractory the installation cost for brick is high- insulates the shell of the rotary kiln
to an indirect-fired kiln shell would er, since it is more labor intensive. so the high temperatures cannot
decrease efficiency, because it Brick is usually used for abrasive reach the shell and damage it.
would add another layer for heat materials, because it is more Typically the working layer and the
to pass through before it could resistant to wear. insulating layer are made of the
reach the material. same form of material (i.e., brick
WORKING VS. INSULATING LAYER or castable), with varying chemis-
Typically, there are two kinds of The way in which refractory is tries. The working layer tends to be
refractories for lining a rotary kiln: layered is also customizable. When a higher density, stronger material
higher efficiency is desired, or very that is more conductive. The insulat-
ing layer does not need these qual-
ities, and tends to be softer, lighter,
and less conductive, therefore
more insulating. These two layers
often vary in thickness, determined
Refractory Anchors by the needs of the rotary kiln and
Kiln Shell the material being processed.
CASTABLE Ceramic Fiber
REFRACTORY Backing
In some unique cases, where pro-
Insulating Refractory
cessing temperatures are low, or
Working Refractory
efficiency is of less concern, it is only
necessary to use one working layer.
For these reasons, refractory in a
rotary kiln is often a very custom
Material Bed part of the design.
Kiln Shell
BRICK
Insulating Refractory
REFRACTORY
Working Refractory
Material Bed
When insulation is extremely critical, an optional third layer of ceramic fiber backing can be used (as seen in
the castable illustration on the previous page). Though there are various kinds of this backing, this thin, but very
efficient layer is similar to fiberglass insulation found in a house, but it is much more compressed.
A FEECO Aftermarket Engineer inspects

the refractory in a rotary kiln
OPTIONS IN AIR FLOW
Co-Current Air Flow Counter Current Air Flow
As mentioned, direct rotary kilns understand how each air flow with the high heat and the volatile
are available in two types of air option functions to fully understand components will be vaporized soon
flow configurations: co-current and the benefits each has to offer. after feeding. The organic material
counter current. Both options have is burned off with the high heat and
been developed through extensive CO-CURRENT what is left is a dry ash.
research and development in order Co-current air flow, which is also
to maximize the thermal efficiency referred to as parallel flow, is when COUNTER CURRENT
of the process. Most rotary kilns are the products of combustion flow in Counter current air flow is when the
of the counter current configura- the same direction as the material. air flows in the opposite direction of
tion, because this option is much This immediately puts the coldest the material flow. In this design, the
more energy efficient. However, material in contact with the hottest material is heated gradually while
in some instances, the co-current gas in the kiln, resulting in a rapid traveling through the kiln. Here,
configuration is more appropriate. initial temperature change. material comes in contact with the
Additionally, indirect kilns use a hottest products of combustion just
different air flow altogether: Co-current kilns work best with before discharge. The main benefit
cross-flow. This is because combus- materials that don’t need a to this air flow configuration is the
tion gases are not flowing through gradual temperature increase thermal efficiency; with the burner
the kiln, but rather, are perpendicu- for a controlled transformation. being mounted at the end of the
lar to the material. An organic combustion process thermal processing cycle, less heat
commonly uses this air flow is required, resulting in decreased
During the design process of a configuration, because it does fuel consumption. This is illustrated in
direct-fired kiln, the selection not require a very specific end the tables on the following page.
of which air flow configuration product. In this example, a waste
(co-current or counter current) will material (e.g., spent catalyst) The co-current configuration needs
best suit the application is based containing both organic and a much higher initial temperature
on the material’s properties, as well inorganic material is introduced in order to heat the process mate-
as overall process requirements. into the kiln. These materials can rial from its initial temperature and
Because of this, it is important to come into immediate contact get the desired phase or chemical
CO-CURRENT AIR FLOW COUNTER CURRENT AIR FLOW
4000º 4000º
3000º 3000º
TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE
Process Gas
2000º 2000º Process Gas
Material
Material
1000º 1000º
0 0
02 46 8 02 46 8
RETENTION TIME (Minutes) RETENTION TIME (Minutes)
CROSS-FLOW
Indirect Kiln
reaction. In contrast, in a counter current configuration, the material and the process gas temperature are
directly correlated. For the example in the chart, the air flow (process gas) temperature only needs to be slight-
ly higher than the required temperature for the material transformation. The result is a lower exhaust gas
temperature and lower operating costs.
Additionally, the counter current design is commonly used for a more controlled physical or chemical change,
where the material temperature needs to be gradually increased to achieve the desired end result. Sintering
is a common process that utilizes the counter current air flow to maintain a controlled phase change. The
gradual, yet extreme heating process allows for a material such as a proppant, to transform into a much
harder material.
CROSS-FLOW
As mentioned, the cross-flow configuration is specific to indirect kilns. In co-current and counter current config-
urations, the gas and solid streams flow parallel to each other. In a cross-flow configuration, however, the gas
and solid streams are perpendicular to one another. One advantage to this type of air flow is that the solids
can be held at a constant temperature for an extended time. This is very difficult to achieve in a co-current or
counter current kiln.
Understanding how each air flow system works is one of the many considerations in designing the most efficient
and effective rotary kiln for a given task. Each air flow configuration has its unique and varying benefits for
material transformation.
MOISTURE REDUCTION: DRYER OR KILN?
Installation of a FEECO rotary kiln
Although rotary kilns are designed to be used for driving a chemical reaction, an issue that often comes up in
the processing of a material is when to remove the excess moisture from the feedstock.
Many times, there is surface moisture that needs to be removed from the material before it is processed in a rotary
kiln, and one is faced with a decision: buy another piece of equipment (a dryer), or use the rotary kiln to do the
work. There are costs and benefits to each approach.
While rotary kilns have the ability to remove moisture from a material, this tends to be a less efficient process.
In a rotary kiln, material is typically not showered like in a rotary dryer, but rather, slides along the interior of the
rotary kiln. This results in lower heat transfer between the material and the gas. Because of this, drying material
in a rotary kiln takes much longer than in a dryer.
The alternative to drying material in a rotary kiln is to add a rotary dryer to the process prior to the material
going into the rotary kiln. Taking this approach would efficiently dry the material before it enters the rotary kiln,
leaving the rotary kiln the sole job of converting the material. With a rotary dryer, flights lift the material and
drop it through the stream of hot gas, creating a showering effect called a "curtain." This showering effect
allows for maximum heat transfer between the material and the gas, drying the material in an efficient man-
ner. In this situation, the rotary kiln would be shorter. The down side to this method would be that an additional
piece of equipment would be required. Another option is to use the kiln exhaust in a rotary dryer.
Project Profile:
Rotary Kiln Resource Recovery System
This innovative metal recycling process is designed to recover nickel from spent Customer:
batteries, catalysts, and other waste materials. The system thermally treats the
waste in a rotary kiln to produce a concentrated stream free of moisture and
organics, which is fed into the existing smelters. The off-gas is treated to meet
stringent air quality requirements. The process provides a sustainable and
profitable solution for the recovery of valuable metals.
Equipment Supplied:
- Rotary Kiln
- Afterburner
- Quench Tower
Project Location:
Ontario, Canada
Industry:
Nickel Processing
Material:
Nickel-Containing Waste Materials
Project Engineer:
Project Profile:
Production Line for Roofing Granules
FEECO was commissioned to engineer and manufacture a complete production Customer:

line for processing mined rock into roofing granules. Proprietary
Equipment Supplied:
Ground rock from storage is fed into a counter current FEECO pre-heater drum to
- Rotary Pre-heater
heat the material in preparation of the coating (coloring) drum.
- Coloring/Coating Drum
The coating drum is used to create a homogeneous mixture of the granules and - Rotary Kiln
pigment/additive. This product is then processed in a direct-fired rotary kiln to - Rotary Cooler
adhere the additive to the granules. The granules are then cooled in a
Project Location:
rotary cooler. Canada
All equipment was designed with the characteristics of the material to be Industry:
processed in mind in order to yield a system that would resist abrasion, offering a Aggregates
long-term, reliable processing solution.
Material:
Roofing Granules
The success of the project has led FEECO to become a preferred provider of
rotary equipment for the company. Project Engineer:
The company also relies on FEECO for maintenance and spare parts as well.
Installation of conveyor with weather covers
MATERIAL HANDLING
MATERIAL HANDLING | 146
Lignite coal conveyors
ABOUT MATERIAL HANDLING

The handling of bulk solids is a universal application, relevant in nearly every industry and to all materials.
This ubiquity allows for an extremely diverse range of technologies, but also creates a market where general-
ized solutions are often wrongly applied where more specific handling solutions would provide more value.
FEECO has been providing custom equipment for the handling of bulk solids since 1951. We’ve developed an
extensive repertoire of material handling experience.
Conveyors come in many shapes and sizes and have an almost unlimited amount of interchangeable com-
ponents—not to mention the number of add-ons that are available. Selecting the conveyor that best fits the
processing system can be overwhelming. The reason for this is that conveyors are extremely versatile; they can
be modified and customized to suit a vast array of specific requirements. The objective is to select the most
advantageous design for a given system.
Conveyors are classified by how they function. Because of this, it is helpful to take a look at the general con-
veyor styles before selecting options and add-ons. FEECO offers custom solutions to niche markets that require
large, robust and long-lasting conveyors. The conveyor styles that FEECO offers are:
- Troughed Belt Conveyors

- Steep Incline Conveyors
- Reversing Shuttle Conveyors
TROUGHED BELT CONVEYORS

The troughed belt conveyor is one of FEECO International’s most ADDITIONAL COMPONENTS
commonly used pieces of equipment for material handling. Troughed All of FEECO’s belt conveyors
belt conveyors are capable of handling nearly any type of material, are available with a multitude of
and are available in configurations 18” to 72” wide, with capacities up additional components to increase
to 8,000 TPH. Standard troughed belt conveyors are usually comprised customization and flexibility. Some of
of conveyor belting, riding on heavy-duty troughed idlers, ranging in the most common options include:
angles from 20°-45°, each securely mounted to a structural steel frame.
Troughed belt conveyors can be run at various inclined angles, typically - Walkways & Service Platforms
between 0°-20° (30° with cleated/chevron belting). - Belt Cleaners/Scrapers
- Weather Covers
FEECO specializes in large, heavy-duty belt conveyors that are
- Loading Skirtboards
engineered for long-lasting performance. Advantages include:
- Transfer Chutes
CUSTOMIZATION - Safety Cables and Shut-offs
Every conveyor manufactured at FEECO is engineered, designed, and - Belt Scale (Used for tracking
manufactured per each customer’s specifications. This process allows quantity/interval of time)
us to create equipment that will be the exact length and width at the
angle required for your unique scenario.
HANDLING AGAINST THE ELEMENTS

All of FEECO’s troughed belt conveyors can either be equipped with
weather covers, or integrated with gallery enclosures. Both options allow
for material transfer outside of building structures without risking exposure
of the material or equipment to outdoor elements such as wind, rain, sun,
or other elements.
PRECISE ENGINEERING
FEECO relies on precise engineering for creating robust and reliable
material handling equipment. Whether a conveyor is horizontal or at an
incline, curved or straight, our Engineering Department can design a
handling system to meet the needs of both small and large projects.
Installation of conveyor with skirtboard

TROUGHED SIDE WALLS

One of the greatest benefits of the troughed belt conveyor over a
flat belt is increased capacity. The trough design also contains and
arranges the material in one continuous stream, while at the same
time, eliminating spillage. The troughed belt can also help shield the
material from unforeseen forces, such as air flow from other equip-
ment operating nearby.
DUST CONTROL AT LOAD POINTS

Integrated skirtboard and exhaust ports provide additional control for
each customer’s specific scenario. These are usually located at the
tail section of the conveyor, where the material is loaded onto the
belt. This design has dual functionality; it centers the material on the
belt and contains dust and fines. Oftentimes, a dust pick-off point is
also located at the top of the discharge hood.
TRUSS FRAME
Heavy-duty box truss frames are available in several standard depths.
This type of frame construction is utilized when long spans are required
between support points. In addition to span length, other load factors
such as wind, snow, etc., are accounted for in proper truss selection.
CHANNEL FRAME
The channel frame is typically utilized for conveyors that do not require
long spans between supports. They are also often used when located
close to grade, thus not requiring a cantilevered walkway. With that in
mind, the channel frame conveyors get the same precision engineer-
ing that is expected from all FEECO material handling equipment.
Project Profile:
Frac Sand Conveyor System
The 30” (0.8m) conveyor belts were designed to handle 250 TPH of frac sand. Customer:
The system delivers sand to any of the nine (9) product silos from three different
production streams.
Equipment Supplied:
- (9) 30” (0.8m) wide Inclined Belt Conveyors
- (4) 30” x 108’ (0.8 x 33m) long Reversing
Shuttle Conveyors
Project Location:
Chippewa Falls, WI, USA
Industry:
Mining
Material:
Frac Sand
Project Engineer:
Project Profile:
Gypsum & Limestone Conveyor System
This conveying system was designed for transporting limestone from truck Customer:
receiving to the lime processing plant and dewatered gypsum to stack out. Proprietary
Equipment Supplied:
Gypsum:
- 30” (0.8m) x 118’ (36m) Belt Conveyor
- (3) 30” (0.8m) x 600’ (183m) Belt Conveyors
- 30” (0.8m) x 27’-0” (8m) Belt Conveyor
Limestone:
- 24” (0.6m) x 300’(91m) Belt Conveyor
- 30” (0.8m) x 115’-0” (35m) Belt Conveyor
- (2) 24” (0.6m) x 36’-0” (11m) Belt Conveyors
- (2) 30” (0.8m) Steep Incline Conveyors
- 16 sq. ft. (1.49 sq. m) x 14’-0” (4m) High
Feed Hopper
Project Location:
Kansas, USA
Industry:
Power Production
Material:
Gypsum
Limestone
Project Engineer:
Project Profile:
Potash Handling System
In this system, a 100’ (30.5m) elevated belt conveyor is used to bring potash Customer:
from a 20’ x 20’ (6 x 6m) receiving hopper to the top of a storage building. A Dock Storage
belt tripper located at the top entrance of the storage building runs on rails to
Equipment Supplied:
distribute the potash in the storage building.
Belt Conveyors:
- 228’ 0” (69.5m ) Long x 54” (1.4m) Wide
- 610’ 0” (186m) Long x 54” (1.4m) Wide
- 36’ 0” (11m) Long x 36” (0.9m) Wide
Belt Tripper
20’ x 20’ (6 x 6m) Receiving Hopper
Project Location:
Toledo, Ohio, USA
Industry:
Fertilizer
Material:
Potash
Project Engineer:
Project Profile:
Gypsum Conveying System
FEECO provided a gypsum conveying system including tripper conveyors for Customer:
“under roof” storage and reclaim conveyors to rail load out.
Equipment Supplied:
Belt Conveyors:
- (2) 30” (0.8m ) wide x 550’ (168m) long - 300 TPH
- (2) 30” (0.8m ) wide x 616’ (188m) long - 300 TPH
- (1) 48” (1.2m) wide x 806’ (246m) long - 1,000 TPH
- (1) 48” (1.2m) wide x 626’ (191m) long - 1,000 TPH
(2) 30” (0.8m) Traveling Belt Trippers with 460’
(140m) of travel
Project Location:
Georgia, USA
Industry:
Power Generation
Material:
Gypsum
Project Engineer:
Project Profile:
Woodchips/Biomass Handling
FEECO supplied a complete material handling system for the handling of Customer:
woodchips/biomass fuel in a biomass power facility.
This included:
- Troughed belt conveyors Equipment Supplied:
- Belt feeders Complete material handling system

including multiple troughed belt conveyors
- Galleries and accompanying equipment
- Transfer towers
Project Location:
- Feed and diverter chutes
Wisconsin, USA
- Traveling belt tripper for fuel storage
Industry:
Pulp & Paper, Power
The equipment formed a complete material handling system that was used to
transfer material from delivery vehicles to a large fuel storage building, and from Material:
storage to boiler fuel silos. Woodchips/Biomass
Project Engineer:
Project Profile:
Lignite Coal Conveyors
FEECO supplied conveying equipment for lignite coal. In addition to the conveyors, Customer:
we also supplied a belt plow, belt scale, and magnetic separator. Proprietary
Equipment Supplied:
- 36” (0.9m) x 700’ (213m) Conveyor with
180’ (55m) Lift - 300 TPH
- 54” (1.4m) x 615’ (187m) Conveyor - 1,875 TPH
Project Location:
North Dakota, USA
Industry:
Power Generation
Material:
Lignite Coal
Project Engineer:
Project Profile:
Magnesite Ore Conveyor System

FEECO provided several conveyors for handling magnesite ore. This included Customer:
receiving hoppers with vibrating feeders, belt scales, and magnetic separators.
Equipment Supplied:
- 10 Belt Conveyors
- Receiving Hopper
- Vibrating Feeders
- Belt Scales
- Magnetic Separators
Project Location:
Saudi Arabia
Industry:
Mining
Material:
Magnesite Ore
Project Engineer:
REVERSING SHUTTLE CONVEYORS

The reversing shuttle conveyor is used for building an in-line, continuous pile, or for feeding multiple fixed
discharge points. Similar in form to a troughed belt conveyor, reversing shuttle conveyors are designed with
traveling shuttle functionality. The shuttle functionality allows the conveyor to be moved along a track, as well
as convey material in both directions, creating opportunity for extreme flexibility.
The conveyor is typically half the length of the track rails; for example, a 100’ long shuttle conveyor would have
the ability to transport material throughout the length of a 200’ storage facility.
The most important design advantages of a FEECO reversing shuttle conveyor involve:
STATIONARY INLET
A stationary material feed chute allows for processed material to be directed to one central location. This
reduces or eliminates the need for complex chute systems or diverters to get the product to the desired locations.
REVERSIBLE BELT DIRECTION

The reversing terminology refers to added control of the belt’s conveying direction. The ability to control this
means that the reversing shuttle conveyor is not restricted to which end of the conveyor material can
discharge from.
REMOTE/AUTOMATION
Reversing shuttle conveyors can either be controlled from a remote location, such as a control room, by
trained personnel, or automatically, through an automated program. This greatly reduces the labor cost of
sorting and storing materials.
DRIVE COMPONENTS
Only heavy-duty, high quality drive components are used for FEECO
reversing shuttle conveyors. All of the moving components, from the
trolley wheels to the drive motors, have been engineered to ensure
continued functionality and reliability.
TROUGHED IDLERS
Much like the drive components, only the highest quality CEMA idlers
are selected for FEECO conveyor equipment. A commonly overlooked
component, idlers can cause substantial belt wear and equipment
downtime when not functioning properly. Making the investment for
equipment designed and engineered with quality components will
greatly reduce maintenance costs and downtime.
STEEP INCLINE CONVEYORS

Steep incline conveyors can be a great substitute for drag chain or
conveyor/bucket elevator configurations, because of the reduced
noise and the elimination of transfer points.
FEECO steep incline conveyors are designed to transport bulk materials

at inclines ranging from 18º to 90º, while still maintaining the feed and
discharge properties of a standard belt conveyor. The advantages of
this unique design include:
REDUCED MATERIAL DEGRADATION

Through “L” and “S” shape designs, transfer points are eliminated,
allowing for smooth, continuous conveying.
HANDLING EFFICIENCY
Corrugated sidewalls contain the material, reducing spillage along the
conveyor path and loading points, while cleats, located at calculated
positions, capture the material and eliminate fallback.
LESS SPACE REQUIREMENTS

Steeper geometric options of the steep incline conveyor
reduce the length requirements to reach the desired
elevation when compared to conventional
conveyors, eliminating wasted space.
BELTING DESIGN
The steep incline conveyor uses flexible corrugated sidewall belting,
which contains the material and permits loose material such as fertil-
izer, coal fines, chemicals, assembly parts, scrap materials, grain, and
other bulk materials to be conveyed without spilling. Cleated belting,
which prevents fallback of the material when conveying at steep
angles up to 90º, is available.
MATERIAL TRANSFER
Loading points remain clean with custom designed inlet hoppers,
which maximize loading capacity for straight incline, horizontal, and
“L” and “S” shape configurations. Turning wheel assemblies are incor-
porated to direct belting up the desired incline. Fully enclosed systems
are available to protect material and reduce dust. This all-in-one
design eliminates transfer points, preventing product degradation
and spillage, and allowing for smooth, continuous conveying.
DRIVE ASSEMBLY
Head and tail sections come fully assembled with shop-mounted
pulleys and complete drive systems. The picture at left illustrates a
shaft-mounted reducer with a direct mount drive motor. Other drive
options such as belt and chain systems are also available. Back stops
can either be mounted internally to the reducer, or externally on the
conveyor head shaft.
BELT TRIPPERS
FEECO belt trippers are custom designed and built to accommodate your desired specifications, with the same
guidelines you can expect from all of our equipment (i.e., precision engineering, quality components, and
heavy-duty construction). The purpose of the belt tripper, or traveling tripper, is to add versatility and functional-
ity to a troughed belt conveyor, including:
ENHANCED STORAGE CAPABILITIES

The belt tripper’s ability to travel along the length of a conveyor allows for greater storage options. The tripper
can be moved to pre-designated locations and discharge material, or travel continuously at a constant speed
for layered stacking in a large storage structure.
CUSTOM DESIGN FOR SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS

FEECO’s belt trippers are designed to meet the customer’s specific needs; this means the options are based
solely on how each customer wants the material flow re-directed. Some of the more common options are:
one-, two-, or three-way discharge chutes with diverter and/or auxiliary feeders (e.g., screw feeder, reversible
belt feeder, etc.).
ENGINEERED PULLEY LOOP

The conveyor belting travels through a set of pulleys which create the material “trip,” or discharge point and
then redirects the belt back on to the idlers. This “pulley loop” is designed so the conveyor belting will
experience a very limited amount of stress, eliminating the opportunity for premature wear and stretching.
DIRECT DRIVE
FEECO belt trippers are equipped with direct-mounted motor and gear reducers that are separate from the
main conveyor drive components. This allows for the tripper travel to be controlled from either a remote or
local location.
Project Profile:
Belt Tripper
This 54” (1.4m) wide tripper travels along a belt conveyor and discharges coal Customer:
into a series of storage bunkers along the path or at the end of the conveyor.
Direct Bunker Loading: As the tripper moves along the conveyor, a position switch
will stop it directly over a bunker. The tripper fills the bunker evenly on both sides
until a level indicator inside the bunker tells the tripper the bunker is full. When the
bunker is filled, the tripper moves on to the next bunker. Equipment Supplied:
- Belt Tripper 54” (1.4m) width
Continuous Handling: As the tripper is moving and aligning over the bunkers, it - Stacking Conveyor - 135’ 0” (41m) length
does not stop moving coal on the conveyor. While in transit, the tripper feeds coal - Belt Conveyors up to 505’ (154m) in
through its center to a bunker at the end of the belt conveyor. length and 60” (1.5m) in width
Project Location:
PLC Controlled: All movements of the tripper are automatically controlled. Green Bay, WI, USA
However, manual control is available. Level indicators signal when the bunkers
Industry:
are empty or full.
Power Generation
Material:
Coal
Project Engineer:
Stone & Webster
BELT PLOWS
FEECO belt plows are designed to increase a belt conveyor’s material discharge control capabilities. Much like
belt trippers, belt plows can release material on either side of the belt at pre-designated locations. Belt plows
have several features that increase versatility, including:
- Pneumatically actuated plow blades

- Integrated belt flattening system
- UHMW plow blades
Belt Plows on conveyors

TRIPPERS VS. PLOWS

Whether stacking material in a chute. This system increases the surface to be effective at removing
warehouse, or removing rejected belt tripper’s versatility, as it allows material from the conveyor; this
material from a process system, for material to be released on ei- not only puts increased wear
a tripper or a plow may be just ther side of the conveyor, or direct- on the belt, but also eliminates
the piece of equipment you are ly back onto the belt. The material the advantages of the troughed
looking for. Belt trippers and plows diverted back onto the belt can sidewalls. Lastly, because the plows
function as add-ons to troughed then be released at the head simply push material off the belt,
belt conveyors in order to increase pulley of the conveyor. any large aggregates or abrasive
the flexibility of a handling system. material being handled may cause
Both pieces of equipment work As shown in the diagram on premature wear on the conveyor
as auxiliary material discharge page 160, the loaded conveyor belting and plow blade.
systems, allowing material to be belt is transferred up a slight incline
released before the head pulley. where it is emptied into a discharge Even though belt plows make for
This similarity in objective has system. This can include: double a less versatile auxiliary discharge
caused some confusion regarding chute (shown), single chute, component, they are still useful in
which piece of equipment will best screw conveyor, or other discharge some situations. For example, with
suit a given application. And while method. After the material has free-flowing materials, belt plows
trippers and plows can generally be been emptied off of the belt, the function well as part of a material
placed in the same classification, a belt tripper re-aligns the belting on redirection or rejection system. They
more in-depth explanation reveals the stationary idlers and continues can also be utilized for filling multi-
that they perform very differently. to operate as a standard trough ple storage hoppers, while, much
In order to know if either piece of conveyor. like a belt tripper, still allowing for
equipment will be beneficial for the ability to function as a standard
your process system, you first need Belt trippers are designed with troughed belt conveyor. The image
to understand the basic function multiple pulleys in order to eliminate depicted on page 162 shows two
of each. any premature wear on the con- belt plows that divert material into
veyor belting due to the use of flat- two separate storage silos (this
BELT TRIPPERS tening or scraping systems. FEECO same scenario can be used to
A traveling belt tripper, when inte- belt trippers can be set to travel transfer material to another belt
grated into a standard troughed automatically, or be controlled conveyor that may be a part of a
belt conveyor, creates a more remotely by an operator. different processing system). The
dynamic material handling system; conveyor belting travels through
a system that has the ability to BELT PLOWS a flattening structure, transforming
discharge material along the entire A belt plow is a simplified way to the belt from its troughed U-shape
length of the conveyor, as well as create fixed discharge points in a to a flat surface, so the plow blades
at the head pulley. Belt trippers troughed belt conveyor system. can effectively clear the materi-
work by redirecting the conveyor While belt plows work as an al. Due to this relatively complex
belting through several sets of pul- auxiliary material discharge system flattening process, all conveyors
leys to recreate a standard con- much like a belt tripper, there are with a belt plow system are custom
veyor discharge function, or a “trip” several drawbacks to plows when designed and built to the custom-
point, that diverts the material to compared to trippers. er’s requirements. They are then
the desired location. Material can assembled and tested at FEECO
be discharged either continuous- First, the use of a belt plow offers to ensure there are no interferences
ly, or at pre-designated locations, reduced mobility of the discharge that could cause damage or
which allows for layer stacking, or locations; the locations are locked unnecessary wear.
multiple silo/bunker filling. Addition- in place and changing them would
ally, a diverter system can be add- require equipment modifications.
ed to the belt tripper’s discharge Secondly, the plows require a flat
A new belt plow may not integrate BELT FEEDERS

well into existing equipment as a
single component. In this case, Belt feeders are used to provide a controlled discharge
a new section of conveyor, with rate of material. They are commonly used when materi-
the belt plow system (plow(s) and al that is either stockpiled or loaded (at an uncontrolled
flattening rails) would need to be rate) in a bin or hopper needs to be introduced into the
designed and built. This again system at a controlled feed rate.
allows for pre-assembling and
testing. Once there is certainty that FEECO belt feeders offer a variety of
all components are functioning beneficial features, some of which include:
properly, the new section can be
integrated into the existing belt
- Engineered hopper/feed bin
conveyor.
- Fully enclosed belt skirting
Both belt trippers and belt plows - Manual material leveling gate
add functionality and versatility to - Variable speed
a standard troughed belt convey-
or, with each piece of equipment
offering unique benefits. Wheth-
er your process requires material
stacking, storing, or removing, FEE-
CO’s custom conveyor equipment
can provide an innovative solution.
Understanding that this additional
conveyor equipment is not univer-
sal for every process, FEECO can
design and fabricate custom solu-
tions that fit your unique handling
requirements.
ENGINEERING BELT CONVEYOR HORSEPOWER
TABLE NO. 1 - HP TO DRIVE EMPTY CONVEYOR FOR EACH 100 FPM BELT SPEED*
Width Center to Center Length “L” (feet)
“W”
50 100 150 200 250 300 400 500 600 700 800 1000 1200 1400
(inches)
18 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.6 2.0
20 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.2 - -
24 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.6
30 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.3 3.9
36 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.7 3.1 3.5 4.2 4.9 -
42 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.5 2.9 3.3 3.8 4.2 5.1 6.0
48 1.1 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.1 2.4 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.6 5.1 6.2 7.2 8.3
54 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.5 4.1 4.7 5.3 6.0 7.2 8.5 9.7
60 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.3 4.1 4.8 5.5 6.3 7.0 8.5 9.9 11.4
TABLE NO. 2 - HP TO CONVEY MATERIAL HORIZONTALLY - ANY SPEED, ANY MATERIAL

Tons per Center to Center Length “L” (feet)
Hour
50 100 150 200 250 300 400 500 600 700 800 1000 1200 1400
“T”
50 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 .7 .8 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.7 2.0 2.3
100 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.7 2.0 2.3 2.6 2.9 3.5 4.1 4.7
150 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.4 3.9 4.3 5.2 6.1 7.0
200 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.3 3.9 4.5 5.2 5.8 7.0 8.2 9.4
250 1.5 1.9 2.3 2.7 3.0 3.4 4.2 4.9 5.7 6.4 7.2 8.7 10.2 11.7
300 1.8 2.3 2.7 3.2 3.6 4.1 5.0 5.9 6.8 7.7 8.6 10.5 12.3 14.1
350 2.1 2.7 3.2 3.7 4.2 4.8 5.8 6.9 8.0 9.0 10.1 12.2 14.3 16.4
400 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.2 4.8 5.5 6.7 7.9 9.1 10.3 11.5 13.9 16.4 18.8
450 2.7 3.4 4.1 4.8 5.5 6.1 7.5 8.9 10.2 11.6 13.0 15.7 18.4 21
500 3.0 3.8 4.5 5.3 6.1 6.8 8.3 9.8 11.4 12.9 14.4 17.4 20 23
550 3.3 4.2 5.0 5.8 6.7 7.5 9.2 10.8 12.5 14.2 15.8 19.2 22 26
600 3.6 4.5 5.5 6.4 7.3 8.2 10.0 11.8 13.6 15.5 17.3 21 25 28
650 3.9 4.9 5.9 6.9 7.9 8.9 10.8 12.8 14.8 16.7 18.7 23 27 31
700 4.2 5.3 6.4 7.4 8.5 9.5 11.7 13.8 15.9 18.0 20 24 29 33
800 4.8 6.1 7.3 8.5 9.7 10.9 13.3 15.8 18.2 21 23 28 33 38
900 5.5 6.8 8.2 9.5 10.9 12.3 15.0 17.7 20 23 26 31 37 42
1,000 6.1 7.6 9.1 10.6 12.1 13.6 16.7 19.7 23 26 29 35 41 47
1,100 6.7 8.3 10.0 11.7 13.3 15.0 18.3 22 25 28 32 38 45 52
1,200 7.3 9.1 10.9 12.7 14.5 16.4 20 24 27 31 35 42 49 56
1,300 7.8 9.8 11.8 13.8 15.8 17.7 22 26 30 33 37 45 53 61
1,400 8.5 10.6 12.7 14.8 17.0 19.1 23 28 32 36 40 49 57 66
1,500 9.1 11.4 13.6 15.9 18.2 20 25 29 34 39 43 52 61 70
1,600 9.7 12.1 14.5 17.0 19.4 22 27 32 36 41 46 56 65 75
1,700 10.3 12.9 15.5 18.0 21 23 28 33 39 44 49 59 70 80
1,800 10.9 13.6 16.4 19.1 22 25 30 35 41 46 52 63 74 85
1,900 11.5 14.4 17.3 20 23 26 32 37 43 49 55 66 78 89
2,000 12.1 15.2 18.2 21 24 27 33 39 45 52 58 70 82 94
*Example problem on next page.
TABLE NO. 3 - ADDITIONAL HORSEPOWER REQUIRED FOR EACH TRIPPER
Width of Belt (inches)

18 20 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
HP to add for fixed or hand-propelled tripper 1.00 1.40 1.70 2.50 3.20 4.50 6.00 7.50 9.00
HP to add for self-propelling tripper 1.10 1.50 2.00 2.80 3.60 5.00 7.00 8.00 10.00
TABLE NO. 4 - HP TO ELEVATE AND LOWER MATERIAL - ANY SPEED, ANY MATERIAL
Tons per Lift or Drop “H” (feet)
Hour
5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 80 100 125 150 200
“T”
25 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.2 3.8 5.1
50 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.1 6.3 7.6 10.1
75 0.4 0.8 1.1 1.5 1.9 2.3 3.0 3.8 4.5 6.1 7.6 9.5 11.4 15.2
100 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.1 6.1 8.1 10.1 12.6 15.2 20
125 0.6 1.3 1.9 2.5 3.2 3.8 5.1 6.3 7.6 10.1 12.6 15.8 18.9 25
150 0.8 1.5 2.3 3.0 3.8 4.5 6.1 7.6 9.1 12.1 15.2 18.9 23 30
175 0.9 1.8 2.7 3.5 4.4 5.3 7.1 8.8 10.6 14.1 17.7 22 27 35
200 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.1 6.1 8.1 10.1 12.1 16.2 20 25 30 40
225 1.1 2.3 3.4 4.5 5.7 6.8 9.1 11.4 13.6 18.2 23 28 34 45
250 1.3 2.5 3.8 5.1 6.3 7.6 10.1 12.6 15.2 20 25 32 38 51
300 1.5 3.0 4.5 6.1 7.6 9.1 12.1 15.2 18.2 24 30 38 45 61
350 1.8 3.5 5.3 7.1 8.8 10.6 14.1 17.7 21 28 35 44 53 71
400 2.0 4.0 6.1 8.1 10.1 12.1 16.2 20 24 32 40 51 61 81
450 2.3 4.5 6.8 9.1 11.4 13.6 18.2 23 27 36 45 57 68 91
500 2.5 5.1 7.6 10.1 12.6 15.2 20 25 30 40 51 63 76 101
550 2.8 5.6 8.3 11.1 13.9 16.7 22 28 33 44 56 69 83 111
600 3.0 6.1 9.1 12.1 15.2 18.2 24 30 36 48 61 76 91 121
700 3.5 7.1 10.6 14.1 17.7 21 28 35 42 57 71 88 106 141
800 4.0 8.1 12.1 16.2 20 24 32 40 48 65 81 101 121 162
900 4.5 9.1 13.6 18.2 23 27 36 45 55 73 91 114 136 182
1,000 5.1 10.1 15.2 20 25 30 40 51 61 81 101 126 152 202
1,100 5.6 11.1 16.7 22 28 33 44 56 67 89 111 139 167 222
1,200 6.1 12.1 18.2 24 30 36 48 61 73 97 121 152 182 242
1,300 6.6 13.1 19.7 26 33 39 53 66 79 105 131 164 197 263
1,400 7.1 14.1 21 28 35 42 57 71 85 113 141 177 212 283
1,500 7.6 15.2 23 30 38 45 61 76 91 121 152 189 227 303
1,600 8.1 16.2 24 32 40 48 65 81 97 129 162 202 242
1,700 8.6 17.2 26 34 43 52 69 86 103 137 172 215 258
1,800 9.1 18.2 27 36 45 55 73 91 109 145 182 227 273 -
1,900 9.6 19.2 29 38 48 58 77 96 115 154 192 240 288
2,000 10.1 20 30 40 51 61 81 101 121 162 202 253 303
2,100 10.6 21 32 42 53 64 85 106 127 170 212 265 -
2,200 11.1 22 33 44 56 67 89 111 133 178 222 278
2,300 11.6 23 35 46 58 70 93 116 139 186 232 290
2,400 12.1 24 36 48 61 73 97 121 145 194 242 303 - -
2,500 12.6 25 38 51 63 76 101 126 152 202 253
2,600 13.1 26 39 53 66 79 105 131 158 210 263
2,800 14.1 28 42 57 71 85 113 141 170 226 283 - - -
3,000 15.2 29 45 61 76 91 121 152 182 242 303
TABLE NO. 5 - ADDITIONAL HORSEPOWER FOR DRIVE LOSSES

Cast Tooth Gears Cut Tooth Gears, Roller Chain, or “V” Belt Drives Speed Reducers, Spur, or Helical Type
Add 10% for each reduction Add 5% for each reduction Add 5%
HORSEPOWER CALCULATION
With the information given in Tables 1-5 inclusive, the total horsepower required can be determined.
Example: Assume a 24” belt conveyor with 300 horizontal centers, a 40 foot rise, and a belt speed of 400 feet per minute.
Conveyor to handle 195 tons of coal per hour. Anti-friction idlers and terminal bearings to be used throughout.
Table No. 1 shows that we will require 1.0 HP for each 100 feet per minute belt speed to drive empty conveyor, or a total of
4.0 HP for a conveyor traveling 400 FPM. Table No. 2 shows that approximately 2.7 HP will be required to convey 195 tons
over a horizontal distance of 300 feet. Table No. 4 shows that approximately 8 HP is required to elevate 195 TPH of material
40 feet. Table No. 3 gives the additional HP required to drive the tripper, but as no tripper would be required on the convey-
or, we are considering this figure is omitted.
By adding the horsepowers determined from Tables 1, 2, and 4, we get an effective HP of 14.7. Table No. 5 gives the addi-
tional horsepower required for the power loss in various types of drives. Assume the conveyor we have under consideration
is driven by a helical gear reducer and roller chain drive. We would then have to add 10% of the effective HP to take care
of the power loss, or 1.5 HP. This would give us a motor HP of 16.2, in which case, we would recommend a 20 HP motor.
Where conveyor is to be started under load, a high starting torque motor should be used.
TABLES: BELT CONVEYOR CAPACITY

The conveyor belt capacity charts below show tons per hour (TPH) based on material weighing 100 lbs. per
cubic foot, 20º material surcharge angle with three equal length rolls on troughing idlers.
TPH WITH 20º TROUGHING IDLERS
Belt Width Cross Load Belt Speed in Feet per Minute (FPM)
(inches) Section
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650
(Sq. Ft.)
18 0.180 54 80 110 135 160 190 218 243 270 - - -
24 0.333 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 -
30 0.533 160 240 320 400 480 560 640 720 800 880 960 1,040
36 0.780 235 350 470 585 700 820 935 1,050 1,170 1,290 1,400 1,520
42 1.100 330 495 660 825 980 1,155 1,320 1,485 1,650 1,815 1,980 2,140
48 1.467 440 660 880 1,100 1,320 1,540 1,760 1,980 2,200 2,420 2,640 2,860
54 1.900 570 855 1,140 1,420 1,710 2,000 2,280 2,560 2,850 3,130 3,420 3,700
60 2.400 720 1,080 1,440 1,800 2,160 2,520 2,880 3,240 3,600 3,960 4,320 4,680
Note: Capacities of flat belts are taken at one-half of those listed above.

(inches) Section
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650
(Sq. Ft.)
18 0.225 66 100 135 170 200 235 270 305 338 - - -
24 0.416 125 187 250 310 380 435 500 560 625 685 750 -
30 0.666 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
36 1.000 300 450 600 750 900 1050 1200 1350 1500 1650 1800 1950
42 1.410 420 635 845 1060 1270 1480 1690 1900 2120 2320 2540 2750
48 1.875 560 845 1125 1400 1690 1970 2250 2530 2810 3090 3370 3660
54 2.470 740 1110 1480 1850 2220 2600 2960 3340 3700 4080 4450 4820
60 3.120 935 1400 1870 2340 2800 3280 3740 4200 4680 5150 5610 6100

(inches) Section
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650
(Sq. Ft.)
24 0.483 145 217 290 360 435 508 580 650 725 795 870 -
30 0.773 232 348 465 580 695 810 930 1,040 1,160 1,270 1,390 1,500
36 1.130 335 510 680 850 1,020 1,190 1,360 1,530 1,700 1,860 2,040 2,200
42 1.595 478 720 960 1,200 1,440 1,680 1,910 2,150 2,390 2,630 2,870 3,110
48 2.127 640 955 1,275 1,600 1,910 2,230 2,550 2,870 3,190 3,500 3,820 4,150
54 2.760 830 1,240 1,655 2,070 2,480 2,900 3,310 3,720 4,140 4,550 4,960 5,380
60 3.480 1,040 1,570 2,090 2,610 3,130 3,660 4,180 4,700 5,220 5,740 6,260 6,800
Belt Width Maximum Size of *Lumps (inches) MAXIMUM BELT SPEEDS - Feet Per Minute (FPM)
(inches)
Equal Size Lumps Mixed with 90% Fines Light, Free-Flowing Material Average Material (Sand, Abrasive Material (Coal,
(Grain, Pulverized Coal) Gravel, Stone, Coal, Fine Ore) Screened Lump Coke)
50 lb./cu. ft. 100 lb./cu. ft. 30 to 50 lb./cu. ft.
18 3 5 500 500 400
24 5 8 600 600 450
30 6 11 700 650 500
36 8 15 800 650 500
42 10 18 800 650 500
48 12 21 800 650 500
54 14 24 800 650 500
60 16 28 800 650 500
*Due to different characteristics of some materials, the above table is based on general conformities.
BUCKET ELEVATORS
FEECO Bucket Elevator with platform
If material needs to be moved In addition to varying configuration materials that are wet, sticky, or
vertically, chances are a bucket options, there are also a number have a sludge-like consistency.
elevator is the ideal solution for the of bucket options available, with These types of materials tend to
job. In fact, the versatility and material and elevator design being create discharge issues, with build-
configurability of this equipment primary bucket selection criteria. up being a common problem.
make bucket elevators a common Other bucket elevator features
material handling system in a include removable top covers, ac- Examples of materials conveyed
number of different industries. cess doors for easy maintenance, via bucket elevator include:
and horizontally and vertically
HOW DO BUCKET heavy-reinforced, jig-welded head, - Aggregates
ELEVATORS WORK boot, and intermediate sections. - Animal Feeds
In simple terms, bucket elevators
- Calcined Coke
vertically convey bulk materials. BUCKET ELEVATOR
- Coal
They are considered similar to APPLICATIONS
conveyor belts, with the great- Bucket elevators are commonly - Fertilizer
est difference being that bucket used in a number of settings, - Fly Ash
elevators move material using including: - Frac Sand
buckets attached to a rotating belt - Lime
- Fertilizer Plants
or chain. The buckets work to pick - Minerals
- Lime Processing Facilities
up material, move it to the desired
- Power Plants - Potash
endpoint, discharge material, and
- Pulp and Paper Mills - Woodchips
return to the starting point to pick
up a new load. - Steel Production Plants
Bucket elevator configurations are COMMON BUCKET

engineered based on the applica- ELEVATOR MATERIALS
tion, material, required horsepower, Bucket elevators can handle a
and elevator height. Configuration wide range of free-flowing mate-
options include centrifugal bucket rials with varying characteristics.
elevators and continuous bucket Light, fragile, heavy, and abrasive
elevators, with both models includ- materials can all be transferred
ing belt and chain options. using a bucket elevator. They are
not recommended for use with
FEECO bucket elevators are available in a

Drive Motor
variety of configurations and sizes, as shown
here. These various designs can accommodate Head Pulley
any handling job, from dry, dusty powders like
fly ash, to heavy, abrasive materials, such as iron
Heavy-duty
ore pellets. Roller Bearings
V-Belt Drive
Not sure which elevator is right for you?
FEECO has decades of experience designing
Gear Reducer
custom bucket elevators and complete
material handling systems. We can guide you Head Assembly
through the bucket elevator selection process

with ease, helping you to choose the right
bucket elevator for your precise needs.
All FEECO bucket elevators are designed

around the unique characteristics of the
material to be handled.
FEATURES
- Removable top covers Discharge Maintenance
Chute Platform
- Access doors for easy maintenance
- Horizontally and vertically heavy-reinforced,
jig-welded head, boot, and intermediate sections Ladder with
Safety Cage
- Adjustable throat plate at discharge
- Inspection doors on both sides of discharge Belt & Bucket
Assembly
- Service platforms and access ladders available
Elevator
Casing
Boot Pulley Inlet/Feed Chute
Assembly
Screw Take-up
Assembly
Pillow Block
Ball Bearing
Belt-style bucket elevators in fabrication
When selecting a bucket elevator, the goal is to allow FEECO can assist in fine-tuning the technical details to
for the most efficient process flow possible. In order to ensure efficiency for the specific requirements.
do this, it is important to understand the design func-
tions of each piece of equipment and how they affect CONTINUOUS
the material that is being handled. Two different ele- BUCKET ELEVATORS
vator designs are manufactured at FEECO: centrifugal Conversely, the continuous elevator is designed to
and continuous. Both are designed to move material operate at a slower speed to eliminate the throwing
vertically, with each offering distinct advantages. action, and is therefore better suited for gentle
material handling.
CENTRIFUGAL
BUCKET ELEVATORS With a continuous style elevator, buckets are specifi-
The centrifugal style elevator has the ability to move cally designed to act as part of the discharge chute
large amounts of material quickly, and works great for when inverted, as shown on the following page. The
durable and abrasive materials like sand, gravel, and material pours out of the bucket and slides down the
other free-flowing bulk materials. inverted bucket ahead into the discharge chute. Even
though the buckets will scoop up some material from
The centrifugal style elevator starts by scooping the boot, this elevator is designed with a higher feed
material from the boot or inlet section; this action inlet to allow the majority of material to flow direct-
requires a durable bucket (bucket styles can be seen ly into the buckets. In all, the design of this elevator
on page 173). Due to the high speed of operation, greatly reduces the damage and degradation of
this elevator generates centrifugal force at the head more fragile and friable materials. Additionally, this
pulley. This force throws the material out of the bucket design is beneficial when the product is light and/or
and into the discharge chute, as shown on the follow- fluffy and needs to avoid aeration.
ing page. The launching and digging actions of this
design run the risk of damaging fragile material, so
this style is not recommended when handling more
delicate materials.
Centrifugal style elevators are available in either belt

or chain drive. Due to belt stretch and chain strength,
both systems have some restrictions when they reach
immense heights.
CENTRIFUGAL ELEVATORS
Centrifugal bucket elevators are chosen when there is a need to move large
amounts of material quickly. This elevator type can yield material degradation,
and is therefore best fit for handling durable and abrasive materials like sand,
gravel, woodchips, and other free-flowing bulk materials where fragility is not
a concern. Instead of direct loading, buckets serve as the loading apparatus,
scooping material up from the boot or inlet section. For this reason, durable
buckets should be selected with this design. Centrifugal force at the head pulley
“throws” material from the buckets into the discharge chute. The design of this
style yields optimized material fill and reduced interference between buckets.
CENTRIFUGAL CENTRIFUGAL
CHAIN BELT This elevator (above) is shown
with AC style buckets mount-
ed on a belt drive system.
CONTINUOUS ELEVATORS
Continuous bucket elevators are primarily used when gentle handling is required.
Direct loading of the material, combined with the slow speed of this elevator type
avoids the “throwing” action associated with centrifugal style elevators, making
it ideal for use with fragile materials, or materials that are light and/or prone to
aeration.
Material is fed into buckets from an inlet chute. Buckets are designed to facilitate
a gentle discharge; material pours out of the bucket and slides down the inverted
bucket ahead into the discharge chute as shown at right.
CONTINUOUS CONTINUOUS
CHAIN BELT
*Continuous double chain models are also

available for increased capacity needs.
With both continuous and centrifugal elevator types, the choice between belt or chain is based on many
factors. Belt elevators are a lower capital cost, but not always a fit for the application. Chain-type elevators are
more suited to heavy-duty, high-capacity settings, or where the material being handled is hot or has a potential
for combustion. FEECO can work with you to determine which selection is a better fit for your unique application.
BUCKET ELEVATOR DESIGN

Regardless of their commonplace, there isn’t a
one-size-fits-all configuration for this equipment. In
order to manage the specific material challenges it
will face, as well as complement an overall processing
system, it is important that each bucket elevator de-
sign is tailored to its specific application. The following
questions walk through the basic design information
utilized to design quality bucket elevators.
WHAT IS THE MATERIAL?

What is the material is one of the most essential ques-
tions asked when discussing bucket elevator design.
While many materials can be conveyed using a buck- FEECO Bucket Elevator
et elevator, there are limitations. Once a material is

defined, the next step is to pinpoint the material’s
characteristics.
WHAT IS THE CAPACITY RATE?
Material characteristics play a major role in the design The capacity rate defines the quantity of material that
of a bucket elevator. While the versatility of bucket the equipment will convey. A number of linked factors
elevators makes this piece of equipment capable of determine if the maximum capacity utilization of a
handling a number of different characteristics (e.g., bucket elevator can be achieved. However, selecting
light, heavy, fragile, or abrasive), it is important that and designing the right configuration helps to
only free-flowing materials are used. A material’s attain the best possible capacity rate output.
density, size, and moisture level are also relevant
when designing a bucket elevator to handle the WHAT IS THE DIMENSIONAL INFORMATION?
job effectively. Examples of materials conveyed Dimensional information is essential to any bucket
via bucket elevator include aggregates, fertilizers, elevator design. The primary dimension that must be
potash, and pulp. defined is the desired height to lift the material. This
information, combined with the intended material and
FEECO has over 65 years of experience customizing capacity rate, contribute to how the overall bucket
bucket elevators across a wide range of industries, elevator equipment is sized. The needs and param-
and can often tell a customer instantly if their mate- eters of the facility are also important factors in the
rial is suitable for use in such equipment. In addition, overall sizing of the equipment.
questionable material can be tested in the FEECO
Innovation Center. A pilot plant can be set up on a SELECTING AN ELEVATOR
single bucket elevator or multiple pieces of equipment After collecting the basic design information, a bucket
in order to help customers make informed decisions elevator configuration is selected for use as the basis
and ensure an optimized process. of the equipment design. FEECO utilizes information
collected from these questions to determine the
WHAT MATERIALS SHOULD NOT best-suited bucket elevator for the given application.
BE CONVEYED VIA BUCKET ELEVATOR? The design is then skillfully engineered and manufac-
Bucket elevators are not recommended for tured to manage each material’s unique challenges
moving wet, sticky, or sludge-like materials. Materials while complementing the customer’s existing pro-
with these characteristics create buildup and cessing facility. Additional customizations may also be
discharge issues. incorporated in order to create the best solution for a
specific application.
BUCKET STYLES
FEECO offers a selection of bucket styles for both centrifugal and continuous bucket elevators to accommo-
date the varying demands of different applications and materials.
CENTRIFUGAL BUCKET STYLES
Our centrifugal bucket styles are designed to be robust and withstand the digging and scooping action of a
centrifugal elevator. Both types feature a reinforced lip around the leading edge to prevent distortion while
scooping abrasive or heavily packed materials. Both styles can be configured in side-by-side or staggered
alignment to increase handling capacities.
STYLE AA
BUCKET SIZE CAPACITY/CU. FT. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

WT.
LENGTH PROJECTION DEPTH STRUCK WATER LEVEL
(inches) (inches) (inches)
(lbs.)
CAPACITY CAPACITY
- Ductile Iron
6 4 4 1/4 2.7 0.03 0.018 - Fabricated Carbon Steel
8 5 5 1/2 4.8 0.07 0.042 - Stainless Steel
10 6 6 1/4 7.7 0.12 0.072
- Aluminum
12 7 7 1/4 12.0 0.19 0.114
- Various Plastics
14 7 7 1/4 13.9 0.23 0.138
14 8 8 1/2 21.8 0.32 0.204
16 7 7 1/4 23.24 0.265 0.165
16 8 8 1/2 27.49 0.362 0.231
18 8 8 1/2 30.19 0.407 0.260
STYLE AC
BUCKET SIZE CAPACITY/CU. FT. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

WT.
LENGTH PROJECTION DEPTH STRUCK WATER LEVEL
(inches) (inches) (inches)
(lbs.)
CAPACITY CAPACITY
- Ductile Iron
12 8 8 1/2 24.3 0.30 0.23 - Fabricated Carbon Steel
14 8 8 1/2 27.0 0.35 0.27 - Stainless Steel
16 8 8 1/2 30.0 0.41 0.31
- Aluminum
18 10 10 1/2 39.0 0.70 0.49
- Nylon
20 10 10 1/2 42.1 0.77 0.54
24 10 10 1/2 52.69 0.92 0.65
CONTINUOUS BUCKET STYLES
Our continuous bucket styles are designed to reduce material degradation during handling. Buckets act as
part of the discharge chute to provide a smoother, more continuous discharge. All styles are available for both
belt- and chain-type elevators. Optional vent/drain holes are available.
MEDIUM-FRONT
BUCKET SIZE WT. (lbs.) CAPACITY/CU. FT. MATERIALS OF

LENGTH PROJECTION DEPTH STRUCK WATER LEVEL CONSTRUCTION
12 Ga. 10 Ga. 3/16” 1/4”
(inches) (inches) (inches) CAPACITY CAPACITY
- Fabricated
8 5 7 3/4 5.1 6.3 8.7 - 0.070 0.040
Carbon Steel
10 5 7 3/4 5.9 7.4 10.2 - 0.090 0.050
- Stainless Steel
10 7 11 3/4 9.3 11.9 16.5 - 0.180 0.103
12 7 11 3/4 10.4 13.4 18.6 - 0.218 0.125 - Aluminum
12 8 11 3/4 11.2 14.4 20.0 26.1 0.275 0.163 - Various Plastics
14 7 11 3/4 11.6 14.9 20.7 - 0.253 0.145
14 8 11 3/4 12.4 16.0 22.2 29.1 0.325 0.190
16 8 11 3/4 13.7 17.6 24.5 32.0 0.375 0.220
18 8 11 3/4 14.9 19.2 26.7 35.0 0.420 0.250
HIGH-FRONT

12 Ga. 10 Ga. 3/16” 1/4”
- Fabricated
8 5 7 3/4 4.9 6.2 8.5 - 0.080 0.052
Carbon Steel
10 5 7 3/4 5.7 7.3 10.0 - 0.100 0.065
- Stainless Steel
10 7 11 5/8 9.1 11.6 16.0 20.9 0.190 0.130
12 7 11 5/8 10.3 13.2 18.2 23.9 0.240 0.155 - Aluminum
12 8 11 5/8 11.3 14.3 20.0 26.0 0.295 0.205
14 7 11 5/8 11.5 14.8 20.4 26.7 0.280 0.184
14 8 11 5/8 12.6 16.0 22.4 28.1 0.350 0.240
16 8 11 5/8 13.9 17.7 24.7 32.2 0.395 0.275
SUPER-CAPACITY

10 Ga. 3/16” 1/4” 5/16”
- Fabricated
12 8 3/4 11 3/4 22 29 39 49 0.54 0.35
Carbon Steel
14 8 3/4 11 3/4 23 31 41 51 0.63 0.41
- Stainless Steel
16 8 3/4 11 3/4 25 34 45 56 0.72 0.46
16 12 17 3/4 43 58 76 95 1.55 1.11 - Aluminum
18 8 3/4 11 3/4 27 36 48 60 0.81 0.52
20 8 3/4 11 3/4 29 39 52 65 0.90 0.58
20 12 17 3/4 49 67 88 110 1.94 1.40
24 12 17 3/4 55 75 104 130 2.33 1.68
30 12 17 3/4 65 88 117 146 2.91 2.11
36 12 17 3/4 73 99 132 165 3.49 2.53
Project Profile:
Frac Sand Bucket Elevators
FEECO designed and manufactured 11 centrifugal style bucket elevators for a Customer:
frac sand processing plant in Chippewa Falls, WI.
Capacities of the various elevators were 10 TPH, 250 TPH, and 500 TPH of sand. The
500 TPH units were equipped with dual 50 HP (37kW) shaft mount drives. Equipment Supplied:
(11) Bucket Elevators
Discharge height of elevators ranged from 50’ (15m) to 96’ (29m).
Project Location:
Chippewa Falls, WI, USA
Industry:
Mining
Material:
Frac Sand
Project Engineer:
Project Profile:
Potash Bucket Elevators
FEECO provided 18 double-chain, super-capacity, continuous bucket elevators Customer:

for a potash compaction plant. Proprietary
Equipment Supplied:
(18) Bucket Elevators up to 500 TPH, 132’
(40m) discharge height
Project Location:
Canada
Industry:
Mining
Material:
Potash
Project Engineer:
PARTS & SERVICE/AFTERMARKET
AFTERMARKET | 178
AFTERMARKET PARTS & SERVICES
FEECO International has over 65 years of experience delivering aftermarket process audits and engineering
services. Our Aftermarket Engineering Team can analyze everything from complete process systems to a single
piece of equipment.
AFTERMARKET SERVICES
Having tested and designed pilot plants for thousands of material samples, as well as manufacturing the
custom equipment needed for full-scale production, FEECO has a unique experience in delivering process
solutions. And while many manufacturers will only service their own brand of equipment, FEECO’s Aftermarket
Engineers offer a complete line of services for any brand of equipment:
COMPLETE PROCESS & RETROFITS: We can custom

EQUIPMENT AUDITS: We can manufacture a retrofit solution
“One of the advantages to
analyze how your process to integrate seamlessly into your
functions as a whole, as well as process, resolving identified being the leader in your industry,
individual pieces of equipment, process or operational issues. is that you have the oversight
in order to identify operational and the experience to look at
bottlenecks, improve online any process or piece of equip-
availability, and address regula- PROCESS OPTIMIZATION ment, and see what needs
tory compliance issues. & TESTING: We offer full process improvement. That’s what
design modeling capabilities to
makes FEECO unique.”
In addition to valuable bench- fine-tune existing systems, or
mark data, audits provide a evaluate a system’s ability to
- Craig Peppin
comprehensive report including handle a change in production
Customer Service Manager
short- and long-term recom- capacity or other new process
mendations. requirements.
AFTERMARKET | 179
SERVICE
FEECO offers a variety of service packages that can help you become proactive in the prevention of serious
loss of production and income due to equipment failure or material processing problems. We can work with
you to develop a custom service program to prolong equipment life and maintain process efficiency.
PRE-SALE SERVICES
FEECO process and layout consultants can visit your proposed site and make recommendations on
building and machinery placement. We also look into infrastructure sources such as electrical, fuel
and water sources, and other issues like foundation loadings and site conditions. At this point, we
can supply you with budget quotes on materials and installation costs.
COMMISSIONING AND INSTALLATION SERVICES

The FEECO Aftermarket Engineering Team offers a range of services to get your machine or
process up and running. We can work with your contractor in an advisory capacity to assure a
quick and efficient start-up. Having a FEECO Aftermarket Engineer on-site for installation provides
a one-source contact for mechanical and structural procedures in order to expedite scheduling
and issue resolution. In addition, Aftermarket Engineers have the ability to identify and sort parts,
sequencing order of installation and heading off potential re-work and voided warranties due to
critical inspection hold points being overlooked.
ONGOING SERVICES & MAINTENANCE

We offer a variety of ongoing maintenance and field services, and can design a custom service
program tailored to the needs of your equipment, with services including:
- Tire & Trunnion Wheel Grinding - Lifter Replacement - Bucket Elevator Tensioning
- Drum Alignment - Conveyor Belt Alignment - Bucket Elevator Loading
- Gear Replacement - Conveyor Belt Training - Bucket Elevator Alignment
- Seal Replacement - Mechanical Troubleshooting
EQUIPMENT AUDITS
Whether your equipment is FEECO brand or otherwise, our Aftermarket Engineers can visit your site
to inspect equipment and determine areas of improvement and where repairs are necessary. This
provides benchmark data for both the equipment and process, and provides a comprehensive
report, which includes both short- and long-term recommendations.
ANNUAL INSPECTIONS
Annual inspections are critical to catching problems before they have a chance to turn serious.
FEECO offers annual inspections for all of our equipment, as well as our competitors’, so we can
help you keep your equipment running efficiently for years to come.
EMERGENCY SERVICE
We understand that downtime is production and money lost. That’s why we offer emergency
service to get you up and running as quickly as possible. After hours Aftermarket Engineers can
respond to your call within the hour, and an on-site visit can be made for the earliest possible
travel arrangements.
AFTERMARKET | 180
TRAINING PACKAGES
We offer customized training programs to help you and your staff become familiar with how
your process and equipment should function and be maintained. This allows your operators and
maintenance personnel to become familiar with the equipment, allowing them to spot potential
problems, and maintain process efficiency.
LASER ALIGNMENT
No matter what your alignment needs, we’ve got you covered. We utilize a state-of-the-art laser
alignment system to perform alignments faster and with more precision than can be done with
traditional methods. Among other things, we can perform:
- Conveyor pulley and frame alignment

- Rotary drum shell, tire, trunnion wheel, pinion and
ring gear alignment
- Power transmission alignment
- Vertical and horizontal shaft alignment
- Alignment of offset-mounted machines
PARTS
In addition to our service programs, we also offer an extensive parts program, allowing you to keep the parts you
need on hand to minimize risk and downtime. We also keep an inventory of wear-critical parts in stock, to ensure
the parts you need are only a phone call away.
We can provide quality, single-source replacement parts like trunnion wheels, drive shafts, thrust rollers, tires,
gears, mixer paddles and pins, replacement shells, and many other replacement parts to get your equipment
back on-line in the shortest possible time.
Trunnion bases prepared for shipment

AFTERMARKET | 181
ANNUAL INSPECTIONS
Routine inspections are critical to maintaining process efficiency,
prolonging equipment life, and preventing unnecessary downtime. For
An Annual Rotary Drum
this reason, FEECO recommends having an inspection carried out on all
Inspection Covers the
equipment on an annual basis (or more, if the material being processed
Following Components:
is corrosive or abrasive, which can cause accelerated wear).
- Drum Shell
Annual inspections are the best way to catch potential problems
- Drum Drive
early, before they have a chance to turn serious. FEECO offers a
- Drum Tires and Wheels
thorough annual inspection program for all of our equipment, as well
as the equipment of our competitors’. - Trunnion Bases
- Thrust Rollers
WHAT AN ANNUAL INSPECTION LOOKS LIKE - Riding Ring/Girth Gear
A FEECO Aftermarket Engineer will visit your equipment on-site, in order - Inlet Breeching/Feed Chute
to observe the equipment both in operation, as well as while shut down, - Discharge Breeching/
depending on the type of equipment. Discharge Chute
- Drum Internals (Refractory,
The Aftermarket Engineer will do a walk-through, examining all compo- Flights, etc.)
nents and any areas where potential problems could occur. On-site - Burner/Combustion
operators and maintenance personnel are encouraged to join the Chamber
Aftermarket Engineer on the walk-through to become more familiar - Support Structure/Piers
with the equipment, and to provide feedback.
- Drum Seals
- Knocking Systems
Once the inspection is complete, the Aftermarket Engineer will provide a
detailed report, giving an overall picture of health, any components that
are in need of repair, and items to keep an eye on. These reports are a
valuable tool in keeping records of the equipment, and providing insight
into how downtime can be prevented in the future. SIGNS THAT YOUR EQUIPMENT IS IN
NEED OF AN INSPECTION
AFTER THE INSPECTION While all equipment is different, a
Upon completion of the inspection, the FEECO Aftermarket Engineering few general signs can indicate that
Team can work with you to address any items that need immediate a piece of equipment is in need
repair or replacement. of repair and should be inspected
immediately. This might include:
In addition, we can work with you to develop a long-term service plan
customized to your unique needs, including routine maintenance, mile - Chattering, vibrational noises,
marker services, and even stocking your spare parts shelf to minimize or other audible abnormalities
unnecessary downtime due to waiting on parts. - Visual abnormalities or
indications of wear
No matter what equipment you’re working with, annual inspections - Unexplainable process
provide an easy way to help prolong equipment life and prevent down- inefficiency
time. Contact us today to set up your annual inspection!
AFTERMARKET | 182
LASER ALIGNMENT
FEECO’s highly skilled Aftermarket Engineers utilize a state-of-the-art laser WE CAN ALSO PERFORM:
tracking system to perform rotary drum alignments, as well as a variety of
other tasks. - Drum shell ovality checks
- Drum base alignment
Where traditional methods of alignment relied on measuring angles and - Drum shell thickness testing
distances by hand, laser trackers utilize a laser beam to measure 3D - Coupling and shaft
coordinates, ensuring accuracy and efficiency, all while eliminating the alignments
potential for human error. - Elevation checks
- 3D Measuring
THE FEECO ADVANTAGE
- Spatial mapping for
Our state-of-the-art laser tracker offers many advantages over traditional
equipment layout
methods of alignment:
- Intricate chute designs
- Alignments are performed more quickly and accurately - Accurate equipment
- Precision accuracy allows for achieving extremely tight tolerances installs
- The laser tracker is portable and can be utilized anywhere; no need - Pattern layouts (both flat
to move equipment and circular/tubular)
- Benchmarking capabilities allow us to track historical data - Plant layouts (new
construction or existing
ROTARY DRUM ALIGNMENT plants)
The importance of proper rotary drum alignment should not be over- - Horizontal and vertical
looked. Misalignment causes excessive wear and can result in major checks of equipment -
conveyor and elevator
damage if left untreated. Rotary drums naturally fall out of alignment
alignment, paddle mixer
over time, due to regular wear and tear, so routine re-alignment is an shaft straightness, shuttle
important part of preventative maintenance. conveyor rail alignment,
and more.
SIGNS THAT A DRUM IS OUT OF ALIGNMENT INCLUDE:
- Excessive tire/wheel wear

- Damage to the tire/wheel
- Excessive wear on the thrust roller
- Damage to the thrust roller
- Pinion/girth gear wear
- Pinion/girth gear damage
- Drive components are chattering/vibrating
It is also imperative to ensure proper drum base installation during install,

as this too can contribute to alignment problems. Achieving proper drum
float and alignment will help prevent premature wear on tire and
trunnion wheels, as well as extend the life of the equipment.
AFTERMARKET | 183
TIRE GRINDING
As the support base for your rotary drum, tires and trunnion wheels bear
the full weight of the drum, and therefore, must be maintained to ensure
efficient operation. Problems starting in the drum base can quickly make
their way to other areas, causing major damage.
WHY DO I NEED TIRE GRINDING?

Over time, through normal wear and tear, tires and trunnion wheels can
become worn, resulting in pitting, spalling, timing marks, and other unde-
sirable characteristics. If left untreated, worn load-bearing surfaces can
cause the weight of the drum to be distributed unevenly. This can affect
other drum components, resulting in serious damage and downtime, and
in some cases, premature equipment failure.
Tire grinding is a service offered to restore the face of these load-bearing

surfaces, and is a cost-effective alternative to replacement. Tire grinding
works by grinding down the surface of the tire face to restore it to a
like-new condition.
SIGNS IT’S TIME FOR TIRE GRINDING

Operators should routinely examine load-bearing surfaces for signs of
wear. The following conditions on tires, trunnion wheels, or thrust rollers
are indications that it’s time for resurfacing:
- Chattering or vibrational noises (caused by uneven wear)

- Pitting (an orange peel-like appearance)
- Spalling
- Rolled over edges
- Timing marks
- Ridges
- Taper wear
- Washboarding
Reconditioning these worn surfaces ensures even weight distribution,

allowing your rotary drum to run more efficiently and helping to extend
the life of the equipment.
The need for tire grinding is also often an indication that the rotary drum
has fallen out of alignment. The drum should be realigned to prevent the
reoccurance of wear on tires due to misalignment. The FEECO Aftermar-
ket Engineering Team can realign your rotary drum quickly and accu-
rately using our state-of-the-art laser tracking system.
FEECO Aftermarket Engineers are highly trained in refurbishing

load-bearing surfaces on rotary drums and can come to your facility to
perform the operation. Often, these repairs can be done during
production, with no downtime needed.
AFTERMARKET | 184
KNOCKING SYSTEM OPTIONS

BALL AND TUBE KNOCKING SYSTEM
When it comes to controlling buildup in a drum, the
Ball and Tube knocking system is often the preferred
choice among rotary drum owners. Aside from being
highly effective, this system has less moving parts,
meaning it requires less maintenance. Ball chambers
are lined with reinforced bands to withstand ball
movement in both directions. This option is also
favored due to the fact that it is self-contained.
KEY FEATURES:
- Heavy-impact force for effective removal of

material buildup.
- Bolt-on design allows for easy installation to

an existing drum.
- Modular design allows individual knocker

assemblies to be removed without having to
remove the entire band.
- Self-contained knocker assemblies require little

to no maintenance.
- Impact plates are not fixed to drum shell, which

prevents damage to drum shell.
- Bands can be added or removed as needed.
- Easy to index knocker bands to each other to

From top to bottom: Drawing and 3D rendering of ball and tube
achieve maximum buildup removal. knocker; 3D rendering of ball and tube knockers on mounting bands.
Ball and tube knockers ready for mounting Mounting bands

AFTERMARKET | 185
PNEUMATIC HAMMER KNOCKING SYSTEM

The pneumatic hammer is a solenoid-activated
hammer that offers extreme flexibility. Mounted
above a strike plate on the drum, this hammer
delivers an adjustable amount of force, as set by the
operator. Force, frequency, and strike intervals can
be easily adjusted to custom variables.
KEY FEATURES:
- Variable force allows you to customize the

amount of force the drum receives for
optimal buildup removal.
- Variable frequency enables the drum to Above: Drawing and photo of pneumatic hammer
be knocked in a different location with each

strike as the drum rotates.
- Can be easily retrofitted onto any existing drum.
- Knockers can be turned off for noise reduction

when not needed.
- Multiple knocking assemblies can be run

off of a single control point.
COMMON FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN DECIDING ON A KNOCKING SYSTEM
- Adjust Impact Force - Quantity of Wear Items

- Adjust Impact Location - Safety/External Parts
- Adjust Frequency of Impacts - Applicable to Dusty/Corrosive E
nvironments
- Ease of Inspection - Applicable to High Temps
- Space (Swing) Requirements - Ease of Temp Stopping Impact
- Simplicity of Design - Integrity to Drum Shell
- Power/Control Requirements - Noise
- Ease of Retrofit to Existing Drum
- Rolling Wear
AFTERMARKET | 186
SEAL OPTIONS
LABYRINTH SEAL
Relative Leakage >>1.0
The labyrinth seal is a cost-effective option when air leakage into

the system is not a major concern.
This seal provides a torturous path for the ambient air by means of
relatively close clearance between the rotating seal ring and the
non-rotating housing. Sealing can be improved with the addition
of a flexible wrap between the seal plate and rotating shell.
SINGLE AND DOUBLE LEAF SEAL(S)

Single Leaf Relative Leakage = 1.0
Double Leaf Relative Leakage = 0.25
The single leaf seal (shown) is the seal of choice to minimize the
leakage of air into the dryer or kiln. Limiting leakage reduces fuel
consumption and can result in a capacity increase. The seal con-
sists of a series of overlapping spring steel plates that are mounted
to the housing and ride on a wear ring on the rotating shell.
The double leaf seal is used when less leakage can be tolerated
than with the single leaf seal. The double leaf consists of two leaf
Shown: Single Leaf Seal
seals with a ceramic fiber blanket sandwiched between the two
sets of leaves.
BELLOWS SEAL
Relative Leakage <<1.0
The bellows seal utilizes a wear material, such as graphite, to act

as a face seal when compressed against a flat, rotating surface.
The corrugated bellows accommodates significant longitudinal
expansion—especially useful for higher temperature drums such as
indirect kilns. The bellows is guided and supported by cam rollers.
APPENDICES
APPENDICES | 188
APPENDIX A: UNITIZED BASE

UNITIZED
DRIVE BASE
BENEFITS OF A FEECO UNITIZED DRIVE BASE HOW DOES IT WORK?

The unitized drive base is a base we engineered to make installation, The entire drive is mounted on an
alignment, and maintenance of rotary drum drive components eas- adjustable, one-piece drive base
ier and less time consuming. We know that downtime means money to allow for backlash adjustment
lost. We developed this drive base with an adjustment sole plate to of the pinion gear.
minimize turn-around time not only during installation, but also during
routine maintenance. This time saver can be used for rotary kilns, rotary The drive base is bolted down to
dryers, rotary calciners, rotary coolers, and rotary granulators. Our a sole plate resting on custom
unitized rotary drum drive base offers three main benefits: leveled “mounting pads.” Only
eight adjustment screws are used
QUICKER INSTALLATION: At installation, the FEECO unitized drive base is to easily adjust the entire unit-
shipped to you in one piece, completely assembled, and pre-aligned. ized base. This means there is no
Through simply leveling the sole plate, the motor, reducer, couplings, having to separately realign each
bearings, and pinion gear alignment is complete. component of the drive.
SAVINGS IN LABOR: Backlash adjustments with the unitized drive base Upon readjustment of the adjust-
can be checked or adjusted in minimum time. Without the unitized ing screws, the unit is “locked”
drive base, adjustment commonly takes two men two or more days. securely using the hold-down
Assuming that backlash is adjusted twice the first year of operation and bolts to secure the base to the
annually thereafter, labor savings are expected to be in the mounting pads.
$5,000-$10,000 range.
INCREASED GEAR LIFE: A unitized drive base can add life to the girth
and pinion gear as it allows plant personnel to check and correct mis-
alignments promptly. Other designs are more time consuming so plant
personnel tend to defer fixing misalignments and allow the gears to
operate when out of alignment.
APPENDICES | 189
Solutions
APPENDIX B: in Action
FEECO & ROCKWELL AUTOMATION:
SOLUTIONS IN ACTION
FEECO International provides state-of-the-art custom equipment and systems manufacturing

through advanced material profiling and process testing in their Innovation Center.
Innovation drives the success of most businesses. And that’s especially the
case for heavy industries where accelerating environmental concerns and
regulatory requirements are having a significant impact.
Today, many entities must focus on new and better ways to use resources
and drive profitability across their operations – from material handling and
Allen-Bradley ControlLogix processing through waste and byproduct transformation.
Programmable Automation Controller
“That’s what our company does,” said Lee Hoffmann, vice president and
general manager, FEECO International. “In our Innovation Center, we help
companies design, test and fine-tune new technology and processes.
And then we manufacture custom equipment to implement those
processes in production facilities.”
Founded in 1951 as an engineering and equipment manufacturing company,

FEECO quickly became an expert in granulation and developed a reputation
as a company that could solve a wide range of material challenges. From
Allen-Bradley PowerFlex headquarters in Green Bay, Wisconsin, FEECO enjoys a global customer
AC Drives base that spans mining, agriculture, ag-chemicals, power and utilities,
and specialty products.
APPENDICES | 190
Over the past decade, FEECO has applied numerous When customers are ready to move into commercial
solutions encompassing diverse applications – from production, the Rockwell Automation platform can be
enabling a mine to recover nickel in cellphone batteries to scaled to the appropriate capacity.
converting the nutrients in dairy manure into commercial
grade fertilizer. “We can easily transition from the proof of process to a real
project – and design a plant,” Peppin said.
“No matter what the application, our customers typically
approach us with an idea,” said Craig Peppin, customer To complete plant design and Factory Acceptance
services and laboratory manager, FEECO. “And they first Testing (FAT), FEECO collaborates with the local
want to prove that concept on a small scale.” Rockwell Automation Industrial Plant Services (IPS) group.
The company’s state-of-the-art Innovation Center is a FEECO develops the process description, flow
unique facility that offers comprehensive testing options diagram, piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs),
for both agglomeration and thermal processes. It includes control narrative, and motor and instrument list.
an analytical laboratory and pilot plant – and runs on a Rockwell Automation provides the design package
Rockwell Automation PlantPAx® distributed control for the electrical drives and motor control centers (MCCs) –
system (DCS). and develops the control logic and related documentation
and graphics.
Based on an Allen-Bradley® ControlLogix® platform and
EtherNet/IP™ network, the DCS incorporates intelligent After Factory Acceptance Testing, FEECO teams with
motor control devices, including Allen-Bradley PowerFlex® Rockwell Automation for plant integration and start-up.
AC drives for variable speed control and intelligent motor For some FEECO customers, Rockwell Automation provides
overloads for feedback and alarming. Local monitoring and remote support after the project is installed via secure
supervisory-level visualization capabilities provide FEECO Ethernet VPN connections.
with the real-time information and reporting they need to
“One of our customers was hesitant to contract for remote
control, monitor and document each step of their process
support, but now says it’s the best money he ever spent,”
utilizing FactoryTalk® View, FactoryTalk Historian and
Peppin noted. “He recognizes that this relationship saves
FactoryTalk VantagePoint® software.
both time and money in the long run.”
“In the Innovation Center, we typically start with a proof
Of course, for most customers the relationship with both
of concept to determine if the idea is feasible,” Peppin
FEECO and Rockwell Automation can be traced back to
explained. “Testing can also include proof of product,
their experience in the Innovation Center.
proof of process and product optimization.”
“We are walking the talk in our labs,” Hoffmann said.
As part of the operation, FEECO performs end-product
“We are able to demonstrate to our customers that this
testing that can include bulk density, flow rate,
is the value you can expect from us and through our
compression strength, particle size distribution, moisture
relationship with Rockwell Automation.”
content, abrasion and hardness and sieve analysis.
The pilot plant can be set up for testing on a single piece

of equipment, or multiple pieces of equipment as a
continuous process loop. For more information:
“Our customers often continue testing and tweaking FEECO
the formulations in our pilot plant,” Hoffmann said. Phone: 920.468.1000
“The Rockwell Automation system gives our customers Web: www.FEECO.com
an ‘aerial view’ of their process – so they can see exactly Email: sales@FEECO.com
what’s working and what needs improvement.”
Allen-Bradley, ControlLogix, FactoryTalk, Listen.Think.Solve., PlantPAx, PowerFlex, Rockwell Software and VantagePoint are trademarks of Rockwell Automation, Inc.
EtherNet/IP is a trademark of ODVA. Other trademarks are the property of their respective companies.
Publication OEM-AP495A-EN-P – May 2016 Copyright © 2016 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Printed in USA.
APPENDICES | 191
APPENDIX C: FEECO & MICROTRAC:

PARTICLE
ADVANCED PARTICLE ANALYSIS
ANALYSIS WITH
BENEFITS OF ADVANCED PARTICLE ANALYSIS Analysis (DIA), a number of particle characteristics are
FEECO has partnered with Microtrac, a leader in instantly measured, without disrupting the process.
particle characterization, to offer advanced particle
analysis capabilities, both during testing in the The system can be integrated into various points in
Innovation Center, and as part of a system purchase. the process depending on what data is desired. The
analyzer is capable of measuring 32 variables, with
The Innovation Center is equipped with an in-line some of the most common including:
PartAn 3-D PRO from Microtrac, giving us the ability
to analyze multiple variables in real time without - Size
disrupting production. The integration of the PartAN - Shape
3-D PRO provides precision results in real time, without - Thickness (unlike 2D DIA)
the delay, risk, or inaccuracy associated with manual
- Surface roughness (indicates poor flowability, or
sampling. This improved efficiency often translates to unwanted agglomeration)
faster start-ups and fewer shutdowns.
- Density
- Transparency
In addition to improved production, the risks
associated with manual sieving, such as lost tonnage - 3D capabilities
and lower product quality are also mitigated.
The pairing software system can be customized to
HOW IT WORKS report only on items of interest and even offers filtering,
The PartAn 3-D PRO can analyze particles in the size graphing, and data comparison capabilities.
range of 15 μm to 35,000 μm, with 3D size and shape
PARTICLE ANALYSIS DURING TESTING
for particles ranging from 35μm to 35,000 μm.
IN THE INNOVATION CENTER
Advanced particle analysis is ideal in many test
The unit uses a high-speed, high-definition camera
settings; whether you are developing a new product
to capture images of the particles in motion as they
or process, or you want to test how a process change
move past the camera. Through 3D Dynamic Image
will affect product output, the ability to gather multiple
APPENDICES | 192
variables in real time provides a bird’s eye view of No matter what your goals, advanced particle
process performance, streamlining these critical R&D analysis is an invaluable tool in streamlining the
stages. In combination with our Rockwell Automation process and product development stages, as well as
Control system, material testing and process maximizing commercial production efficiency.
development has never been more intuitive.
For more information on how particle analysis can
PARTICLE ANALYSIS IN COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION benefit you, contact us today!
Implementing an advanced particle analysis system
as part of your commercial process flow provides a
number of benefits.
Real-time data makes maintaining product quality

easier and more efficient than ever, helping you to
maintain maximum product consistency and salability.
This real-time data also allows you to immediately
recognize a change in output specifications, reducing
off-spec product and maximizing efficiency.
Agglomerated Tungsten Oxide

APPENDICES | 193
APPENDIX D: MATERIAL WEIGHTS

MATERIAL LBS/CU.FT. ANGLE OF MATERIAL LBS/CU.FT. ANGLE OF
REPOSE REPOSE
Acid, Phosphate, Fertilizer 60 - Barley 39 Up to 30°
Barley, Fine Ground 46
Air 60° and 14.7 PSIA 0.0765 -
Barley, Malted 31
Alcohol, Proof Spirit 58 - Barley, Meal 28
Barley, Whole 38
Alfalfa, Ground 16 45° & up
Alfalfa, Meal 17 - Basalt 184 -
Alfalfa, Seed 48 -
Batch, Glass 90-100 30-45°
Almonds, Broken or Whole 28-30 -
Bauxite, Crushed, Dry 75-85 30-45°
Alum, Lumpy 50-60 30-45° Bauxite, Ground 68 35°
Alum, Pulverized or Fine 45-50 30-45° Bauxite, Mine Run 80-90 31°
Alumina 50-60 22-45° Beans, Caster, Whole 36 Up to 30°

Alumina Jell 45 - Beans, Cocoa 37 -
Beans, Navy, Dry 48-54 Up to 30°
Aluminum Chips 7-15 - Beans, Soy 48 18°
Aluminum, Cost Pure 160-165 -
Aluminum Hydrate 18 34° Beets 48 -
Aluminum Oxide 70-120 Up to 30° Beets, Pulp 16 -
Aluminum Powder to 3” 80 - Beets, Sugar 40 -
Aluminum Silicate 49 -
Bentonite, Crude 34-40 45° & up
Aluminum Sulfate (Granular) 54 32°
Bentonite, Minus 100 Mesh 50-60 -
Ammonia, Anhydrous 38.7 - Bentonite, Pulverized 50 45°
Ammonia, Aqua 59.3 -
Benzine 50 -
Ammoniated Superphosphate 61.8 -
Benzine, Hexachloride 56 -
Ammonium Chloride, Crystalline 52-65 -
Bicarbonate of Soda 41 -
Ammonium Fluosilicote 78 -
Ammonium Nitrate 45 - Blood, Dried 35-45 -
Ammonium Nitrate, Granular 53.7 -
Blue Grass Seed 11-25 -
Ammonium Nitrate, Prilled 59.3 -
Ammonium Nitrate-Limestone 64.3 - Bonechar, Minus l/8” 27-40 -
Ammonium Nitrate Solution 81.7 - Bone Meal 55-60 -
Ammonium Phosphate (11-48) 53.7 - Bones 50 -
Ammonium Phosphate-Sulfate (16-20) 53 - Bones, Black 20-25 -
Ammonium Sulfate 45-60 32° Bones, Crushed 35-40 -
Bones, Granulated or Ground 50 -
Anthracite 97 -
Bones, Pulverized 50-60 -
Anthracite, Broken, Loose 52-57 27°
Borate of Lime 60 -
Apples 40 -
Borax, Fine 45-55 30-45°
Arsenic, Pulverized 30 -
Borax, Lump 60-65 -
Asbestos, Commercial 36 - Borax, Powdered 50-55 -
Asbestos, Ore 81 - Borax, Solid 110 -
Asbestos, Rock, Solid 153-175 -
Boric Acid, Fine 55 -
Asbestos, Shredded 20-25 45° & up
Boric Acid, Powdered 55 -
Ash, American White, Dry (Wood) 38-47 -
Bran 16 30-45°
Ashes, Dry 35-40 45° & up
Ashes, Fly 40-45 42° Brass, Cast 519 -
Ashes, Gas Producer, Saturated 78 - Brass, Rolled 534 -
Ashes, Soft Coal 35-45 40-45°
Ashes, Wet 45-50 45° & up Bread, Bulk 18 -
Asphalt, Binder 80-85 - Brewers Grain, Spent, Dry 25-30 45° & up
Asphalt, Crushed 45 30-45° Brewers Grain, Spent, Wet 55-60 -
Asphaltum 87.3 - Brick, Best Pressed 134-150 40°

Brick, Common Hard 112-125 -
B Brick, Fire Clay 144-150 -
Brick, Silica 128 -
Bagasse 5.5-10 45-50° Brick, Soft Interior 100 -
Bakelite, Fine 30-40 - Brickwork, Cement 112 -
Bakelite, Molded 82-88 - Bronze, Copper 8, Tin 1 552 -
Bakelite, Powdered 30-40 45° & up
Buckwheat 42 Up to 30°
Baking Powder 41 30-45°
Butter 59 -
Barite or Baryte 180 -
Baryte, Crushed 180 - C
Baryte, Loose 150-180 -
Calcine, Ore 110 -
Barium, Carbonate 72 -
Calcite, Transparent, Solid 170 -
Bark, Wood, Refuse 10-30 45°
APPENDICES | 194

REPOSE REPOSE
Calcium Acetate 125 - Coal, Anthracite 60 27°
Calcium Carbide 70-80 30-45° Coal, Anthracite, Loose 52-57 30-45°
Calcium Cyanamide, Granular 59.3 - Coal, Anthracite, Solid 94 -
Calcium Cyanamide, Pulverized 51.8 - Coal, Bituminous, Dry Fines & Lumps Mixed 50 -
Calcium Nitrate 61.8 - Coal, Bituminous, Broken of Any Size, Piled 44-52 35°
Calcium Phosphate, Mono 48-60 - Coal, Bituminous, Mined, Fines Minus 50 Mesh 50-54 45°
Calcium Phosphate, Di-Basic 87.5 - Coal, Bituminous, Mined, Slack, Minus 1/2” 43-53 37-40°
Calcium Phosphate, Tri-Basic 28 - Coal, Bituminous, Run of Mine 45-55 35-38°
Calcium Solid 80-98 - Coal, Bituminous, Solid 84 -
Coal, Bituminous Stripping 50-60 -
Camphor, Solid 62 -
Coal, Breeze 25-34 -
Cane Seed 41 - Coal, Char 24 -
Coal, Lignite 40-45 38°
Carbon Black Pellets 20-25 Up to 30° Coal Steam 50 -
Carbon Black Powder 4-7 -
Cocoa Beans 40 -
Carbon Powdered 4-6 - Cocoa Nibs 35-40 30-45°
Carbon Solid 134 - Cocoa, Powdered 35 -
Carborundum 3” & Under 100 - Cocoa Shells 30 -
Casein 36 - Cocoanut, Meal 32 -

Cocoanut Oil, Solidified 60 -
Cast Iron Borings 130-200 - Cocoanut, Shredded 20-25 45° & up
Cast Iron Chips 130-200 -
Coffee, Chaff 7.5 -
Caster Beans 36 - Coffee, Green Bean 39 30-45°
Coffee, Ground 25 -
Caustic Soda 88 -
Coffee, Roasted Bean 22-34 Up to 30°
Caustic Soda Flake 47 -
Coke, Breeze 25-34 30-45°
Cedar, Red, Dry 22 -
Coke, Large Lump 25-34 30-45°
Cedar, Red, Green 24-27 -
Coke, Loose 23-35 30-45°
Cement, Bulk 100 - Coke, Petroleum Calcined 35-45 30-45°
Cement, Clinkers 75-95 30-40° Coke, Pulverized 25-35 45° & up
Cement, Mortar 145 - Coke, Small 25 30-45°
Cement, Portland 94-100 - Coke, Refiners 35-40 -
Cement, Portland, Aerated 60-75 39°
Compost 30-50 -
Cement, Portland, Loose 90 40°
Cement, Rock 100-110 - Concrete, Cinder 90-110 -
Cement, Slurry 90 - Concrete, Conglamerate 143-150 -
Concrete, Gravel, With Portland Cement 150 -
Chalk, Crushed 85-90 -
Concrete, Limestone 148 -
Chalk, Fine 65-75 45° & up
Concrete, Loose 144 -
Chalk, Lumpy 75-85 45° & up
Concrete, Stone (Inplace) 130-150 -
Chalk, 100 Mesh & Under 65-75 -
Concrete, Wet, on Conveyor 110-150 -
Chalk, Powdered 30 -
Chalk, Pulverized 70-75 - Copper, Cast 542 -
Chalk, Solid 156 - Copper, Ore 120-150 30-45°
Copper, Rolled 555 -
Charcoal 15-30 35°
Copper, Sulfate 75-85 31°
Charcoal, Pine & Oak 15-38 -
Charcoal, Wood 15-30 - Copperas 50-75 -
Cheese 30 - Copra 22 -
Copra Cake 25-30 -
Cherrywood, Dry 44 -
Copra Cake, Ground 40-45 -
Chestnut Wood, Dry 38 -
Cork, Dry 15 -
Chips, Hogged, Fuel 10-30 - Cork Dust 23.7 -
Chips, Pulp Wood 10-25 - Cork, Fine Ground 12-15 45° & up
Cork, Granulated 12-15 -
Chocolate Powder 40 - Cork, Solid 15 -
Chrome Ore (Chromite) 125-140 - Corn, Cob 45-56 -
Chromium Ore 125-140 30-45° Corn, Cracked 45-50 -
Corn, Germs 21 -
Cinders, Blast Furnace 57 35° Corn, Grits 42-43 30-45°
Cinders, Coal 40 25-50° Corn, Meal 40 -
Clay, Calcined 80-100 - Corn Oil Cake 25 -
Clay, Compact 109 - Corn, Seed 45 -
Clay, Dry Fines 100-120 35° Corn, Shelled 45 30°
Clay, Dry in Lumps 60-75 24-45° Corn, Sugar 31 -
Clay, Kaolin Minus 3” 163 - Cotton, Compressed 45 -
Clay, Potter’s Dry 119 - Cotton, Goods 11-33 -
Clinker, Cement 80-95 - Cottonseed 25 -
Clover Seed 48 - Cottonseed, Cake, Cracked 41 -
Cottonseed, Dry 25 -
Cottonseed, Flakes 20-25 -
Cottonseed, Hulls 12 45° & up
Cottonseed, Meal 35 30-45°
Cottonseed, Meats, Dry 45-50 30-45°
Cracklings, Crushed 40-50 -
APPENDICES | 195

REPOSE REPOSE
Crockery 40 - Fluorspar 140 -
Fluorspar, Dust 80-95 45° & up
Cryolite 110 30-45°
Fluorspar, Lumps 110-120 45° & up
Cryolite, Dust 75-90 -
Fluorspar, Screenings 35-105 -
Cryolite, Lumpy 90-100 -
Fluorspar, Solid 200 -
Cullet 80-120 30-45°
Fly Ash, Dry 35-40 -
Culm 45-50 -
Foundry, Refuse 70-100 -
Cypress 38 - Foundry, Sand, Loose 80-90 -
Foundry, Sand, Rammed 100-110 -
D Fuller’s Earth, Burnt 40 -
Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) 45.6 - Fuller’s Earth, Dry 30-45 23°
Fuller’s Earth, Oily 60-65 -
Diatomaceous Earth 15.6 -
Fuller’s Earth, Oil Filter, Burned 40 -
Dicalcium Phosphate 43 - Fuller’s Earth, Oil Filter, Raw 35-40 35°
Fuller’s Earth, Raw 35-45 -
Disodium, Phosphate 25-31 - Fuller’s Earth, Spent 60-65 -
Dolomite, Crushed 90-110 - Furfural Waste 31.8 -
Dolomite, Lumpy 90-100 30-45°
Dolomite, Pulverized 46 - Fused Tricalcium Phosphate 78 -
Dolomite, Solid 180 -
G
Dust, Grain Mill 11 -
Garbage, Average 47 -
E Garbage, Household 50 -
Garbage Tankage 39.9 -
Earth, Common, Dry 70-80 30-45°
Earth, Common Loam, Dry, Rammed 90-100 - Gelatine, Granulated 32 -
Earth, Fullers Dry 30-35 23°
Gilsonite 37 -
Earth, Loose 76 30-45°
Earth, Moist, Loose 78 30-45° Glass Batch 80-100 30-45°
Earth, Mud 104-112 - Glass Broken 80-100 -
Earth, Wet, Containing Clay 100-110 45° Glass Cullet 70-120 -
Glass, Hot Fluid 150 -
Ebonite, Crushed 65-70 -
Glass, Plate 172 -
Egg Powder 16 - Glass, Window 157 -
Elm, Dry 42 - Glue, Animal Flaked 35-40 -

Glue, Pearl 40 -
Emery, Ground 170-250 - Glue, Vegetable 40 -
Epsom Salts 40-50 - Gluten, Meal 39 30-45°
Excelsior, 100# Bale 19 - Grains, Distillery 30 -
F Granite, Broken 95-100 -
Granite, Crushed 96 -
Fat 57 -
Granite, Lumps 85-90 30-45°
Feldspar 160 45° Granite, Screening 80-90 -
Feldspar, Crushed 85-110 34° Granite, Solid 130-166 -
Feldspar, Dust 75-80 45°
Grape, Pomace 15-20 -
Feldspar, Ground 65-70 -
Feldspar, Lumps 85-95 - Graphite, Flake 40 30-45°
Feldspar, Powdered 75 - Graphite, Flour 28 -
Feldspar, Screenings 70-85 38°
Grass Seed 11.2 -
Feldspar, Solid 160 -
Gravel, Bank Run With Sand 90-125 30-40°
Ferrous Sulfate 50-75 -
Gravel, Dry 100 30-40°
Fibre, Hard 87 - Gravel, Sized Without Sand 120 -
Gravel, Wet 100-120 -
Filter Press, Mud, Sugar 70 -
Greenstone, Crushed, Loose 107 -
Fir 35 -
Fir, Douglas Dry or Green 32-36 - Grit 86 -
Fir, Eastern 25 - Grit, Dry Sewage 37 -
Fish Emulsion 76.1 - Gypsum, Calcined 55-60 -
Fish, Meal 35-40 45° & up Gypsum, Crushed 80-100 -
Fish, Scrap 40-50 - Gypsum, Dust 60-70 42°
Gypsum, Ground 75-80 -
Flax 26 -
Gypsum, Lumps 70-90 30-45°
Flaxseed, Cake 48-50 - Gypsum, Powdered 60-80 -
Flaxseed, Meal 25 - Gypsum, Pulverized 60-80 45° & up
Flaxseed, Whole 45 Up to 30° Gypsum, Solid 142 -
Flint, Solid 162 - Guano, Dry 70 -
Flour 30-40 - Gunpowder 63 -

Flour, Wheat 35-40 45° & up
Flue, Dust 100-125 -
APPENDICES | 196

REPOSE REPOSE
H Lye 110 -
Hay, Baled 24 - M
Hay, Loose 5 -
Magnesite, Screen 65-75 35°
Hay, Pressed 24 -
Magnesite, Solid 187 -
Haydite 48 -
Magnesium, Chloride 33 -
Hemlock, Dry 25 - Magnesium, Solid 109 -
Magnesium, Sulfate 70 -
Hickory, Green 61-64 -
Magnesium Sulfate, Calcined Kierserite 87.4 -
Hickory, Perfectly Dry 48-53 -
Magnesium Sulfate, Epsom Salt 50.5 -
Hog Fuel 16-22 -
Mahogany, Honduras, Dry 35 -
Hominy Meal 44 - Mahogany, Spanish, Dry 56 -
Hops, Moist 50-55 45° & up Malt, Dry, Ground 22-35 33°
Hops, Spent, Dry 35 - Malt, Dry, Whole 27-30 -
Malt, Meal 36-40 -
Humus 30-40 - Malt, Wet or Green 60-65 -
I Maize 40-45 -
Ice, Broken or Crushed 40-45 Up to 30° Manganese 500 -
Ice, Solid 57.4 - Manganese, Dioxide 80 -
Manganese, Ore 125-140 39°
Ilmenite 144 30-45°
Manganese, Oxide 120 -
Ilmenite, Granulated 165 -
Manganese, Solid 475 -
Ilmenite, Ore 140 -
Manganese, Sulfate 70 -
Iron, Borings 125-200 -
Manure 25 -
Iron Cast Ductile 444 -
Manure, Dried Sheep & Cattle 24.3 -
Iron Cast Gray 446 -
Manure, Dried Poultry 41.2 -
Iron, Ore 100-200 35°
Manure Salts, New Mexican 71.8 -
Iron, Ore, Crushed 135-150 -
Iron, Oxide, Pigment 25 40° Maple, Dry 44-49 -
Iron, Wrought 480 -
Marble, Crushed 90-95 30-45°
K Marl 80 30-45°
Kaffir 40-45 - Masonry, Granite or Limestone 165 -
Kaolin, Clay 63 35° Meat, Ground 50-55 -
Kaolin, Talc 42-56 45°
Mercury at 32° F 849 -
L
Mica, Flakes 17-32 -
Lactose 32 - Mica, Ground 13-15 34°
Mica, Pulverized 13-15 -
Lamp, Black 4-6 -
Mica, Schist, Powder 61 -
Lard 60 -
Milk 65 -
Lead Arsenate 72 - Milk, Dried, Flake 36 -
Lead Commercial 710 - Milk, Malted 27 45° & up
Lead, Ores 200-270 30° Milk, Powdered 20 -
Lead, Oxide 60-150 -
Mill, Run, Feeds 19 -
Lead, Red 230 -
Mill, Scale 100-125 -
Leather, Dry 54 -
Mineral, Wool 6-10 -
Lignite, Air Dried 45-55 30-45°
Mixed Feeds, Heavy 20-28 -
Lignum, Vitae, Dry 41-83 - Mixed Feeds, Light 18-22 -
Lime, Briquettes 60 - Mixed Fertilizers, Liquid 81.1 -

Lime, Burnt 64 - Mixed Fertilizers, N-K 58.7 -
Lime, Ground 60 43° Mixed Fertilizers, N-P-K 60.5 -
Lime, Hydrated 27-40 40° Mixed Fertilizers, P-K 66.8 -
Lime, Pebble 53-56 30° Mixed Fertilizers, Granular 57.4 -
Lime, Quick 75-95 -
Molybdenum Ore, Powdered 107 40°
Lime, Shaken 64 -
Lime Sulfur Solution 82.4 - Mortar, Hardened 103 -
Mortar, Wet 150 -
Limestone, Agricultural 68 -
Limestone, Crushed 85-90 35° Mud, Dry Close 110 -
Limestone, Dust 80-85 - Mud, Pressed 130 -
Limestone, Loose 96 - Mud, Wet Fluid 120 -
Limestone, Marble, Loose 96 -
Limestone, Pulverized 75-85 45° & up Muriate of Potash 77 -
Limestone, Screenings 85-90 - Mustard Seed 45 -
Limestone, Solid 165 -
Linseed, Meal 44 30-45°
N
Linseed, Whole 56 Up to 30° Nickel, Ore 150 -
Nickel, Rolled 541 -
Litharge, Powdered 500 -
Nitrogen Solutions, Ammonia &
Lithopone, Fine Dry 45-50 -
Ammonium Nitrate 74.9 -
Locust, Dry 46 - Nitrogen Solutions, Urea & Ammonium Nitrate 82.4 -
APPENDICES | 197

REPOSE REPOSE
O Phosphate, Acid, Fertilizer 60 26°
Phosphate, Bone, Fertilizer 60 -
Oak, Live, Dry 59-72 - Phosphate, Florida 93 27°
Oak, White, Dry 50 - Phosphate, Granular 90 -
Phosphate, Pebble 100 -
Oatmeal 45 -
Phosphate, Rock 75-85 30-45°
Oats 26 -
Phosphate, Rock, Pebble 93 -
Oats, Crushed 22 -
Phosphate, Rock, Pulverized 60 40°
Oats, Ground Fine 30 -
Phosphate Rock 50%-200 81 -
Oats, Hulls 8 -
Oats, Rolled 19 30-45°
Oilcake 48-50 - Phosphate Rock, Florida Land Pebble 79.9 -
Phosphate, Sand, Slurry 85 30-45°
Oil, Linseed 58.7 -
Phosphate, Super Ground 51 45°
Oil, Olive 57.1 -
Oil, Petroleum 55 - Phosphoric Acid 105.5 -
Oil, Turpentine 54 -
Pickles 38.5 -
Oil, Whale 57.4 -
Pine, White, Perfectly Dry 32 -
Onions 46 -
Pine, Yellow, Northern 34 -
Orange Peel, Dry 15 - Pine, Yellow, Southern 41 -
Ore, Copper 190 - Pitch 71.7 -
Ore, Iron, Hard Hematite 325 35-45° Pitch, Crushed 50 -
Ore, Limonite 327 35-45°
Plaster 53 -
Ore, Magnetite 315 35-45°
Ore, Pulverized 263 - Plaster of Paris 140 -
Ore, Red Messabi Hematite 325 -
Ore, Soft, Iron 135-150 35° Plumbago, Crushed 85-90 -
Ore, Zinc, Crushed 160 - Polyethylene, Resin Pellets 30-35 -
Oxalic Acid Crystals 60 - Polystyrene Beads 40 -
Oxide, Iron Sponge 28-50 - Poplar, Dry 29 -
Oxide, Spent 70 32°
Oxide, Spent, Cinders 93 42° Potash 80 -
Potash, Salts, Sylvite, Etc. 80 -
Oyster Shells, Ground 53 30-45°
Oyster Shells, Whole 75-80 - Potassium Carbonate 51 -
Potassium Chloride, Pellets 120-130 30-45°
P Potassium, Nitrate 76 -
Potassium, Sulfate 42-48 -
Paper 58 -
Paper, Baled 15 - Potatoes, Irish 48 -
Paper, Calendars, Books 50 - Potatoes, Sweet 40 -
Paper, Manila 37 - Potatoes, White 48 -
Paper, News 38 -
Paper, Pulp, Stock 60-62 - Precipitated Phosphate 50.5 -
Paper, Wrapping Rolled 70 - Pumice, Ground 40-45 45° & up
Paper, Writing 64 - Pumice, Stone 39 -
Paraffin, Cake, Broken 45 - Pyrites, Cinders 100 -
Paraffin, Solid 55.5 - Pyrites, Copper Ore 262 -
Paraffine 45 - Pyrites, Iron 135-145 -
Parsnips 44 - Pyrites, Pellet 120-130 30-45°
Peaches 38.5 - Quartz, Dust 70-80 -

Peaches, Dry 26 - Quartz, Loose 94 -
Quartz, Lumps 85-95 -
Peanut Hull Meal 31.2 - Quartz, Pulverized or Granular 110 -
Peanuts, In Shell 15-19 30-45° Quartz, Sand 70-80 -
Peanuts, Raw, Uncleaned 15-20 - Quartz, Screenings 80-90 -
Peanuts, Shelled 35-45 30-45° Quartz, Solid 165 -
Pears 46.5 - R
Peas, Dried 48 - Rags, Baled, Cotton 18 -
Peas, Green 26 - Rags, Baled, Linen 23 -
Peas, Shelled 48 - Rags, Baled, Woolen 20 -
Peat, Dry 30-47 - Rape, Seed 40 -
Peat Moss 13.7 -
Peat, Reed & Sedge 48.7 - Red Lead 150-300 -
Pebbles 90-100 - Redwood, California, Dry 28 -

Redwood, California, Green 55 -
Pepper, Black 30 -
Resin, Synthetic, Crushed 30-40 -
Perlite 8.1 -
Rice, Bagged 50 -
Petroleum, Coke 35-45 - Rice, Bran 20 -
Rice, Grits 42-45 30-45°
Rice, Hulled and Polished 45-48 Up to 30°
Rice, Rough 36 30-45°
Rip-Rap 80-105 -
APPENDICES | 198

REPOSE REPOSE
Rock, Soft 100-110 - Slate 175 -
Slate, Crushed 80-90 28°
Rope 42 -
Slate, Dust 70-80 35°
Rosin, Pellets 30-35 - Slate, Fine Ground 80-90 30-45°
Rosin, Solid 68.6 - Slate, Flakes 70-85 -
Slate, Granulated 95 -
Rubber, Caoutchouc 60 - Slate, Lumps 85-95 -
Rubber, Ground 23-35 45° & up Slate, Solid 165-175 -
Rubber, Manufactured 95 -
Rubber, Pelletized 50-55 35° Sludge, Raw, Sewage 64 -
Rubber, Reclaim 25-30 32°
Slurry, Cement 90 -
Rye 42-46 Up to 30°
Snow, Compacted By Rain 15-50 -
Rye, Bran 15-20 -
Snow, Depending on Wetness 5-50 -
Rye, Meal 32 -
Snow, Fresh Fallen 5-12 -
S Soap, Beads or Granules 15-25 -
Soap, Chips 15-25 30-45°
Salicylic Acid 29 -
Soap, Detergents 15-50 -
Salt, Cake 60-85 30-45° Soap, Flakes 5-15 30-45°
Salt, Coarse 40-55 30-45° Soap, Powder 20-25 30-45°
Salt, Common 45-55 - Soap, Solid 50 -
Salt, Dry, Fine, Common 70-80 25°
Soapstone, Solid 170 -
Salt, Fine 70-80 30-45°
Soapstone, Talc 40-50 -
Saltpeter 70-80 30-45°
Salts, Epsom 40-50 - Soda 42 -
Soda, Ash, Dense 30-75 37°
Sand, Bank, Damp 110-130 45°
Soda, Ash, Heavy 55-65 32°
Sand, Bank, Dry 90-110 25-35°
Soda, Ash, Light 20-35 37°
Sand, Core 90 41°
Soda, Ash, Briquettes 50 22°
Sand, Dry 90-110 34°
Soda, Bicarbonate 85 -
Sand, Foundry 100 30-45°
Soda, Nitrate 70 -
Sand, Moist 100-110 30-45°
Sand, Molding 100 - Sodium 60 -
Sand, Rammed 100-110 - Sodium, Aluminate, Ground 72 -
Sand, River Dry 106 - Sodium Aluminum Sulfate 75 31°
Sand, Silica 125 - Sodium Bicarbonate 41 42°
Sand, Wet 110-130 45° & up Sodium, Nitrate 70-80 24°
Sands, Void Full of Water 110-130 15-30° Sodium, Phosphate 60 -
Sodium, Sulfate (See Salt Cake) 85 -
Sandstone, Broken 85-90 -
Sandstone, Quarried and Piled 82-86 - Soybean, Cake 40-43 -
Soybean, Flakes 18-26 -
Sawdust, Sp. Alfalfa 10-15 -
Soybean, Flour 27 -
Sawdust, Sp. Broom Corn 42 -
Soybean, Meal, Cold 40 -
Sawdust, Sp. Cane 41 -
Soybeans, Cracked 30-40 -
Sawdust, Sp. Clover 48 -
Soybeans, Whole 45-50 Up to 30°
Sawdust, Sp. Cotton 25-30 30°
Sawdust, Sp. Cotton Meal 33 40° Spruce, California, Dry 28 -
Sawdust, Sp. Flax 45 21° Spruce, Dry 25 -
Sawdust, Sp. Flax, Ground 28 40° Spruce or Cypress, Dry 28 -
Sawdust, Sp. Grass, Blue 11 35° Spruce or Cypress, Green 25 -
Sawdust, Sp. Hemp 35 -
Sawdust, Sp. Rape 48 - Starch, Corn 45 -
Sawdust, Sp. Sorghum 32 - Starch, Powdered 23 -
Sawdust, Sp. Sunflower 38 - Starch, Solid 95 -
Sawdust, Sp. Timothy 36 30° Stearic Acid 85 -
Scale, Rolling Mill 125-160 - Steel 487 -
Screenings, Sewage 55 - Steel, Chips 100-150 30-45°
Steel, Punchings 250 -
Sesame, Seed 27 - Steel, Trimmings 75-150 35°
Steel, Turnings 80-150 -
Sewage, Sludge 40-50 -
Steel, Shavings 58-65 35-45°
Sewage, Sludge, Activated 42.4 -
Steel, Solid 487 -
Sewage, Sludge, Dried 35 -
Stone, Crushed 100 30-40°
Shales, Broken 90-100 30-45°
Stone, Large 100 -
Shales, Crushed 85-90 39°
Stone or Gravel 95-100 -
Shales, Red and Black 92 39°
Stone, Screened 100 -
Shales, Solid 162 -
Straw, Baled 24 -
Shellac 80 -
Straw, Board 24-33 -
Shellac, Powdered or Granulated 31 -
Straw, Loose 3 -
Silica, Flour 80 -
Sugar Beet Pulp, Dry 12-15 -
Silica, Gel 45 -
Sugar Beet Pulp, Wet 25-65 30°
Slag, Birmingham 80-95 -
Slag, Blast Furnace 80-90 25°
Slag, Furnace 160-180 -
Slag, Furnace, Granulated 53-65 25-45°
Slag, Hard Blast 80 -
Slag, Solid 160-180 -
APPENDICES | 199

REPOSE REPOSE
Sugar, Brown 45 - U
Sugar, Granulated 50-55 30-45°
Sugar, Loose 42 - Urea, Crystal 35.6 -
Sugar, Powdered 50-60 - Urea, Pellet 41.2 -
Sugar, Refined 55 - Urea-Form 28.1 -
Sugar, Wet, Beet 55-65 30°
Sugar Cane, Knifed 15-18 45° & up V
Sugar Cane, Raw 55-65 30° Vermiculite, Exfoliated 16.2 -
Sugar Cane, Unknifed 22-25 - Vermiculite, Expanded 16 -
Sulfate, Ammonium 90 - Vermiculite, Ore 80 -
Sulfate of Potash - Magnesia 84.9 - Vetch 48 -
Sulfur 125 - Vinegar 67.4 -
Sulfur, Crushed Dry Commercial 50-85 -
Sulfur, Dust 50-70 30-45° W
Sulfur, Ground 45 23°
Sulfur, Loose 50-60 20° Walnut, Black, Dry 41 -
Sulfur, Lumpy 80-85 30-45° Water, Distilled 62.4 -
Sulfur, Ore 87 - Water, Sea 64.08 -
Sulfur, Powdered 50-60 -
Sulfur, Solid 125 - Wax 60.5 -
Superphosphate, 18 - 20% 56.8 - Wheat 48 28°

Superphosphate, 42 - 48% 59.9 - Wheat, Bran 11-15 -
Wheat, Cracked 40-45 30-45°
Sunflower, Seed 19-26 - Wheat, Flour 25-40 -
Sycamore, Dry 37 - Wheat, Germ 28 -
White Lead, Dry 74 -
T
Wood Chips 10-30 45° & up
Taconite Pellets 116-130 -
Wood, Flour 16-35 -
Talc 170 - Wood Pulp, Damp 20-45 -
Talc, Granulated 50-65 - Wood Pulp, Lap 21.5 -
Talc, Lumps 85-95 - Wood Pulp, Moist 45-65 -
Talc, Powdered 50-60 - Wood Shavings 15 -
Talc, Screenings 80-90 - Woods, Ash, Dry 38 -
Talc, Solid 165-170 - Woods, Cedar 35 -
Talcum Powder 50-60 - Woods, Chestnut 40 -
Woods, Cypress 29 -
Tallow 58.6 - Woods, Ebony 80 -
Tanbark, Ground 55 - Woods, Elm Dry 35 -
Woods, Fir, Douglas 32 -
Tankage 50-70 - Woods, Fir, Eastern 25 -
Tankage, Animal 43.1 - Woods, Hickory, Dry 53 -
Woods, Lignumvitae, Dry 41-83 -
Tar or Pitch 62.4 -
Woods, Mahogany, Dry 35-53 -
Tar, Solid 71.7 -
Woods, Maple, Dry 49 -
Tea 16 - Woods, Oak. Dry 59 -
Woods, Pine, White, Dry 24 -
Terracotta 65-122 - Woods, Pine, Yellow, Dry 38 -
Timothy Seed 36 - Woods, Poplar 29 -
Woods, Walnut, Black Dry 38 -
Tin, Cast 455 -
Wool 15-30 -
Titanium Dioxide 25 -
Z
Titanium Sponge 60-70 -
Zinc, Calcines 75-80 30-45°
Tobacco 28 - Zinc, Cast Spelter 428 -
Tobacco, Scraps 15-25 45° & up Zinc, Concentrate, Dust 125 -
Tobacco, Snuf 30 - Zinc, Concentrates 75-80 -
Tobacco, Stems 16-25 45° & up Zinc, Ore, Crushed 160 38°
Traprock, Compact 187 - Zinc, Ore, Granular 160 -
Traprock, Crushed 97-107 30-45° Zinc Ore, Roasted 100 38°
Traprock in Piles 107 - Zinc Oxide 10-35 45° & up
Traprock, Lumps 100-110 - Zinc Oxide, Heavy 30-35 -
Traprock, Screenings 90-100 - Zinc Oxide, Light 10-15 -
Zinc or Spelter 428 -
Triple Super Phosphate 50-55 45° Zinc Sulfide, Ore 150 -
Trisodium Phosphate, Granular 60 26°
Trisodium Phosphate, Pulverized 50 40°
Tung Nut Meats, Crushed 25 -
Turf 20-30 -
Turnips 44 -
APPENDICES | 200
APPENDIX E: METAL CORROSION

The primary purpose of this guide is to provide a general indication of suitability of various metals and accompa-
nying seat and seal materials when used in the construction of Homestead Valves. The charts which are shown
on the following pages are arranged to provide positive and negative comparisons of different materials.
It is important to remember that these charts are merely indicators and that the recommendations are not final;
they are tentative because variations in actual operating conditions make the material recommendations sub-
ject to change. When service conditions cannot be easily evaluated, a trial installation should be encouraged.
To help make interpretation of the charts more obvious, the letters Y, N, and F have been used to mean:
Y - Yes, that said material is recommended.
N - No, that said material is unsuitable.
F - Fair, some corrosion is expected, but that the rate of corrosion will not be dangerously rapid.
A dash (-) indicates no information is available.
L
L
SS
SS
SS
S
EE
EE
A LES
LE
LE
LE
ST
ST
E
TO NE
N
N
IN
IN
IN
IN
VI REN
O
O
N
N
EO N
EO N
ZE
ZE
E
A
A
IR
IR
*
*
PR
O
O
-
-
N
N
ST
ST
ST
ST
N
N
A
P
RB
RB
FLUID OR SERVICE FLUID OR SERVICE
ST
ST
TO
O
O
N
N
3
6
A
A
BU
BU
A
A
BR
BR
30
31
30
31
VI
N
N
C
C
C
C
Acetate Solvents - Y Y Y Y N N Y Ammonium Bromide - N - - - - - -
Acetic Acid N N N F Y Y Y Y Ammonium Chloride N N N F Y F F Y
Acetic Anhydride N N N Y Y Y Y N Ammonium Citrate - N - - - - - -
Acetone Y Y Y Y Y N F Y Ammonium Hydroxide - N N Y Y Y Y Y
Acetylene Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Ammonium Nitrate N N F Y Y Y Y Y
Acids - Fatty N Y N Y Y Y Y Y Ammonium Oxalate - N - - - - - -
Air Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Ammonium Phosphate N N N Y Y Y Y Y
Air Lifts Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Ammonium Sulfate Y N N - Y Y Y Y
Alcohol - Y F Y Y Y Y - Ammonium Sulfate Liquor - N N - - - - -
Alcohol - Amyl - Y F Y Y Y Y - Amyl Acetate N Y F Y Y N N N
Alcohol - Butyl - Y F Y Y F Y Y Amyl Chloride - Y Y Y Y N N -
Alum N N N F Y Y Y - Aniline Y N F Y Y N F F
Aluminum Chloride - N - F F Y - - Aniline Dyes - N F Y Y F N Y
Aluminum Hydroxide - Y - Y Y Y - Y Aniline Oil Y - - - - N N -
Aluminum Sulfate - N N F - Y Y Y Asphalt Y Y Y Y Y F F Y
Ammonia (Gas or Liquid) Y N - Y Y Y Y N B
Ammonia Anhydrous - N Y Y Y N F - Barium Carbonate - Y - Y Y Y Y Y
Ammonia & Brine - N - - - - - - Barium Chloride N - - - - Y Y Y
Ammoniacal Copper Oxide - N - - - - - - Barium Hydroxide Y N N Y Y Y Y Y
Ammonia & Caustic Soda - N - - - - - - Barium Sulfate - Y - Y Y Y Y Y
Ammonia & Creosote Oils - N - - - - - - Barium Sulfide Y N N Y Y Y Y Y
Ammonia Liquor (Crude) - N - - - - - - Beer Y Y - Y Y Y Y Y
Ammonia Recovery Lines - N - - - - - - Beet Sugar Liquids - Y - - - Y Y Y
Ammonia Saturators - N - - - - - - Beet Sugar Liquors Y N F Y Y Y Y Y
Ammonia Spray Lines - N - - - - - - Benzaldehyde (Pure) - Y - - - N N -
Ammonia & Tar - N - - - - - - Benzene (Benzol) Y Y Y Y Y N N Y
*Teflon is recommended for all of the above services.

APPENDICES | 201
L
BU AIN S
N -N SS
BU AIN S
N -N SS
EE
EE
S
S
LE
A LE
LE
A LE
ST
ST
E
E
N
N
IN
31 AIN
VI REN
VI REN
O
O
N
N
ZE
E
A
IR
IR
*
*
Z
O
O
N
N
ST
ST
ST
ST
N
N
P
P
RB
RB
ST
ST
TO
TO
EO
EO
O
O
N
N
3
6
A
A
A
A
BR
BR
30
31
30
C
C
C
C
Benzine (Pet. Ether) Y Y - - - - - - Dyes, Oil Soluble - Y Y Y Y - - -
Benzoic Acid - N N Y Y Y Y Y Dyes, Water Soluble - Y Y Y Y - - -
Benzol - Y - - - - - - E
Black Liquor Y N F Y Y F Y - Epsom Salts - Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Blast Furnace Gas Y - - - - - - - Ether- Ethyl - Y Y Y Y N F F
Borax Y N F Y Y Y Y Y Ethyl Alcohol Y Y F Y Y Y Y Y
Boric Acid N N F Y Y Y Y Y Ethyl Chloride - Y Y Y Y Y Y -
Bunker Oil Y - - - - - - - Ethylene Glycol Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Butadiene Y Y Y Y Y F F Y F
Butane Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Ferric Chloride - N N N N Y Y Y
Butyric Acid - F N Y Y Y F F Ferrous Chloride - N N N F Y Y Y
C Ferrous Sulfate - F - Y Y Y Y Y
Calcium Bisulfite - N N F Y Y Y Y Fish Oil - N N Y Y Y Y Y
Calcium Chloride Y Y F F F Y Y Y Formaldehyde N Y N Y Y Y Y -
Calcium Hydroxide Y N F Y Y Y Y Y Freon Y Y Y Y Y F F Y
Calcium Hypochlorite N - - F F Y Y Y Fruit Juices - - - Y Y Y Y Y
Cane Sugar Liquors Y Y Y Y Y Y - - Fuel Oil - F Y Y Y Y Y Y
Carbolic Acid N N N Y Y N F Y Fuming Sulfuric Acid Y - - - - - - Y
Carbon Bisulfide - F F Y Y N N Y Furfural Y - - - - N Y N
Carbon Dioxide Y Y Y Y Y F F - Furfural & Oil Y - - - - N Y N
Carbon Disulfide Y - - - - - - - G
Carbon Monoxide - - - Y Y - - - Gallic Acid - - - Y Y Y Y -
Carbon Tetrachloride N F N F F N N Y Gas, Air & Water Y - - - - Y Y Y
Carbonic Acid - N N Y F Y Y Y Gases (Natural) Y - Y Y Y Y Y Y
Castor Oil Y Y F Y Y Y Y Y Gasoline Y Y Y Y Y Y F Y
Caustic Potash - N F Y Y N N - Gasoline, Sour N F F Y Y F N Y
Caustic Soda - N F Y Y N N - Gasoline & Steam Y - - - - - - Y
Caustics ond Benzol - N F Y Y N N - Gasoline & Water Y - - - - Y F Y
Caustics ond Gasoline - N F Y Y N N - Gas Service Lines Y - - - - Y Y Y
Caustics ond Steam - N F Y Y N N - Gelatine - N F Y Y Y Y Y
Caustic & Thiosulfate - N F Y Y N N - Glucose Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Chlorine - N N - - F F Y Glue Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Chlorobenzene - Y F Y Y N N Y Glycerin Y F F Y Y Y Y Y
Chloroform - Y F Y Y N N Y Green Liquor Y - - - - F Y -
Chrome Alum N - - Y Y F F - H
Citric Acid N F - F Y Y Y Y Heptane - Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Coke Oven Gas Y N F Y Y F N - High Test Gasoline Y Y Y Y Y Y F Y
Copper Acetate - N N Y Y - - - Hydraulic Oil Y Y Y Y Y Y F Y
Copper Sulfate N N N F Y Y Y Y Hydrobromic Acid - N N N N N F -
Corn Oil Y Y - - - Y Y Y Hydrochloric Acid N N N N N Y F -
Cottonseed Oil Y Y - Y Y Y Y Y Hydrocyanic Acid N - - Y Y N - -
Creosote Y Y - - - F Y Y Hydrocyanic Acid Gas - N - - - N - -
Cresylic Acid N - - Y Y F N Y Hydrofluoric Acid N N N N N N Y -
Crude Oil - F - - - - - - Hydrogen Y F F Y Y - - -
D Hydrogen Sulfide Y N N Y Y F Y Y
Diesel Fuel Y - - - - Y F Y I
Drinking Water Y Y Y Y Y Y Y - Illuminating Gas - Y Y Y Y F Y -
Drip Cocks (Gas) Y - - - - Y Y Y Iodine N N N N N Y Y Y

APPENDICES | 202
L
BU AIN S
N -N SS
BU AIN S
N -N SS
EE
EE
S
S
LE
A LE
LE
A LE
ST
ST
E
E
N
N
IN
31 AIN
VI REN
VI REN
O
O
N
N
E
ZE
A
IR
IR
*
*
Z
O
N
N
ST
ST
ST
ST
N
N
P
P
RB
RB
ST
ST
TO
TO
EO
EO
O
O
N
N
3
6
A
A
A
A
BR
BR
30
31
30
C
C
C
C
Iso-Octane - Y Y Y Y Y F - Oil (Veg. & Animal) Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
lsopropyl Alcohol - Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Oleic Acid N N F F Y Y F Y
J Oleum - N N F Y F F F
Japan (Lacquer) N Y - - - N N N Oxalic Acid N N N F Y F Y Y
Jet Fuel Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y P
K Paint Y Y Y Y Y N N -
Kerosene Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Paint Thinner Y Y Y Y Y N N -
Kerosene & Water Y - - - - Y Y Y Palmitic Acid N - - Y Y Y F Y
L Petroleum Oil Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Lacquers N Y Y Y Y N N N Phenol - - - Y Y N F Y
Lacquer Solvents N Y Y Y Y N N N Phosphoric Acid (Conc.) N N N N N F Y Y
Lactic Acid - N N Y Y F Y Y Phosphoric Acid (Dilute) N N N Y Y Y Y Y
Lard - - - Y Y Y Y Y Picric Acid Y - - Y Y F Y -
Lime (Milk of Lime) Y - - - - Y Y Y Potassium Chloride Y Y - - F Y Y Y
Lime Sulfur Y - - - - - - - Potassium Cyanide Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y
Linseed Oil Y - - Y Y Y Y Y Potassium Hydroxide N - Y Y Y Y Y Y
Lubricating Oils (Min.) Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Potassium Nitrate - F Y Y Y Y Y Y
Lye (Sodium Hydroxide) Y Y Y Y Y F Y F Potassium Sulfate Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
M Potassium Sulfide - - Y Y Y Y - -
Magnesium Bisulfite - - - Y Y - - - Printing Ink N - - - - Y Y Y
Magnesium Chloride N N N F F Y Y Y Producer Gas Y - - - - Y - Y
Magnesium Hydroxide Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Propane Dry Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Magnesium Sulfate Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Propyl Alcohol - Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Mercuric Chloride N N N N N - Y - R
Mercury Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Resin - Y N Y Y N N -
Meter Cock (Gas) Y - - - - Y Y Y Reversing Valves (Gas) Y - - - - Y Y Y
Methanol Y - - - - - - - Rosin (Pure) Y - - - - - - -
Methyl Chloride Y Y Y Y Y F F - S
Methylene Chloride - Y Y Y Y N N - Sea Water - Y N F F Y Y Y
Milk (Sweet) - - - Y Y Y Y Y Sewage Y - - - - Y Y -
Milk (Sour) - - - Y Y - - - Shellac Y - - Y Y Y Y -
Milk (Waste) - - - Y Y - - - Sludge Acid N - - - - - - -
Milk of Lime Y - - - - Y Y Y Soap Solution Y Y Y Y Y Y - -
Mineral Oil - Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Soda Ash Y - - - - Y Y Y
Mine Water N - - - - Y Y Y Sodium Bicarbonate N - - - - Y Y Y
Molasses Y F F Y Y Y Y Y Sodium Bisulfite - - - Y Y Y Y Y
Muriatic Acid N - - - - Y F - Sodium Carbonate - - F Y Y Y Y Y
N Sodium Chloride Y Y F Y Y Y Y Y
Naphtha - Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Sodium Cyanide Y - - - - Y Y Y
Naphthalene - Y Y Y Y F N Y Sodium Hydroxide Y Y Y Y Y F Y F
Natural Gas Y - Y Y Y Y Y Y Sodium Hypochlorite - - - F Y - N -
Nickel Chloride - - - - N Y Y Y Sodium Hyposulfite N - - - - - - -
Nitrating Acid Y - - - - - - - Sodium Nitrate Y F Y Y Y F Y Y
Nitric Acid (Dilute) N N N Y Y F Y Y Sodium Phosphate N - - Y Y Y Y Y
Nitric Acid (Conc.) N - - - - N N Y Sodium Silicate Y - Y Y Y Y Y Y
Nitrobenzene Y - - Y Y N N F Sodium Sulfate Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
O Sodium Sulfide Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y
Oil (Petroleum) Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Sodium Sulfite - - - Y Y - - -

APPENDICES | 203
BU AIN S
N -N SS
EE
S
LE
A LE
ST
E
N
IN
VI REN
O
N
ZE
A
IR
*
O
N
ST
ST
N
P
RB
FLUID OR SERVICE
ST
TO
EO
O
N
3
6
A
A
BR
30
31
C
C
Sodium Thio Sulfate N Y - - - Y Y Y
Stearic Acid N N N Y Y Y Y Y
Styrene - Y Y Y Y N N -
Sulfur (Molten) Y - - - - - - -
Sulfur Dioxide - Y Y Y Y F F -
Sulfuric Acid (Conc.) Y - Y F F N Y Y
Sulfuric Acid (Dilute) N - - F Y F Y Y
T
Tall Oil - - - Y Y Y Y Y
Tannic Acid - F N Y Y F Y Y
Tar Y Y Y Y Y - - -
Tartaric Acid N F N Y Y F Y Y
Toluene Y Y Y Y Y F N Y
Toluol Y Y Y Y Y N N -
Trichlorethylene F - Y Y Y N N Y
Tung Oil - - - Y Y Y Y Y
Turpentine Y F N Y Y Y N Y
V
Varnish N Y N Y Y F Y -
Vegetable Oils - Y F Y Y Y Y Y
Vinegar N - - Y Y Y Y Y
W
Water Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Wax Emulsions - - - Y Y - - -
Whiskey - - - Y Y Y Y Y
X
Xylene (Xylol) Y Y Y Y Y F N Y
Xylene & Water Y Y Y Y Y F N Y
Z
Zinc Chloride N N N N N Y Y Y
Zinc Sulfate N Y - Y Y Y Y Y

APPENDICES | 204
APPENDIX F: GRANULAR FERTILIZER DATA

COMMON RAW MATERIALS GENERALLY USED TO MEET REQUIREMENTS OF GRANULATION
REQUIREMENT RAW MATERIALS ADJUSTED

Units of N Nitrogen solution, basic source*
Units of P2O5 Normal superphosphate, basic source*
Units of K2O Potassium chloride, basic source*
Total weight, dried Add filler, low analysis. Replace normal with triple superphosphate, high analysis.
Ammoniation balance Replace solution with anhydrous ammonia, to use extra ammonia retention. Add sulfuric acid, increase ammonia retention.
Water balance Add water to increase moisture. Increase recycle or replace solution with ammonium sulfate to decrease moisture.
Heat balance Add sulfuric acid, increase heat. Increase recycle or replace sulfuric acid and anhydrous ammonia or solution with ammonium
sulfate, reduce heat.
*By "basic source" it is meant that as much as possible of these raw materials are generally used and that other raw materials replace the basic source for some
specific reason.
HEATS OF REACTION
REACTANTS Heat of Reaction, BTU per
Lb. of NH Reacted
OUTLINE OF AMMONIATION REACTIONS NH3 and Normal Superphosphate 1428
NORMAL SUPERPHOSPHATE NH3 and Triple Superphosphate 1643

NH3 and H3PO4 1823
2.4 1.2 NH3 and H2SO4 2940
Ca(H2PO4)2 CaHPO4 Ca3(PO4)2
(25%) Less 30% Heat Loss Total Effective BTU
CaSO4 2.4
NH4H2PO4 CaHPO4 (NH4)2SO4 SPECIFIC HEATS OF FERTILIZER COMPOUNDS
MATERIAL SPECIFIC HEAT AT 25º C
TOTAL = 6.0 LB.
(NH4)2SO4 NH4NO3 0.41
NH3 PER UNIT P2O5
NH4H2PO4 0.297
Ca(H2PO4)2 • H2O 0.218
TRIPLE SUPERPHOSPHATE (ALONE)
Ca3(PO4)2 KNO3 0.23
2.4 0.3 CaCO3 0.21

Ca(H2PO4)2 CaHPO4 Gypsum 0.259
(3.3%) NH4H2PO4
Limestone 0.217
1.3
TOTAL = 4.0 LB. Urea 0.32
NH4H2PO4 (NH4)2HPO4 NH3 PER UNIT P2O5
H2SO4(93%) 0.35
(50%)
(NH4)2SO4 0.34
PHOSPHORIC ACID (ALONE) (NH4)2HPO4 0.33
NH4CI 0.38
4.8 2.4
TOTAL = 7.2 LB. CaSO4 • H2O 0.265
H3PO4 NH4H2PO4 (NH4)2HPO4
NH3 PER UNIT P2O5
KCI 0.20
(50%)
Ammoniated Triple 0.29
Sand 0.191
PHOSPHORIC ACID (WITH EXCESS GYPSUM)
H3PO4(75%) 0.485
4.2 4.2
H3PO4 NH4H2PO4 (NH4)2SO4 (NH4)2SO4
AMMONIATION RATES
1.2 3.1 Lbs. 66°BE H2SO4/Lb. NH3
CaSO4 from CaHPO4 Ca3(PO4)2 3.7 Lbs. 60°BE H2SO4/Lb. NH3
Normal Super
(25%) 20 Lbs. P2O5 / 5.8 Lbs. NH3 Normal Super
20 Lbs. P2O5 / 3.8 Lbs. NH3 ROP Triple Super
TOTAL = 10.8 LB.
NH3 PER UNIT P2O5 20 Lbs. P205 / 3.0 Lbs. NH3 Coarse Triple Super
= Lb. NH3 per unit P2O5 in each step 20 Lbs. P2O5/7.2 Lbs. NH3 H3PO4
20 Lbs. P2O5 / 10.8 Lbs. NH3 H3PO4 & Normal Super*
( ) = % Completion of incomplete reactions
*When units of P2O5 from H3PO4 less than unit P2O3 from Normal Super.
2
APPENDICES | 205
APPENDIX G: ENGINEERING CONSTANTS

Existing engineering handbooks are remarkably complete in the matter of engineering constants. The table on
this and the following page does not pretend to compete with them in their natural field. It frequently happens,
however, that the reader of technical journals and books comes across a constant, the meaning of which is
not clear to him. Often there is no clue to aid him in locating it in the engineering handbooks. Where the first
constant given is followed by another in parentheses, the first is the round number ordinarily used and the
second the more exact value.
(Note list of special abbreviations on next page)
TEMPERATURES UNIT IS EQUAL TO

UNIT IS EQUAL TO 1 lb. air at 62° F and 14.7 lb. per sq. in. 13.144 cu. ft.
1 Centigrade degree 1.8° Fahrenheit 1 gallon 231 cu. in.

3.785 liters
Freezing point of water 0° C
32° F 1 British gallon 277.274 cu. in.
Boiling point of water at atmospheric 100° C 1 cu. yard 27 cu. ft.

pressure 212° F 1 cu. ft. 1,728 cu. in.
Absolute zero –270° C 7.5 (7.4805) gal.
–460° F 1 cu. meter 35.314 cu. ft.
ATOMIC WEIGHTS 1 barrel 32.5 gal.
Atomic weight - Hydrogen (H) 1 1 liter 61.023 cu. in.
Atomic weight - Carbon (C) 12 PRESSURE
Atomic weight - Nitrogen (N) 14 Atmospheric pressure 14.7 (14.696) lb. per sq. in.
Atomic weight - Oxygen (O) 16 2,116.3 Ib. per sq. ft.
29.921 in. Hg at 32° F
Atomic weight - Sulfur (S) 32 30 in. Hg at 62° F (Very closely)
33.947 ft. water at 62° F
MOLECULAR WEIGHTS
Atmospheric pressure at 0° C 760 millimeters Hg
Water (H2O) 18
1 lb. per sq. in. 2.0355 in. Hg at 32° F
Nitrogen gas (N2) 28 2.0416 in. Hg at 62° F
Carbon monoxide (CO) 28 2.309 ft. water at 62° F
27.71 in. water at 62° F
Equivalent mol. wgt. of air 28.8
1 ft. of water at 62° F 0.433 lb. per sq. in.
Oxygen gas (O2) 32
1 in. of water at 62° F 5.196 lb. per sq. ft.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 44 0.0735 in. Hg at 62° F
DISTANCES/SPATIAL MEASUREMENTS 1 in. Hg at 62° F 1.134 ft. water at 62° F
0.491 lb. per sq. in.
1 mile 5,280 ft.
1 kg. per sq. cm. 14.223 lb. per sq. in.
1 kilometer 0.62137 miles
1 kg. per cu. meter 0.062428 lb. per cu. ft.
1 meter 3.2808 ft.
39.37 in. WEIGHTS
100 cm.
1 lb. 16 ounces
1 sq. meter 10.764 sq. ft. 0.45359 kg.
1 yard 3 ft. 7,000 grains
1 sq. yard. 9 sq. ft. 1 short ton 2,000 lb.
1 sq. ft. 144 sq. in. 1 long ton 2,240 lb.

0.0929 sq. meters 1 kg. 2.2046 lb.
1 in. 2.54 cm. 1 cu. ft. water at 62° F 62.5 (62.355) lb.
1 sq. in. 1,273,239 circular mils 1 cu. ft. water at 212° F 59.76 lb.
VOLUME
1 lb. air at 32° F and 14.7 lb. per sq. in. 12.387 cu. ft.
APPENDICES | 206
UNIT IS EQUAL TO UNIT IS EQUAL TO

Wgt. oxygen req. to burn 1 lb. 8 lb. Area circle 0.7854 ( = 3.1416 ÷ 4) X diameter
hydrogen (H) squared
Wgt. oxygen required to burn 1 lb. 2.666 lb. Theoretical velocity of fluids in ft. per sec. 8.025 ( = square root of 2g) X
carbon (C) square root of head (ft.)
Wgt. air req. to burn 1 lb. hydrogen (H) 34.56 lb. 1 year of 365 days 8,760 hr.
Wgt. air req. to burn 1 lb. sulfur (S) 4.32 lb. 1 mile per min. (hr.) 88 ft. per sec. (min.)
Theoret. air req. to burn 1 lb. carbon (C) 11.52 lb. Cv for air 0.1689
Wgt. 1 cu. ft. air at 32° F and 14.7 lb. per 0.08073 lb.
sq. in.
Wgt. 1 cu. ft. air at 62° F and 14.7 0.07608 lb.
per sq. in. SPECIAL ABBREVIATIONS
Wgt. 1 gal. water at 62° F. 8 1/3 (8.3356) lb. approx........................................................... approximate
Wgt. theoret. combustion products from 12.52 lb. atm. pres........................ standard atmospheric pressure
1 lb. C.
av........................................................................... average
ENERGY
cal. val..........................................................calorific value
logea 2.3026 X log10a
BTU.......................................................... British thermal unit
Cp for air 0.2375
Cp............................... specific heat at constant pressure
1 kg. calorie 3.9683 BTU
Cv................................ specific heat at constant volume
1 kg. calorie per kg. 1.8 BTU per lb.
1 BTU 0.252 calories
cm.....................................................................centimeters
778 (777.5) ft.-lb. diam..................................................................... diameter
1 kW. 1.3410 HP evap............................................................... evaporation
1 kW.-hr. 3,415 BTU g.........................................................gravity acceleration
1 HP 2,545 (2,547) BTU per hr. gal..................... gallons (U.S. unless otherwise specified)
33,000 ft.-lb. per min.
550 ft.-lb. per sec. Hg............................................................................mercury
746 (745.7) watts
in. Hg................................... inches of mercury (pressure)
Available water power from 1 cu.-ft.-sec. 0.1134 hp
falling 1 ft. kg..........................................................................kilograms
Cal. val. (higher) hydrogen (H) 62,000 BTU log10.............................................logarithm to the base 10
Cal. val. of sulfur (S) 4,000 (4,050) BTU loge............................................. logarithm to the base "e"
Cal. val. of carbon (C) 14,600 BTU per lb. min............................................................................ minute
1 ton of refrigeration 288,000 BTU per 24 hr. mol. wgt.................................................molecular weight
Approx. specific heat of super-heated 0.47 BTU per pound per deg. F pres.........................................................................pressure
steam at atm. press.
req.......................................................................... required
Tatal heat sat. steam at atm. press. 1,150.4 BTU
Latent heat of evap. of water at 212° F 970.4 BTU
sat................................................... dry saturated (steam)
Latent heat of fusion of ice. 144 (143.15) BTU
sec........................................................................... second
Ratio of Cp to Cv for air (r) 1.406 sup..................................................................superheated
Theoret. vel., ft. per sec., of steam 223.8 x sq. root adiabatic heat vel............................................................................velocity
expanding through nozzle. drop vol. .......................................................................... volume
MATHEMATICAL VALUES wgt............................................................................ weight
π (Greek letter "pi") = ratio circumfer- 3.1416
ence of circle to diameter = ratio area of ("Power")
circle to square of radius
Rated boiler evaporation 3.45 lb. steam "f. & a. 212" per
sq. ft. of heating surface per hr.
R, a constant for air, in expansion 53.32
equation: PV = MRT
1 radian (angle) 57.296 deg.
Square root of 3 1.7321
Square root of 2 1.4142
e = Base hyperbolic logs. 2.7183
APPENDICES | 207
APPENDIX H: METRIC CONVERSIONS

MULTIPLY BY* TO GET MULTIPLY BY* TO GET
Acres 0.404687 Hectares 1422.34 Lbs. per Square Inch
4.04687 X 10-3 Square Kilometers Kilograms per Square
Ares 1076.39 Square Feet Millimeter 0.634973 Long Tons per
Square Inch
Board Feet 144.0 sq. in. X 1 in. Cubic Inches
0.0833 Cubic Feet Kilograms per 6.24283 X 10-2 Lbs. per Cubic Foot
Cubic Meter
Centimeters 3.28083 X 10-2 Feet
0.3937 Inches Kilometers 0.62137 Miles, Statute
0.53959 Miles, Nautical
Cubic Centimeters 3.53145 X 10-5 Cubic Feet
6.102 X 10-2 Cubic Inches Liters 0. 219975 Gallons, British Imperial
0.26417 Gallons, U.S.
Cubic Feet 2.8317 X 10-4 Cubic Centimeters
3.53145 X 10-2 Cubic Feet
2.8317 X 10-2 Cubic Meters
6.22905 Gallons, British Imperial Liters per Second 15.85 Gallons per Minute
28.3170 Liters
Meters 3.28083 Feet
2.38095 X 10-2 Tons, British Shipping
39.37 Inches
0.025 Tons, U.S. Shipping
1.09361 Yards
Cubic Inches 16.38716 Cubic Centimeters
Miles, Statute 1.60935 Kilometers
Cubic Meters 35.3145 Cubic Feet 0.8684 Miles, Nautical
1.30794 Cubic Yards
Miles, Nautical 6080.204 Feet
Cubic Meters per 265.0 Gallons per Minute 1.85325 Kilometers
Minute 1.1516 Miles, Statute
Cubic Yards 0.764559 Cubic Meters Milligrams per Liter 1.0 Parts per Million
Degrees, Angular 0.0174533 Radians Millimeters 3.28083 X 10 -3
Feet
3.937 X 10-2 Inches
Degrees, Farenheit 0.5556 Degrees, Centigrade
(less 32 F) Million Gallons Daily 1.547 Cubic Feet per Second
694.4 Gallons per Minute
Degrees Centigrade 1.8 Degrees, Farenheit
(less 32 F) Parts per Million 8.33 Pounds per Million
Gallons
Foot-pounds 0.13826 Kilogram-meters
Pounds, Avoirdupois 453.592 Grams, Metric
Feet 30.4801 Centimeters
0.453592 Kilograms
0.304801 Meters
4.464 X 10-4 Tons, Long
304.801 Millimeters
4.53592 X 10-4 Tons, Metric
1.64468 X 10-4 Miles, nautical
Pounds per Foot 1.48816 Kilograms per Meter
Gallons, British Imperial 0.160538 Cubic Feet
1.20091 Gallons, U.S. Pounds per Square 4.88241 Kilograms per
4.54596 Liters Foot Square Meter
Gallons, U.S. 0.832702 Gallons, British Imperial 7.031 X 10-2 Kilograms per
0.13368 Cubic Feet Pounds per Square Square Centimeter
231.0 Cubic Inches Inch 7.031 X 10-4 Kilograms per
3.78543 Liters
Square Millimeter
Grains per Gallon 17.12 Parts per Million
Pounds per Cubic Foot 16.0184 Kilograms per Cubic
Grams, Metric 2.20462 X 10-3 Pounds, Avoirdupois Meter
Hectares 2.47104 Acres Radians 57.29578 Degrees, Angular
1.076387 X 10-5 Square Feet
Square Centimeters 0.1550 Square Inches
3.86101 X 10-3 Square Miles
Square Feet 9.29034 X 10-4 Ares
Horsepower, Metric 0.98632 Horsepower, U.S.
9.29034 X 10-6 Hectares
Horsepower, U.S. 1.01387 Horsepower, Metric 0.0929034 Square Meters
Inches 2.54001 Centimeters Square Inches 6.45163 Square Centimeters
2.54001 X 10-2 Meters 645.163 Square Millimeters
25.4001 Millimeters
Square Kilometers 247.104 Acres
Kilograms 2.20462 Pounds 0.3861 Square Miles
9.84206 X 10-4 Long Tons
Square Meters 10.7639 Square Feet
1.10231 X 10-3 Short Tons
1.19599 Square Yards
Kilogram-meters 7.233 Foot-pounds
Square Miles 259.0 Hectares
Kilograms per Meter 0.671972 Pounds per Foot 2.590 Square Kilometers
Kilograms per Square 14.2234 Lbs. per Square Inch Square Millimeters 1.550 X 10-3 Square Inches
Centimeter
Square Yards 0.83613 Square Meters
Kilograms per Square 0. 204817 Lbs. per Square Foot
Tons, Long 1016.05 Kilograms
Meter 9.14362 X 10-5 Long Tons per Sq. Ft. 2240.0 Pounds
1.01605 Tons, Metric
1.120 Tons, Short
APPENDICES | 208
METRIC KITCHEN WEIGHTS & MEASURES
MULTIPLY BY* TO GET MULTIPLY BY* TO GET

Tons, Long, per 1.09366 X 10 4
Kilograms per Teaspoons 5 Milliliters
Square Foot Square Meter
Tablespoons 15 Milliliters
Tons, Long, per 1.57494 Kilograms per
Square Inch Square Millimeter Fluid Ounces 30 Milliliters
0.03 Liters
Tons, Metric 2204.62 Pounds
0.98421 Tons, Long Cups 240 Milliliters
1.10231 Tons, Short 0.24 Liters
Tons, Short 907.185 Kilograms Pints 0.47 Liters
0.892857 Tons, Long
Quarts 0.95 Liters
0.907185 Tons, Metric
Gallons 3.8 Liters
Tons, British Shipping 42.00 Cubic Feet
1.050 Tons, U.S. Shipping Ounces 28 Grams
Tons, U.S. Shipping 40.00 Cubic Feet Pounds 454 Grams
0.952381 Tons, British Shipping 0.45 Kilograms
Yards 0.914402 Meters Milliliters 0.2 Teaspoons
0.07 Tablespoons
(American Institute of Steel Construction) 0.034 Fluid Ounces
Liters 34 Fluid Ounces
*Expressions (x10-2, x10-3, etc.) following some multipliers indicate that the dec-
imal point in the product (of left-column value times multiplier) is to be moved Milliliters 0.004 Cups
respectively 2,3, etc., places to the left.
Liters 4.2 Cups
2.1 Pints
1.06 Quarts
0.26 Gallons
Grams 0.035 Ounces
0.002 Pounds
Kilograms 2.2 Pounds
THE FEECO COMMITMENT TO QUALITY
THE FEECO COMMITMENT TO QUALITY
FEECO International, Inc. was founded in 1951 as an engineering and equipment manufacturer. FEECO is rec-
THE FEECO
ognized COMMITMENT
globally as TO
an expert in providing QUALITYprocess design, a range of engineering capabilities,
industry-leading
FEECO International, Inc. was founded in 1951 as an engineering and equipment manufacturer. FEECO is rec-
including everything from process development and sample generation, feasibility studies, to detailed plant
ognized globally as an expert in providing industry-leading process design, a range of engineering capabilities,
engineering,
FEECO as well as
International, manufacturing
Inc. was founded to a variety
in 1951 as an ofengineering
industries, including: fertilizer manufacturer.
and equipment and agriculture, mining
FEECO and
is rec-
including everything from process development and sample generation, feasibility studies, to detailed plant
minerals,globally
ognized power/utility,
as an paper, chemical
expert in providingprocessing, forest products
industry-leading and more.
process design, As the
a range ofleading manufacturer
engineering of
capabilities,
engineering, as well as manufacturing to a variety of industries, including: fertilizer and agriculture, mining and
processingeverything
including and handling
fromequipment in North America,
process development no company
and sample in thefeasibility
generation, world can moveto
studies, ordetailed
enhance a con-
plant
minerals, power/utility, paper, chemical processing, forest products and more. As the leading manufacturer of
cept from process
engineering, development
as well to production
as manufacturing like of
to a variety FEECO International,
industries, including:Inc.
fertilizer and agriculture, mining and
processing and handling equipment in North America, no company in the world can move or enhance a con-
minerals, power/utility, paper, chemical processing, forest products and more. As the leading manufacturer of
cept from process development to production like FEECO International, Inc.
The choice and
processing to work with FEECO
handling means
equipment in aNorth
well-rounded
America, commitment
no company to in quality.
the world From
caninitial
move feasibility
or enhancetesting, to
a con-
engineering,
cept manufacturing,
from process development andtoaftermarket
productionservices,
like FEECOwe International,
bring our passion
Inc. for quality into everything we do.
The choice to work with FEECO means a well-rounded commitment to quality. From initial feasibility testing, to
FEECO International follows ISO 9001:2015 standards and procedures.
engineering, manufacturing, and aftermarket services, we bring our passion for quality into everything we do.
The choice to work with FEECO means a well-rounded commitment to quality. From initial feasibility testing, to
engineering, manufacturing, and aftermarket services, we bring our passion for quality into everything we do.

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PROCESS SYSTEMS

ENGINEERING & MANUFACTURING

HANDBOOK Revised Edition

TOMORROW'S PROCESSES, TODAY.

© Copyright FEECO International, Inc. 2019 | All rights reserved.

A Message from the President.............................................................................................................................................1

Industries & Materials.............................................................................................................................................................4

In-House Manufacturing Capabilities..................................................................................................................................6

THE INNOVATION CENTER

Customized Testing Solutions................................................................................................................................................9

Testing Particle Characteristics...........................................................................................................................11

Rotary Dryer Testing.............................................................................................................................................15

Rotary Kiln Testing.................................................................................................................................................18

Table: Material Transformations..........................................................................................................................................20

Table: Commonly Tested Materials....................................................................................................................................22

Disc Pelletizers - Operating Principles..........................................................................................................33

Project Profile: Glass Pelletizing.....................................................................................................................34

Project Profile: Limestone & Gypsum Pelletizing.........................................................................................36

Project Profile: Gypsum Pelletizing...............................................................................................................37

Project Profile: Limestone Pelletizing System...............................................................................................38

Project Profile: Nickel Ore Pelletizing............................................................................................................39

Project Profile: Chicken Litter to Fertilizer.....................................................................................................40

Drive Assembly Options.................................................................................................................................43

Project Profile: Iron Ore Balling Drums..........................................................................................................46

Project Profile: Gold Ore Rotary Drum Agglomerator...............................................................................48

Project Profile: Ore Rotary Agglomerator...................................................................................................49

Project Profile: DAP Fertilizer Granulation Drum & Dryer............................................................................50

Project Profile: Fertilizer Granulation Pilot Plant...........................................................................................51

Project Profile: Complete System - Waste to Value...................................................................................52

Project Profile: Pug Mill for De-dusting Fly Ash............................................................................................60

Project Profile: Pug Mills for Copper Concentrates....................................................................................61

Project Profile: Pug Mills for Steel Mill By-Products......................................................................................62

Project Profile: Animal Feeds Granulation...................................................................................................63

Project Profile: Bio-Fertilizer Processing........................................................................................................64

Project Profile: On-Farm Manure Granulation Plant..................................................................................65

Project Profile: Carbon Black Agglomeration............................................................................................71

Choosing an Industrial Mixer: Pin Mixer vs. Pug Mill..................................................................................................72

Pelletizing vs. Compaction Granulation....................................................................................................................78

Table: Agglomeration Equipment Summary....................................................................................................................82

The Role of Drying................................................................................................................................................................85

Project Profile: Coating Drum for Ammonium Sulfate.............................................................................................89

Project Profile: Hammer Mill for Manure Granules............................................................................................93

How Rotary Dryers Work......................................................................................................................................................96

Direct Rotary Dryers.....................................................................................................................................................98

Indirect Rotary Dryers.................................................................................................................................................100

Direct vs. Indirect Drying...........................................................................................................................................102

Sizing & Design....................................................................................................................................................................103

Rotary Dryer or Fluid Bed Dryer?.......................................................................................................................................108

Project Profile: DAP & MAP Rotary Dryer.........................................................................................................................111

Project Profile: Bedding Recovery from Manure............................................................................................................112

Project Profile: Potash Rotary Dryers................................................................................................................................113

Project Profile: Frac Sand Dryer........................................................................................................................................114

Project Profile: Rotary Dryer for Ammonium Sulfate.......................................................................................................115

Table: Typical Rotary Dryer & Cooler Data.....................................................................................................................117

Direct Rotary Coolers.........................................................................................................................................................118

Project Profile: Rotary Cooler for DDGS...................................................................................................................120

Indirect Rotary Coolers......................................................................................................................................................121

How Rotary Kilns Work.......................................................................................................................................................124

Direct-Fired Rotary Kilns.............................................................................................................................................126

Indirect-Fired Rotary Kilns..........................................................................................................................................128

Direct vs. Indirect........................................................................................................................................................130

Rotary Kiln Processes..........................................................................................................................................................131

Sizing & Design....................................................................................................................................................................132