1
Technical Review of Energy Storage
Technologies when Integrated with Intermittent
Renewable Energy
B. R. Alamri,
Abstract - intermittent renewable energy sources such as wind
power, solar power and wave power are highly variable output.
Theses energy sources are most of the time not load following.
Consequently, renewable energy has limited contribution in
power generation and it is difficult to be controlled. It is often
stated that, this problem of intermittent renewable can be solved
by integration with energy storage.
This paper presents an up-to-date technical review for
different energy storage systems. It explains the main working
principle of each storage technology and highlighting the key
advantages, disadvantages and main applications when
integrated with power systems.
I. INTRODUCTION
E nergy storage is required to store electrical energy during
times of low demand at low energy cost and for the
surplus energy generated from intermittent energy sources
such as wind, solar and wave power. The stored energy should
be released back to the power system during times of high
demand at high energy cost or when there is a shortage in the
generated capacity to meet the demand.
As power utilities moving towards having more
generation contribution from renewable sources, energy
storage is becoming highly important. Intermittent renewable
energy sources such as wind, solar and wave are highly
variable output. Theses energy sources, most of the times, are
not load following. This means that they produce high energy
generation when it is not needed and produce low energy
generation when it is needed. Because of this, renewable
energy has a limited contribution in power generation and it is
difficult to be controlled. To overcome this problems of
renewable sources, energy storage might be used as a
solution.
Energy storage plays an important role in power system
operation, control and management. Efficient energy storage
can add the following benefits into power utilities [1]:
This work was fully supported by the Technical & Vocational Training
Corporation (TVTC) in Saudi Arabia under my MSc. Scholarship funded by
TVTC at Brunel University , West London ,UK in 2006..
Technical Review of Energy Storage Technologies when Integrated with
Intermittent Renewable Energy .
B. R. Alamri is with the Department of Electrical Technology, Makkah
College of Technology, TVTC, P.O.Box: 840, Makkah, Saudi Arabia
(e-mail: basemalamri@hotmail.com).
A. R. Alamri is with Transmission Sector, System Operation-west, Saudi
Electricity Company (SE), Jeddah, Saudi Arabia (e-mail:aramri@se.com.sa)
A. R. Alamri
¾ more efficient use of renewable energy;
¾ maximization of renewable energy contribution;
¾ better demand and generation match;
¾ reduction of greenhouse gases emissions;
¾ best ancillary services supplier;
¾ reducing the cost in building new transmission assets;
¾ improving reliability of the power system; and
¾ usage of power systems in more efficient way
There are different energy storage technologies that have
been used in power utilities. These technologies are:
1) Pumped Hydro Storage,
2) Flywheel Storage,
3) Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES),
4) Batteries,
5) Hydrogen Storage,
6) Super-Capacitor Storage and
7) Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES).
Each one of these technologies has different
characteristics. The main important factors for power utilities
are the initial capital cost, running cost, the round trip
efficiency (RTE), storage capacity, discharge cycles and
lifetime. Based on these characteristics, each of these
technologies is suitable for certain applications.
In this paper, a detailed up- to-date review of each storage
technology is presented. It explains the main working
principle of each storage technology and indicating the main
key advantages, disadvantages and main applications when
integrated with power systems.
II. PUMPED HYDRO-POWER ENERGY STORAGE
The pumped-hydro power station is the oldest energy
storage technologies. This has been used since 1920s. The
pumped-hydro power storage consists of two reservoirs. One
is located at the base level and the other is located at higher
level. The off-peak power is used to pump the water from a
lower reservoir into a higher reservoir in which the water is
stored as potential energy. The stored water is released back
into the lower reservoir upon demand. The water flow is used
to rotate a hydraulic turbine to generate electrical power.
In pumped-hydro power energy storage plant, it is
possible to use a single-unit to do both the pumping and

generation. This unit is called reversible pump-turbine. On the
other hand, generation and pumping can be done using
separate pumps for pumping and turbines for generating the
power. The plant is able to change between operating and
pumping modes in a period of minutes [2].
The pumped hydro storage technology is wide spread
worldwide. There are around 300 systems operating in
different countries. Pumped hydro is available in different
capacities ranges (20 – 2100 MW). The round trip efficiency
is around 70% to 80% which depends on size of plant, the
height between the upper and lower reservoir and the used
hydro turbine [3].
The main advantages of pumped hydro storage are [4]:
¾ huge energy and large power capacity (over 2000 MW);
¾ very effective storage technology; and
¾ its ability to store energy for a very long time (up to more
than six months).
There are some problems with using pumped hydro as a
storage technology. These problems can be summarized as
follows [3] [4]:
¾ Pumped hydro requires a high construction cost. The
capital cost is estimated to be $1000/kW.
¾ It should be located in a suitable location with specific
geographic, geologic and environmental topography.
¾ Long-lead times and national political procedures will are
required.
For electrical power applications, the pumped hydro
energy storage is suitable to be used in load management and
when there is no need for very quick response. Availability of
required geology factors should be considered [5].
III. COMPRESSED AIR ENERGY STORAGE (CAES)
CAES uses the off-peak power to store energy by
compressing air into a reservoir. Upon demand, at peak/high
cost energy, stored air is released, heated via combustion with
small amount of any fuel and pass through turbines to generate
electricity. When energy is required, generators are used to
generate electricity using the natural gas and the compressed
air. At low demand periods, the plant’s turbines act as motors
to supply air compressors with required mechanical energy
[2].
The compressed air can be stored in different types of
reservoirs. These types are Aquifer storage (normal natural gas
storage), Solution-mined salt caverns, or Mechanically formed
in rock formations [2].Among these different types of
reservoir, aquifer storage is considered to be the most cost
effective. CAES plants are available in sizes ranging from (20
to 350 MW). The round trip efficiency of this storage
technology is around (73% to 79%) [6].
The following are the main advantages of CAES
technology [4]:
2
¾ high storage capacity and high output depending on the
size of reservoir;
¾ quick start up time; and
¾ easy geological requirements, which makes CAES easy to
be implemented in many locations.
However, the main disadvantages of CAES technology
are [4]:
¾ the needs of high energy input during the power
production process; and
¾ the production of greenhouse gasses emissions as a result
of using natural gas in energy production.
For electrical power applications, the compressed air
energy storage is suitable to be used in load management and
when there is no need for a very quick response. Availability
of required geology factors should be considered [5].
IV. BATTERIES ENERGY STORAGE
This storage technology sometimes is known as ‘BESS’,
which stands for Battery Energy Storage System. Batteries are
composed of one or more electromechanical cells. Each cell
consists of a liquid or solid electrolyte having a positive and a
negative electrode. During off-peak/low-cost energy, the
battery is charged, which causes reactions in the
electromechanical cells to store the energy in a chemical form.
When power is needed, reverse chemical reaction causes
power to flow into the grid.
Batteries are available in different sizes ranging from (less
than 100 watts to several megawatts). The round trip
efficiency of battery storage is estimated to be in the 60% to
80% range, which depends on cycled time and the type of
electrochemistry used in the battery [3].
There are different types of batteries available in industry,
which are used in different applications. The main types that
are suitable for power utility applications are listed below [7]:
1. Lead Acid Batteries.
2. Nickel Cadmium Batteries.
3. Sodium Sulphur.
4. Lithium Ion Batteries.
5. Sodium Nickel Chloride.
The main advantages of battery storage technology are as
follows [3]:
¾ very quick response time ( about 20 milliseconds); and
¾ ready factory-built modules, which reduce construction
lead time significantly.
On the other hand, the main disadvantages of battery
storage technology include [3]:
¾ expensive battery cost;
¾ the need for periodic maintenance; and
¾ the limited life spans of batteries.

Batteries have a wide use in many utility applications
such as generation, transmission, distribution and customer
services.
V. FLYWHEEL ENERGY STORAGE
Flywheel storage uses the kinetic charge and discharge
capability of a spinning wheel. The energy is stored as kinetic
energy in a rotating wheel or in a cylinder. The stored energy
is proportional to the mass and to the square of rotational
velocity of the flywheel. This can be understood by looking in
the equations of energy (E) and moment of inertia (I) which
are given below, respectively [8].
1 there are no resistive losses in the superconducting coil.
E= I ω2 (1)
2 energy required for the refrigeration. [2]
r2 m h
I = (2)
2 [3].
Where, (r) is the radius of the rotor; (m) is the rotor mass and
(h) is the height of the rotor.
There are mainly two types of flywheel, namely big large
heavy wheels, which spins slowly and small light wheels,
which spins quickly. During off-peak time, the wheel is
charged by an electrical motor spinning the rotor at high
velocity. When the power is needed, the motor acts as a
generator that converts the rotational energy into electricity.
At the output, power electronics are used to maintain the
output voltage within acceptable voltage and frequency
ranges.
The round trip efficiency of flywheel storage is in the
range of 80% to 85%. This depends on bearing losses,
winding losses and the cycled time [3].
The bearing losses should be kept low to maintain high
efficiency. In order to reduce device size, weight and cost, the
rotor should be of high strength composite material [2].
The main advantages of this storage technology are [7] :
¾ Almost maintenance free with bearings maintenance
every 3-to-5 years.
¾ Long life cycle.
¾ Quick recharge capability.
¾ High power density.
On the other hand, the main disadvantages of flywheels
storage technology are as follows [7] :
¾ Not easy in storage expansion.
¾ Low energy density
¾ Standby losses are large.
For electrical power applications, the flywheel energy
storage is suitable for short-term (less than 2 hours)
applications with size up to several MW. The technology of
flywheel energy storage has been applied for power quality
applications, peak shavings and stability enhancement [8].
3
VI. SUPERCONDUCTING MAGNETIC ENERGY
STORAGE (SMES)
Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) has
been used in industry since 1998 in different applications such
as power quality and system stability [3]. Superconducting
magnetic energy storage (SMES) stores energy in a magnetic
field by circulating a DC current through a superconducting
coil. This energy is stored in the magnetic filed of the coil.
During discharge time, the conducting wire is cooled to -
269ºC, which causes the resistance of the material to electrical
current to disappear. This allows conducting very high current
without electrical losses. This technology is attractive because
However, it should be noticed that there is a considerable
The efficiency of SMES in charging and discharging DC
current is very high (around 98%). In addition, the switch
between charging and discharging is within 17 milliseconds
The following are the main advantages of SMES storage
technology [9]:
¾ Very quick energy transfer.
¾ Unlimited number of charge and discharge cycles.
¾ Very high efficiency.
On the other hand, the main disadvantages of SMES
storage technology are as follows [9]:
¾ Expensive cost of energy storage.
¾ Low energy density.
¾ Refrigeration losses and AC-DC-AC losses.
It has been found that SMES can be applied for load
leveling, dynamic stability, transient stability, voltage
stability, frequency regulation, transmission capability
enhancement and power quality problems [8].
VII. SUPER-CAPACITORS ENERGY STORAGE
Super-Capacitors are also known as Electrochemical
Capacitors (EC), or Electrical Double-Layer Capacitors
(EDLC). Super-Capacitors have a very small volume which is
around 1,000 times smaller than metallic foil type capacitors.
Super-Capacitors store electrical energy in the electrical
double layer at an electrode/electrolyte interface [3].
The storage capacity is directly proportional to the plate
area and the square of its voltage, while inversely proportional
to the distance separating capacitor plates [3]. The capacitance
value and energy capacity are given by the following
equations respectively:
 4

ε° A cooling it at a very low temperature (around -453 Fº) [11].

C= (3) There are different ways in which hydrogen can be stored. As
d a compressed gas, it could be stored in tanks or in
underground reservoirs. As a cryogenic liquid, it could be
1 ε A stored in hydride compounds or in any other chemical form
E= CV2 = ° V2 (4) [5].
2 2d The round trip efficiency of hydrogen storage is estimated
to be in the 60% to 85% range. This depends on the operating
So, high energy storage can be achieved by increasing pressure and efficiency of the electrolyser-fuel cell
the capacitance value which can be done by maximizing combination [3].
surface area and minimizing the separation between the plates.
Different combinations of electrode and electrolyte material The following list summarizes the main advantages of
have been used in Super-Capacitors. This results in obtaining hydrogen storage technology [3] [10]:
various capacitance, energy density, life-cycle and cost
characteristic values [8]. ¾ No CO2 emissions. Hence, can be helpful in reducing the
global emissions.
The following are the main advantages of Super- ¾ Cheaper storage for longer time.
Capacitor storage technology [2] [8]: ¾ High energy density.
¾ Easy to be implemented in different capacity size ranges
¾ High power density. form KW to several MW.
¾ Long life cycle. ¾ Can provide surplus hydrogen off-gas for road
¾ Quick recharge capability. transportations.
¾ Easy to install.
¾ Effective operation in different environment conditions On the other hand, the main disadvantages of hydrogen
(hot, cold and moist). storage technology are listed below [4] [10]:

The main disadvantages of Super-Capacitor storage are as ¾ Hydrogen is highly flammable.

follows [7]: ¾ High construction cost at present.
¾ Relatively low round trip efficiency.
¾ Very expensive, costs about 5 times that of lead-acid
batteries. For electrical power applications, hydrogen energy
¾ Low energy density. storage is best when used for distribution utility applications,
¾ Requires power electronics. renewable matching and spinning reserve [5].

Super-Capacitors are suitable for high power, short-

discharge applications and low energy situations [3] [8].
Examples of such applications include voltage sags and
momentary interruptions.
IX. CONCLUSION

Renewable energy sources such as wind, solar and wave

are highly variable output. Theses energy sources most of the
VIII. HYDROGEN ENERGY STORAGE times are not load following. This means that they produce
high energy generation when it is not needed and produce low
energy generation when it is needed. Because of this,
Hydrogen energy storage is considered as one of the fast
renewable energy has a limited contribution in power
growing and recent energy storage technologies. The
generation and it is difficult to be controlled. To overcome this
hydrogen storage is basically needed when the renewable
problems of renewable sources, energy storage might be used
energy is required to be stored for long time (i.e. several days
as a solution.
or approximately a week). The cheapest storage in this case is
Several benefits can be achieved when using efficient
to store energy in a chemical form as chemical energy is less
energy storage in power utilities. Some of these benefits such
expensive to store. For such situations, power utilities are
as: maximize the contribution of renewable energy, efficient
more concerned about the amount of stored energy rather than
use of renewable energy, better generation and demand
the efficiency [11].
matching, lower greenhouse gases emissions, reduce grid
Hydrogen storage consists basically of an electrolyser unit
connection cost and improve both operation and control of
that generates hydrogen (H2) using off-peak electrical power.
power systems.
Hydrogen is compressed and stored in a storage system. Upon
This paper gave an up-to-date technical review of
demand, the stored chemical energy in hydrogen is converted
different energy storage technologies. Stating its working
back to electricity using fuel cell.
principle, advantages, disadvantages and main applications
Hydrogen can be stored, at cheaper storage cost, in a liquid
into power systems.
form rather than as a compressed gas. This can be achieved by
 5

His employment experience included Saudi Electricity Company, Jeddah,

College of Technology, Makkah. His special field of interest included power
system analysis and renewable energy.
X. REFERENCES Basem has been awarded first honorary degrees from different universities
including King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, King Abdulaziz
[1] Australian Greenhouse Office, Department of University and Brunel University. He received a certificate from Advance
Electronics Company (AEC) in Saudi Arabia on highly academic
Environment and Heritage, (2005). “Advanced
achievements in 2000. In Addition, he received the National Grid (NG) prize
Electricity Storage Technologies Programme, Energy in London for best performance in the MSc program at Brunel University in
Storage Technologies: a review paper”. Available on: 2007.
http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/renewable/aest/pubs/aest
-review.pdf . Last Accessed: 3/6/2007.
[2] Schoenung, S. M. and Burns, C. (1996). “Utility Energy
Storage Applications Studies”. IEEE Transactions on Abdussalam Alamri was born in Makkah in Saudi
Energy conversion, Vol. 11, No. 3 Arabia, on April 10, 1967. He graduated from Umm
Al-Qura University in Makkah, Saudi Arabia. He
[3] Schainker, R. B. (2004). “Executive Overview: Energy
attended many high technical courses in power
Storage Options for a Sustainable Energy Future”. IEEE system operation and control presented by leading
Power Engineering Society General Meeting, Vol. 2, power companies such as National Grid, General
pages: 2309-2314. Electric and SEMIENS.
His employment experience included Saudi
[4] Cheung, K. Y. C., Cheung, S. T. H., Desilva, R. G. N.,
Electricity Company (SE), Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. He
Juvonen, M. P. T., Singh, R. and Woo, J. J. (2003). joined SE as system operation engineer in the control
“Large-Scale Energy Storage Systems”. Imperial room in 1991. Then, he was promoted to be head of
College London, ISE2. Load Dispatch Center of Makkah system in 2002. Since 2004 years, he was
assigned to be the manager of all LDC's in SE – western region, in Saudi
[5] Schoenung, S. M. (2001). “Characteristics and
Arabia. His responsibility includes operating and controlling the SE system –
Technologies for Long-vs Short-Term Energy Storage”. west region area, the network operator in Saudi Arabia. His special field of
Sandia Report SAND2001-0765, Sandia National interest included power system operation and control.
Laboratories.
[6] Schoenung, S. M. and Hassenzahl, W. V. (2003). “
Long-vs Short-Term Energy Storage Technologies
Analysis, A Life-Cycle Cost Study”. Sandia Report
SAND2003-2783, Sandia National Laboratories.
[7] Kusko, A. (2005). “Short-Term, Long-Term, Energy
Storage Methods for Standby Electric Power Systems”.
IEEE Industry Applications Conference, Vol. 4, pages:
2672-2678
[8] Ribeiro, P., Johnson, B., Crow, M., Arsoy, A. and Liu,
Y. (2000). “Energy Storage Systems for Advanced
Power Applications”. Proc. IEEE, Vol. 89, No. 12, pp:
1744-1756.
[9] Baker, J. N. and Collinson, A. (1999). “Electrical Energy
Storage at the Turn of the Millennium”. IEEE Power
Engineering Journal, Vol. 13, pages: 107-112.
[10] EA Technology , (2004). “Review of Electrical Storage
Technologies and Systems and their Potential for the
UK”. Available on:
http://www.dti.gov.uk/files/file15185.pdf. Last
Accessed: 3/6/2007
[11] Berry, G. " Present and Future Electricity Storage for
Intermittent Renewables" The 10-50 Solution:
Technologies and Policies for Law-Carbon Future, Pew
Center on Global Climate Change, March 25-26, 2004.

XI. BIOGRAPHIES
Basem Alamri was born in Saudi Arabia in the city
named Makkah, on January 3, 1977. He graduated
from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals
(KFUPM) in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. He did MSc on
power systems and machines at King Abdulaziz
university. Then, he studied MSc in Renewable
Energy at Brunel University, London.