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THE BRACHISTOCHRONE PROBLEM

Mathematics HL Internal Assessment

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In 1696, the mathematician Johan Bernoulli posed the following problem to the
readers of the Acta Eruditorium: what is the path of quickest descent from a point A to
a lower point B, without friction and in uniform gravity? After receiving no answers in
the six months assigned for the problem, the time was extended to a year and a half 1

(Sagan, 2011, P. 94). On 29 January 1697, the challenge was received by Isaac
Newton, who, according to his biographer, Conduitt, solved the problem in a night,
while it took Bernoulli two weeks to solve his own problem, and sent back his solution
anonymously, which Bernoulli immediately recognised, saying he ‘recognises a lion by
its claw marks’. Newton, on the other hand, was not as enthusiastic about solving this
problem, as he is known to have later said “I do not love to be teased by foreigners
about Mathematical things.” 2 (Dunham, 1990, p. 199-202). Since, the Brachistochrone
(meaning ‘shortest time’) problem has been solved in multiple ways, but its solution
remains fascinating, because of its geometric nature, and knowing it is the same as
the Tautochrone curve, for which the time taken by an object sliding to its lowest point
is independent of its starting point. This investigation will look at two proofs, positive
and converse, to explore the problem, one using calculus and the other pure geometry.

While a straight line is the shortest path between two points, it is not the
quickest, in a space affected by gravity, or when travelling through different mediums.
In the diagram below, the shortest path between point A and B is the straight line drawn
in red. However, this way would mean that a longer distance would be travelled in
medium 2, which happens to be a denser medium, in which the speed is reduced.
Therefore, the quickest path from A to B is that shown in blue, as it strikes a balance
between shortest total distance and the distances spent in both mediums:

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Snell’s law allows us to determine the quickest path when travelling through two
different mediums. Let v1 and v2 be the speeds in mediums 1 and 2 respectively. Then
Snell’s law states that:

𝑣1 sin 𝜃1
=
𝑣2 sin 𝜃2

Where θ1 and θ2 are the angles formed between the lines in surfaces 1 and 2
respectively and the normal to the two surfaces. Hence the quickest path can be found
from the speed in both mediums. This law is mostly used to determine the refraction of
light when going from one medium to another, as we know from Fermat’s first principle
that light takes the shortest path between two points, refracting in order to minimize
the distance travelled in a denser medium. However, it can also help us to calculate
the quickest path between two points in space, in the same medium.

Let A and B be two points in a space affected by gravity, where A is ‘higher’

than B. What is the quickest way to get an object rolling, or sliding from A to B? Again,
a compromise has to be made between the steepness of the path, to maximise
acceleration, and the length of it. In the diagram below, an object could go from point
A to B by falling down a straight line, or by following the path of the circle that passes
through A and B. While the line has a shorter distance, the object would need a lot of
time to be accelerated suitably. In this case, the shortest path is likely to be the circular
one.

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By looking at these paths, whether they are straight or curved, we can find that
the velocity of the object is proportional to the square root of the distance from the top
of the path (point A). This can be explained very easily by looking at energy transfers:

Loss in 𝐸𝑃 = Gain in 𝐸𝐾
1
∴ 𝑚𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
∴ 𝑣 = √2𝑔𝑦

∴ 𝑣 ∝ √𝑦

𝐸𝑃 : Gravitational potential energy

𝐸𝐾 : Kinetic energy
𝑚: Mass
𝑔: Gravitational constant
𝑦: Distance from the top (point A)

Gallileo thought that the quickest way to go down from a point A to a point B
was to follow such a circular path. However, in 1696, after observing the relationship
between the speed of light or falling objects and the root of the distance, Johan
Bernoulli proposed another solution, that uses Snell’s law in order to determine one
path that would be quicker than a circle.

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Because light can only travel in a straight line, Snell’s law cannot be applied as
such to this problem. However, a curve can be thought of as an infinite number of
infinitely small straight segments, in the same way that a circle can be defined as a
regular polygon with an infinite number of sides. Bernoulli thought that if an infinite
number of glass layers, in each of which the speed of light would be proportional to the
root of distance from the top (see diagram below) and each with decreasing refractive
indices, were to be put together, light would be continuously refracted. If light takes the
quickest path for each of all the infinite segments, than the resulting curve would be
the quickest path to get from one point to another.

This means that at any point of the curve, the sine of angle between the tangent
line of the curve and the vertical divided by the square root of the vertical distance
between that point and the start of the curve will be constant:

sin 𝜃
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
√𝑦

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The above diagram is the one drawn by Bernoulli to solve the Brachistochrone
problem 3 (Herlichson, 1999). If the object travels from A to M, the vertical distance
travelled is AC, and the horizontal distance is CM. Triangle Mmn represents the
refraction, as the angle between Mm and the vertical is the angle of refraction. The
curve AH on the left of the diagram, which is the square of AC, represents the increase
in speed as the object descends. This speed is, as we have seen, proportional to the
root of the vertical distance travelled:

𝑣 ∝ √𝑦

The distance CM is denoted by x. Thus, x and y are the rectangular coordinates

of the object with respect to the starting point at A.

𝑥 = ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝐶𝑀

𝑦 = 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝐴𝐶

We have seen that sin θ/v = constant, or sin θ = kv, so the sine of the angle of refraction
is proportional to the light speed in the medium. Referring to the differential triangle
Mmn in Bernoulli’s figure, we see that:

𝑀𝑛 = 𝑑𝑦 𝑛𝑚 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑀𝑚 = 𝑑𝑧 = √𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑦 2

We know from Snell’s law that:

sin 𝜃 = 𝑘𝑣

𝑑𝑥
∴ = 𝑘𝑣
𝑑𝑧

𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑣 ∙ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑘𝑣 ∙ √𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑦 2

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If k=1/a:

𝑣 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 =
√𝑎2 − 𝑣 2

This equation is the derivative of the equation for a cycloid. But:

𝑣 2 = 𝑎𝑦

√𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑦
∴ 𝑑𝑥 =
√𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑦

𝑦
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦√
𝑎−𝑦

We can expand this as follows:

𝑦 1 𝑎 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑎 𝑑𝑦 − 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
√ = −
𝑎 − 𝑦 2 √𝑎𝑦 − 𝑦 2 2 √𝑎𝑦 − 𝑦 2

By integrating this equation, we find:

𝑦
𝑥 = 𝑎 sin−1 (√ ) − √𝑎𝑦 − 𝑦 2
𝑎

If we substitute:

1
𝑦= 𝑎 (1 − cos 𝑡)
2

We get:

𝑡 𝑡 1
𝑥 = 𝑎 sin −1 (sin ) − 𝑎 sin ( ) √ (1 + cos 𝑡)
2 2 2

1 1
= 𝑎𝑡 − 𝑎 sin 𝑡
2 2

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By substituting:

𝑎
𝑟=
2

We get:

𝑥 = 𝑟(𝑡 − sin 𝑡)

𝑦 = 𝑟(1 − cos 𝑡)

These two equations define the cycloid with the horizontal base FAG, generated by a
circle of radius r rolling from left to right 4. Where t is a real parameter, corresponding
to the angle through which the rolling circle has rotated, measured in radians.

While this is extremely complex to proof using numerical values from the start, we may
make an example using the general formulas we worked out. If we take points (2,7)
and (14,2), for example, the horizontal and vertical distances travelled are as follows:

𝑥 = 12 and 𝑦 = 5

5
∴ 5 = 𝑟(1 − cos 𝑡 ) ∴ 𝑟 = (1)
1 − cos 𝑡

and 12 = 𝑟(𝑡 − sin 𝑡) (2)

Substiting (1) into (2)

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∴ (𝑡 − sin 𝑡 ) − 12 = 0
1 − cos 𝑡

∴ 𝑡 = 3.765

5
∴𝑟 = = 2.760
1 − cos 3.765

𝑥 = 2.760(1 − cos 3.765)

𝑦 = 2.760(3.765 − sin 3.765)

The quickest path between the two points is the cycloid curve generated by a circle
with radius 2.760.

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Converse proof:

Instead of investigating what the path of quickest descent may be, we may start
with a cycloid, and prove it is indeed the Brachistochrone curve. This proof is probably
similar to that used by Newton 5 (De Niguasa, 1994), although we do not have much
detail of the method he used to solve the problem.

Let us take the following cycloid, generated by the point P on the rotating circle,
which has a contact point C with the base:

We can then say that C is the instantaneous centre of rotation for the trajectory
of P. As if P was at the end of a pendulum with C as its point of rotation. Therefore, CP
is the radius of a circle which has the same tangent as the cycloid curve at point C,
making the tangent of the cycloid at that point perpendicular to CP:

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This gives us a right angle within the circle, and we know that any right-angled
triangle inscribed in a circle must have the radius as its base. From this, we can
construct another similar right-angled triangle, with base CP:

From here, we can find the distance CP with trigonometry:

𝐶𝑃 = 𝐷 sin 𝜃

By multiplying this length by sin θ again, we find the distance y between P and the
horizontal:

𝑦 = 𝐷 sin2 𝜃

By rearranging, we get:

1 sin 𝜃
=
√𝐷 √𝑦

sin 𝜃
∴ = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
√𝑦

Which is the relationship from Snell’s law we discussed before, making the cycloid
curve the quickest way to get from one point to another.

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This problem is one of the very elegant examples of how pure mathematics and
applied physics are intimately related, we have solved a maths problem that has
repercussions on physics using calculus, from a property observed in mechanics and
optics, and proving its converse by using this same concept of physics and geometry.
It is thanks to the physical relationship behind it that the converse mathematical proof
is elegant. Moreover, these two proofs show that a problem can be solved equally well
using calculus or simple geometry. The path of quickest descent for objects in the ‘real
world’ is nothing but the curve known in mathematics since the early renaissance, and
continues to amaze mathematicians to this day.

Bibliography:

Diagrams from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cld0p3a43fU&t=473s

1: Sagan, Carl (2011). Cosmos. Random House Publishing Group. p. 94.

2: Dunham William (1990) Journey Through Genius: The Great Theorems of

Mathematics, Wiley, p. 199-202.

3: Erlichson, H. (1999) Johann Bernoulli's brachistochrone solution using Fermat's

principle of least time [Online] Available from:
http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0143-0807/20/5/301/meta

4: Wolfram Maths world [Online] Available from:

http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Cycloid.html

5: De Niguasa Herrera, M. (1994) Galileo, Bernoulli, Leibniz and Newton around the
brachistochrone problem [Online] Available from:
http://rmf.smf.mx/pdf/rmf/40/3/40_3_459.pdf

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