Small Ruminant Research 62 (2006) 113–115

Enzootic abortion in ewes: A review of recent

developments in diagnostics夽
A. Pospischil
Institut für Veterinärpathologie, Universität Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 268, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland

Available online 19 September 2005

Abstract

Chlamydiae are widely distributed throughout the world, causing various forms of disease in animals and humans. The
possibilities for diagnostic detection of chlamydiae have considerably improved following the introduction of DNA-based
methods, particularly the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which permits direct identification from clinical specimens and
differentiation of species.
© 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Sheep; Chlamydophila abortion; Diagnosis; Complement fixation; Polymerase chain reaction

1. Introduction ders the respective diseases difficult to control. This

Chlamydiae are widely distributed throughout the
world, causing various forms of disease in animals and
humans. Several species, particularly Chlamydophila
psittaci and Cp. abortus, are known to be transmissible
from animals to humans, causing significant zoonotic
infections (Buxton, 1986; Hedberg et al., 1989; Brewis
and McFerran, 1997; Entrican et al., 2001; Goupil et al.,
1998; Vanrompay et al., 1999; Bennedsen and Filskov,
2000). The unique biphasic lifestyle of these obligate
intracellular organisms, which includes an infective
extracellular and a parasitic intracellular phase, ren-
夽 This paper is part of a special issue entitled Keynote Lectures of
the 6th International Sheep Veterinary Congress – Guest Edited by
Dr. George C. Fthenakis and Prof. Quintin A. McKellar.
E-mail address: apos@vetpath.unizh.ch.
is compounded by the specialist growth conditions for
the organisms and the lack of a genetic-based system
for the transformation of chlamydiae, both of which
have hampered research on these pathogens. To escape
the host immune response these bacteria are capable
of transforming into persistent stages of development
characterised by a distinct antigenic profile.
2. Chlamydioses in sheep and goats
Another zoonotic disease, enzootic abortion of ewes
or ovine enzootic abortion (OEA) caused by Cp. abor-
tus (formerly the ovine subtype of Chlamydia psittaci)
has become recognised as a major cause of loss in
sheep (and goats) in Europe, North America and Africa.
It is the most common infectious cause of lamb loss
in several countries of Western, Central and Northern

0921-4488/$ – see front matter © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.smallrumres.2005.08.005
114 A. Pospischil / Small Ruminant Research 62 (2006) 113–115
Europe (Aitken, 2000), e.g. in the UK accounting for
around 50% of all diagnosed causes of abortions. Eco-
nomic costs to the farming industry resulting from the
disease are considerable and amount in the UK alone
to an estimated GBP 15 million per annum. OEA is a
notifiable disease in Ireland, where its incidence has
increased dramatically in recent years (Madico et al.,
2000). In the UK, cases of transmissions to humans are
notifiable.
Although it is well known that enzootic abortion
in goats is quite similar to OEA with regard to severity
and zoonotic potential, its present spread and economic
importance for Europe cannot be assessed for lack of
epidemiological data.
3. Chlamydial diagnostics
According to the OIE (2004), the most commonly
used method for serodiagnosis of animal chlamy-
dioses is the complement fixation test (CFT). However,
the technique is laborious, of limited sensitivity and
often impaired by cross-reactions between chlamydial
species. The recently developed serodiagnostic tests
are mainly based on the two main cross-reactive anti-
gens present in all chlamydial species, lipopolysaccha-
ride and the major outer membrane protein (MOMP)
and thus, are not species-specific for diagnosing ani-
mals infected with OEA. Other more specific tests need
to be developed and evaluated in a European context,
such as those based on specific monoclonal antibodies
(Salti-Montesanto et al., 1997) and recombinant pro-
tein fragments (Markey et al., 1996).
For antigen detection, cultivation in cell culture
is still regarded as the standard. While this time-
consuming method is only applicable to cultivable
strains, many strains are difficult to grow and not all
laboratories have the facilities and expertise to culture.
The possibilities for diagnostic detection of
chlamydiae have considerably improved following
introduction of DNA-based methods, particularly the
polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which permits direct
identification from clinical specimens and differentia-
tion of species. A number of tests have been published
in the literature (Anderson et al., 1996; Kaltenboeck et
al., 1997; Messmer et al., 1997; Everett and Andersen,
1999; Longbottom et al., 2001), but none of them has
been validated in veterinary laboratories so far.
4. Control of chlamydial infection
Currently available vaccines against OEA are
based on inactivated whole organisms (MYDIAVAC)
and a temperature-sensitive live attenuated mutant
strain (ENZOVAX & TECVAX CHLAMYDIA
VACCINE). Although these vaccines offer adequate
protection, improvements are necessary to avoid the
difficulties associated with bulk chlamydial growth
and purification, which result in high production
costs and problems with efficacy. In addition, there
are safety concerns associated with the inoculation
of live zoonotic organisms and with the inoculation
of inactivated vaccines with oil-based adjuvants.
Recent research has therefore concentrated on subunit
vaccines, recombinant protein vaccines and more
recently DNA vaccination, for which there has been
variable success (Tan et al., 1990; Herring et al., 1998;
Vanrompay et al., 1999, 2001).
Most countries do not currently practise vaccination
as a way of controlling infection; instead farms seek
to join accredited flock schemes, such as the Premium
Health Scheme for Sheep in the UK, through diagnostic
testing of flocks. Accredited flocks from farms desig-
nated as being “OEA-free” attract premium prices in
the market place.
References
Aitken, I.D., 2000. Chlamydial abortion. In: Martin, W.B., Aitken,
I.D. (Eds.), Diseases of Sheep. Blackwell, pp. 81–86.
Anderson, I.E., Baxter, S.I., Dunbar, S., Rae, A.G., Philips, H.L.,
Clarkson, M.J., Herring AJ, 1996. Analyses of the genomes of
chlamydial isolates from ruminants and pigs support the adoption
of the new species Chlamydia pecorum. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol.
46, 245–251.
Bennedsen, M., Filskov, A., 2000. An outbreak of psittacosis among
employees at a poultry abattoir. In: Proccedings of the 4th Meet-
ing European Society for Chlamydia Research, Helsinki, Fin-
land, p. 315.
Brewis, C., McFerran, D.J., 1997. “Farmer’s ear”: sudden sen-
sorineural hearing loss due to Chlamydia psittaci infection. J.
Laryngol. Otol. 111, 855–857.
Buxton, D., 1986. Potential danger to pregnant women of Chlamydia
psittaci from sheep. Vet. Rec. 118, 510–511.
Entrican, G., Buxton, D., Longbottom, D., 2001. Chlamydial infec-
tion in sheep: immune control versus fetal pathology. J. R. Soc.
Med. 94, 273–277.
Everett, K.D.E., Andersen, A.A., 1999. Identification of nine species
of the Chlamydiaceae using RFLP-PCR. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol.
49, 803–813.
 A. Pospischil / Small Ruminant Research 62 (2006) 113–115
Goupil, F., Pelle-Duporte, D., Kouyoumdjian, S., Carbonelle, B.,
Tuchais, E., 1998. Severe pneumonia with a pneumococcal aspect
during an ornithosis outbreak. Presse Med. 27, 1084–1088.
Hedberg, K., White, K.E., Forfang, J.C., Korlath, J.A., Friendshuh,
K.A.J., Hedberg, C.W., MacDonald, K.L., Osterholm, M.T.,
1989. An outbreak of psittacosis in Minnesota turkey industry
workers: implications for modes of transmission and control. Am.
J. Epidemol. 130, 569–577.
Herring, A.J., Jones, G.E., Dunbar, S.M., Nettleton, P.F., Fitzgerald,
T.A., Anderson, I.E., Chapman, S.N., Wilson, T.M.A.F, 1998.
Recombinant vaccines against Chlamydia psittaci—an overview
of results using bacterial expression and a new approach using
a plant virus ’overcoat’ system. In: Stephens, R.S., Byrne, G.I.,
Christiansen, G., Clarke, I.N., Grayston, J.T., Rank, R.G., Ridg-
way, G., Saikku, P., Schachter, J., Stamm, WE. (Eds.), Chlamy-
dial Infections: Proceedings of the Ninth International Sympo-
sium on Human Chlamydial Infection. International Chlamydia
Symposium, pp. 434–437.
Kaltenboeck, B., Schmeer, N., Schneider, R., 1997. Evidence for
numerous omp1 alleles of porcine Chlamydia trachomatis and
novel chlamydial species obtained by PCR. J. Clin. Microbiol.
35, 1835–1841.
Longbottom, D., Psarrou, E., Livingstone, M., Vretou, E., 2001.
Diagnosis of ovine enzootic abortion using an indirect ELISA
(rOMP91B iELISA) based on a recombinant protein fragment of
the polymorphic outer membrane protein POMP91B of Chlamy-
dophila abortus. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 195, 157–161.
Madico, G., Quinn, T.C., Bomann, J., Gaydos, C.A., 2000. Touch-
down enzyme release-PCR for detection and identification of
Chlamydia trachomatis, C. pneumoniae, and C. psittaci using
115
the 16S and 16S-23S spacer rRNA genes. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38,
1085–1093.
Markey, B.K., Bassett, B., Sheehy, N., Gleeson, M., Clements L,
1996. Chlamydial abortion in an Irish sheep flock. Irish Vet. J.
49, 282–286.
Messmer, T.O., Skelton, S.K., Moroney, J.F., Daugharty, H., Fields,
B.S., 1997. Application of a nested, multiplex PCR to psittacosis
outbreaks. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35, 2043–2046.
OIE, 2004. Manual of Standards for Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines,
fourth ed., OIE.
Salti-Montesanto, V., Tsoli, E., Papavassiliou, E., Psarrou, E.,
Markey, B.K., Jones, G.E., Vretou, E., 1997. Diagnosis of ovine
enzootic abortion, using a competitive ELISA based on mono-
clonal antibodies against variable segments 1 and 2 of the major
outer membrane protein of Chlamydia psittaci serotype 1. Am.
J. Vet. Res. 58, 228–235.
Tan, T.W.A.J., Herring, A., Anderson, E., Jones, G.E., 1990. Pro-
tection of sheep against Chlamydia psittaci infection with a
subcellular vaccine containing the major outer membrane pro-
tein. Infect. Immun. 58, 3101–3108.
Vanrompay, D., Cox, E., Volckaert, G., Goddeeris, B.M., 1999.
Turkeys are protected from infection with Chlamydia psittaci
by plasmid DNA vaccination against the major outer membrane
protein. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 118, 49–55.
Vanrompay, D., Cox, E., Kaiser, P., Lawson, S., van Loock,
M., Volckaert, G., Goddeeris, B.M., 2001. Protection of
turkeys against Chlamydophila psittaci challenge by parenteral
and mucosal DNA inoculations and the effect of turkey
interferon-␥ on genetic immunisation. Immunology 103, 106–
111.