Part A

LINEAR AERODYNAMICS

An aircraft behaviour in a domain of linear form is termed as linear aerodynamics. The

domain is one of the prominent technologies with its own limitations, yet it is in demand.
Linear aerodynamics theory covers the cases in which the non-linear effects can be neglected.
The domain includes small angles of attack and Mach numbers low enough so
compressibility effects are not accounted. Vortex lattice method is included in the linear
aerodynamic methods due to its dependence on Laplace's equation.

Figure 1: Linear domain, the lift coefficient as a function of angle of attack

Such constraints make it difficult to use linear theory in certain areas of the flight envelope.
Linear theory is, therefore, quite helpful, because any aircraft spends time (and others, quite a
lot) in the linear domain. For eg, all take-off and landing take place at low speeds and ideally
below the stall mark.

Model a Linear Aerodynamic Wing by Using Tornado VLM.

Tornado algorithm is an advanced variant of the traditional vortex lattice. Tornado algorithm
deals with moving objects such as heads, fins and ducks. The mathematical model consists of
a series of vortex lines organized in a horseshoe shape. Aerodynamics is evaluated using
VLM on Tornado for the parameters seen in Figure 1 and the NACA 2412 air foil is chosen
at the base and NACA 0012 at the top. The flight configuration shall be set up for a static
state at an altitude of 2000 m at a speed of 50m / sec.
 Figure 2: The Geometry of Aircraft Wing
Below Figure 2 and Figure 3 are the Wing positions for Vortex and Wake Layout and the
Panel Collocation points for regular, respectively. A downwash created by a segment of the
vortex that passes through a collocation point or when it is extended (see Figure 2 and Figure
3). The lime benefit of the downwash power reaches infinite as the distance between the
vortex line and the collocation point is shorter because they are reciprocal of each other.

Figure 3: 3D Wing Configuration Vortex and

Figure 4: 3D Panel Collocation points on
Wake Layout
normal
 Figure 5: Aerodynamic Wings from Different Views
The liner wing configuration is evaluated at a wind speed of 50m / sec at an altitude of 2000
m for the field at an angle of attack of 5o = 5o. Figure 5 and Figure 6 display the significance
of the various coefficient values derived from the static steady simulation of the TORNADO.

For angle of attack α = 5o

Figure 6: TORNADO Results Derivative for linear Taper, Sweep and Dihedral Wing Design
Figure 7: TORNADO Calculation Results for linear Taper, Sweep and Dihedral Wing
Design

The centre of pressure does not remain in a constant location. As the angle of attack changes, the
local pressure at every point on the aerofoil also changes. This, in turn, causes a change in the location
of the center of pressure. The figure 7 shows the pressure coefficient throughout the wing surface.

Figure 8: CP Distribution over the Wing Surface

The wing is further is tested for different values of the angle of attack and the results of lift,
drag and body forces and their corresponding coefficient are reported in table1.

Table 1: Body Forces and Lift with Drag Forces

Alpha =-2 Alpha =0 Alpha= 2 Alpha =4 Alpha =6
Wind Forces
Drag 11.4946 6.75 18.3608 46.8944 92.1026
Lift -2499.151 1195.3957 4892.0618 8585.9307 12272.069
Side -3.9413e-14 5.1209e-14 -2.0428e-14 -2.0683e-13 -6.5281e-14
Coefficient
Values
CL -0.13243 0.063343 0.25932 0.45496 0.65029
CD 0.000609 0.0003481 0.0009729 0.0024849 0.00488

Result

The expressions that are derived can be used for load on the wing to calculate bending moment. The
first step is to start by integrating total load to determine shear force: V(x) = - ∫ qr(x) dx. The bending
moment can then be calculated by integrating shear force: M(x) = ∫ V(x) dx.

Graph 1: Shear Forces on main Wing

Graph 2 shows the bending moment over the wing surface it is minimum at the edges and maximum
at the base of the wing. The bending moment increases with the sweep of α.

Graph 2: Bending Moment on Main Wing

The figure below shows the normalized value of lift coefficient and the spanstation which
shows the change in characteristics of curve at the negative value of Alpha. It is mainly due
to negative lift. The maximum value is reported at the base at α=0o

Graph 3: Normalization CL and Normalized Span Station

The Lift coefficient has a direct relation with the attack angle the maximum value of lit coefficient is
0.65029 for the α=6o.
 Graph 4: Local CL on main wing and span station
The Graph 5 shows the force acting on the wing which is the resultant lift force and the
weight of aircraft. The maximum value is 832 kN at the α=6o.

Graph 5: Spanload on Main Wing Vs SpanStation

The linear wing design is tested for the steady conditions and static flight conditions at the
altitude of 2000 mts and the velocity of 50m/s. The coefficient obtained are reported in the
graphs 9,10 and 11 with the sweep of α from -2o to 5o
Graph 6: The effect of swing of α (-2o to 5o) on CL, CD, CY, Cl, CM and Cn

Graph 7: The variation of CD Vs CL for swing of α (-2o to 5o)

 Graph 8: The variation of CL Vs CD, swing of α (-2o to 5o) and Cn
Use of a vortex lattice system, such as Tornado, to achieve aerodynamic strength in real-time
environments. The aircraft simulator can deliver very flexible simulations with very little
time to be used for evolving models. Personal computers today are not fast enough to
maintain the frame rate needed for effective visual simulation. However, the goal of real-time
simulation can be achieved with a few generations of faster computers.

THE VORTEX LATTICE METHOD SOLVING LINEAR AERODYNAMIC WING

DESIGN APPLICATIONS BOING B747.

The specification is also applicable to the boing B747-200 aircraft with the same altitude of
2000mts and the static wind speed of 50m / sec. The results obtained are shown in Figure 21
and Figure 22 for the value of the angle of attack = 5o.
 Figure 9: The aerodynamic Wing Design of Boing B747_200 Wing Aircraft
Traditionally, to build a full plane, one requires more than one wing. The two wings often
frequently in the design are the stabilizer and the tail, but certain elements are also necessary.
Such consecutive wings can be as complex as the main wing. Figure 17 and Figure 18
demonstrate the configuration of the Boing 747 200 aircraft in Tornado with three different
wings, a bit like a large ship.
 Figure 10: 3D Wing Configuration of Boing B747 200 Wing Aircraft

Figure 11: Boing B747 200 Wing Aircraft

By introducing a twist to the form, this means that the geometric angle of attack differs with
the distance, the template is no longer a flat board, but a subtly bent sheet. The twist would
allow the two outgoing vortex legs of the panel to be no longer parallel, see Figure 12.
 Figure 12: The pressure coefficient distribution over the surface of Boing B747_200 Wing
Aircraft
The values of the various motion, drag and body forces and their corresponding coefficients
are derived from the measurement at the static state at wind speeds of 50m / and 5o as shown
in Figure 21 and Figure 22.

Figure 13: TORNADO Calculation Derivatives Results for Boing B747_200 wing design.
 Figure 14: TORNADO Calculation Results for Boing B747_200 wing design

The Boing B747_200 wing design is further tested for the steady conditions and static flight
conditions at the altitude of 2000 mts and the velocity of 50m/s. The coefficient obtained are
reported in the graphs 9,10 and 11 with the sweep of α from -2o to 5o

Graph 9: The effect of swing of α (-2o to 5o) on CL, CD, CY, Cl, CM
 Graph 10: Induce drag polar plot of CD Vs CL at a sweep of α from -2o to 5o (Boing
B747_200 wing).

Graph 11: Figure 25. The variation of CL Vs CD, swing of α (-2 o to 5o) and Cn (Boing
B747_200 wing).

Table 2: Body Forces due to wind and the corresponding coefficients.

Alpha =-2 Alpha =0 Alpha= 2 Alpha =4 Alpha =6
Wind Forces
Drag 3308.0572 3514.7075 4950.699 7598.8198 11415.8462
Lift -9539.8008 73677.6832 156943.3239 240312.8781 324311.1147
Side 0.002202 0.00065703 -0.00083461 -0.0022655 -0.36147
Coefficients
CL -0.01467 0.11332 0.24139 0.36961 0.49881
CD 0.005088 0.00540 0.0076144 0.011687 0.017558
The expressions that are derived can be used for load on the wing to calculate bending moment. The
first step is to start by integrating total load to determine shear force: V(x) = - ∫ qr(x) dx. The bending
moment can then be calculated by integrating shear force: M(x) = ∫ V(x) dx. The maximum value of
shear force is at the base of the wing and it is maximum for the α=-2 o. As the lift force is minimum
and the weigh of aircraft is acting in downward direction.

Graph 12: Shear Forces on main wing of Boing B747_200

Below Graph 13 shows the force acting on the wing which is the resultant lift force and the
weight of aircraft. The maximum value is 8.2kN at the α=6o

Graph 13: Spanload on mail Wing of B747_200 Vs Spanstation.

The figure below shows the normalized value of lift cofficient and the spanstation which
shows the change in characteristics of curve at the negative value of Alpha. It is mainly due
to negative lift.

Graph 14: Normalized CL Vs Normalized spanstation of B747_200 for the sweep of α from
-2o to 6o.

The aeroplane wing is a cantilever beam and the bending moment is due to load distribution
at the wing span. It is maximum at the base and minimum at the tip. The maximum value of
the bending moment is at the sweep α=-2o.
Graph 15: Bending moment on the main wing of B747_200 Vs Spanstation for the α from -2 o
to 6o.
The graph 16 shows the variation of lift coefficient over the B747 wing at the different angle
of attack. The maximum lift reported is 0.49681 at the value of α=6o

Graph 16: Local CL on the main wing Vs Spanstation for the sweep of the α from -2o to 6o.

Part B

Unsteady Aerodynamics
More advanced aerodynamic simulation may be used to accurately approximate the
dependency of aerodynamic forces and moments on the time content of dynamic motion.
Wagner's and Theodor 's characteristics are the attributes of Wagner and Theodor. Precise
effects from sudden flight motions or short-term harmonic changes must be obtained. The
most important difference in this situation with respect to quasi-steady approximation is the
effect of the wake on aerodynamics. The kinematic parameters for the general motion
analysis (unsteady aerodynamics) are shown in Eq. Straight velocity V and angular velocity
Ω change over time.

V ( t ) =(u ( t ) , v ( t ) , w ( t ) )

Ω=¿