LAND LAWS ASSIGNMENT

“2013 ACT, RESTROSPECTIVE CLAUSE &

ADVANTAGES OVER 1894 ACT”

LAND LAWS ASSIGNMENT

Submitted By

Name: UZAIR ULLAH KHAN

Student ID: 20167708

Roll no.: 65

B.A.L.L.B (9th Semester) (Regular)

Faculty of Law, Jamia Millia Islamia

Submitted to Prof. Kahkashan Y. Danyal

(Faculty of Law, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi)

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TABLE OF CONTENT

Page No.

1. Acknowledgment 3

2. Introduction 4

3. Rehabilitation and Resettlement 8

• House
• Land
• Offer for developed land

4. 2013 Act and its provisions. 9

5. New concepts under the land acquisition act, 2013. 9

• Land bank
• Option to the Appropriate government to take the land on lease
• Rehabilitation and Resettlement Provisions
• Mandatory SIA Study

6. Retrospective effect 10

• When the 2013 Act will apply retrospectively

7. Land acquisition act, 2013 advantages over land acquisition act, 1894. 12

• The title
• Forced acquisitions
• No safeguards
• Silent on resettlement and rehabilitation of those displaced
• Urgency clause
• Low rates of compensation

8. Recent landmark ruling as on 6th march, 2020. 14

9. Bibliography 18

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity to express our profound gratitude and deep regards to my professor
Kahkashan Y. Danyal for her exemplary guidance, monitoring and constant encouragement
throughout the course of this assignment. The blessing, help and guidance given by her time
to time shall carry us a long way in the journey of life on which we are about to embark.

I also take this opportunity to express a deep sense of gratitude to my friends for cordial
support, valuable information and guidance, which helped me in completing this task through
exhaustive research.

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INTRODUCTION

Land law is the form of law that deals with the rights to use, alienate, or exclude others
from land. In many jurisdictions, these kinds of property are referred to as real estate or real
property, as distinct from personal property. Land use agreements, including renting, are an
important intersection of property and contract law. Encumbrance on the land rights of one,
such as an easement, may constitute the land rights of another. Mineral rights and water
rights are closely linked, and often interrelated concepts.

➢ The Constitution originally provided for the right to property under Articles 19 and
31. Article 19 guaranteed to all citizens the right to 'acquire, hold and dispose of
property'. Article 31 provided that "No person shall be deprived of his property save
by authority of law."

➢ Forty-Fourth Amendment Act of 1978 omitted Art 19(1) (f). Moreover, no one can
challenge the reasonableness of the restriction imposed by any law the legislature
made to deprive the person of his property.

➢ The 44th amendment act of 1978 deleted the right to property from the list of
Fundamental Rights. A new article, Article 300-A, was added to the constitution
which provided that "no person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of
law".

➢ Both the state government as well as the union (federal) government was empowered
to enact laws for the "acquisition or requisition of property" (Schedule VII, Entry 42,
and List III).

The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and
Resettlement Act, 2013 (“New Act of 2013”) came into force from January 2014 repealing
the erstwhile Land Acquisition Act, 1894 (“LA Act 1894”). There were multiple areas of
uncertainties at the time the New Act of 2013 got presidential accent. One of the areas of the
uncertainties is the operation of Section 24(2) of the New Act of 2013. The said provision
states that fresh proceedings for land acquisition shall have to be carried out under New Act
of 2013 succeeding the proceedings under the LA Act 1894, in case no physical possession of

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land has been taken or if compensation has not been paid five years after an award has been
made under Section 11 of the LA Act 1894. Effectively, this provision makes the
applicability of the New Act retrospective in that respect and the doubt arose as to how the
said provision would work in the present scenario when so many LA proposals are mid-way
and everybody want to close the LA Case in the old act since it has a scope to pay less and
R&R was not mandatory. In same month of January 2014 a full-judge bench of the Hon’ble
Supreme Court of India (“SC”) in the Pune Municipal Corporation case held that, "in a case
where an award under Section 11 of the LA Act 1894 was passed in 2008, the land
acquisition proceedings had lapsed since compensation for the acquisition had not been
“paid” to the landowners, as per Section 24(2) of the New Act of 2013". The SC’s judgment
was based upon the fact that the Collector had not made the payments into a court, as
required under the provisions of Section 31(2) of the LA Act 1894. The Pune Municipal
Corporation’s decision to expedite the transition from the Land Acquisition Act, 1894 to the
Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and
Resettlement Act, 2013 is a shot in the arm for supporters of the new act. I have tried to
analyse the Pros and cons of the proviso u/s 24 of New Act of 2013 and its far-reaching
consequences once the LA proceedings will resume following the Rules under New Act of
2013 will come in to force in all states and union of India. Citing few Judgement s of various
High courts in India I wanted to high light in my paper what should be the approach to the
provisions of Law u/s 24 of New LA Act 2013.

The enactment of the Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition,
Rehabilitation and Rehabilitation Act, 2013, has made sweeping changes in the land
acquisition laws of India (LARR Act, 2013). By increasing the compensation for acquired
land, mandating a social impact assessment to be undertaken and requiring the prior consent
of land holders in particular cases, the Act has no doubt corrected the imbalance that existed
between the interests of land-owners and of the government as the custodian of public interest
in the earlier land acquisition procedures. It has significantly increased transparency in the
land acquisition process and given a voice to land owners in decisions on land acquisition.
But the implementation of the Act, as originally enacted, could also retard the development
process by slowing down the building of public infrastructure, and the processes of
industrialisation and urbanisation. It could impede the provision of affordable housing for the
vast majority of the population moving from rural to urban areas, which is crucial for
controlling the spontaneous development of sprawls taking place across the country. The

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central government has tried to alleviate some of the adverse effects by introducing an
amendment bill but its passage in Parliament has been stalled. Six states, however, have
obtained presidential assent for carrying out amendments on the lines of the bill introduced in
Parliament. This paper analyses the LARR Act, 2013, examines its impact on the
development process and makes recommendations on the way forward for the central and
state governments to lighten the adverse effects on infrastructure, industrialisation and
urbanisation. While analysing the developments on urbanisation, the paper also makes an
assessment of the possible expansion of urban settlements in the country in future and of the
impact of such expansion on the area under agriculture.

Agricultural land constitutes a major proportion of India’s geographical area, with forests the
next biggest user. Non-agricultural users, mainly urban settlements, industries and
infrastructure have so far accounted for a relatively small share of land use but this share is
likely to rise rapidly in future, as the country modernises and urbanises. Much of the
privately-owned land in the country is used for cultivation and is recorded as agricultural
land. Land owners are free to transfer land to other users but a change in use from agricultural
to commercial, industrial or any other purpose usually requires the permission from revenue
authorities; such permission is generally accorded easily on the payment of a fee. When large
parcels of land are needed for the construction of roads, railways, canals or other public
infrastructure, urban housing or any other public purpose, land is acquired compulsorily by
the government on payment of compensation in accordance with land acquisition laws. There
is a provision in these laws for acquisition of land for the establishment of industry owned by
the private sector as well. While changes in land use take place gradually and incrementally
over time through decisions by land-owners, big changes require decisions by the
governments and compulsory land acquisition is the main vehicle for bringing changes on a
large scale. Since the British days, the framework of law for compulsory acquisition of
private land has been provided mainly by the Land Acquisition Act, 1894. In 1973, a
Supreme Court judgement (Kesavanand Bharati and Others vs. State of Kerala), which
pronounced the doctrine of the basic structure of the Constitution, put in doubt the
constitutionality of the land acquisition law. The case raised the issue whether compulsory
land acquisition could be construed an infringement on the right to property, which was one
of the fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution. The situation was remedied after
the right to property was removed from the list of fundamental rights by the 44th Amendment
to the Constitution. Although the constitutional validity of the land acquisition law is no

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longer in doubt, legal challenges in individual cases have continued. In these cases, the main
points of challenge have been on the adequacy of compensation, genuineness of public
purpose and the area of land proposed to be acquired being more than necessary. However, in
2007, land acquisition for the establishment of large industrial units became a source of
political turbulence in Singur and Nandigram in West Bengal when the government tried to
suppress a farmers’ agitation against the acquisition of land for the Tata Engineering and
Locomotive Company’s Nano project. A similar situation arose in Odisha as well in a
number of projects involving acquisition of land for private companies (Tisco, Vedanta and
Posco). There was great sympathy for the farmers who were evicted from their only earthly
possessions in an extremely poor part of the country. The Nano project of Telco was shifted
to Gujarat and the prestigious Posco steel project was abandoned. A bauxite mining project of
2 Vedanta also met the same fate. The discontent among farmers was exacerbated by the
perception that government’s power to acquire land was being used mainly for the benefit of
private industry. The resentment was particularly acute among the tribal population, who had
lost much of their land since independence without adequate compensation and without being
provided with employment opportunities. It was also believed that large industries had got
land acquired far in excess of their requirement. There was anger also at the use of the
urgency clause for land acquisition whereby possession could be taken of the acquired land
even before an award of compensation had been made. The general sentiment was that land
acquisition laws were heavily tilted in favour of corporate interests and their implementation
resulted in less than humane treatment of farmers and tribal owners of land who were
uprooted from their habitat. The political turmoil resulting from land acquisition for mining
and industrial projects led the UPA government to undertake a wide-ranging overhaul of the
Land Acquisition Act, 1894, and the Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land
Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013, (LARR Act, 2013) was enacted.
Important provisions in the Act relate to the steep enhancement of the scale of compensation
to land-owners and other project affected persons, the requirement of consent of land-owners
for acquisition on behalf of private companies and public-private-partnerships, the need to
undertake a social impact assessment of the project for which the acquisition is being
undertaken and limits on acquiring multi-cropped and other agricultural land. After the NDA
government came to power in May 2014, it promulgated an ordinance and introduced the
replacement bill, the LARR (Second Amendment) Bill, 2015, proposing, inter alia,
exemption in respect of consent of land-owners, social impact assessment and restriction on
the acquisition of agricultural land for five categories of projects, including defence, rural

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infrastructure, other infrastructure projects, industrial corridors and affordable housing. The
Bill has been approved by the Lok Sabha but its passage has been blocked in the Rajya
Sabha. Thus, the LARR Act, 2013, is the current law of the land on land acquisition.

In what all cases the land would be acquired:

• Government acquires land for its own use for public purpose.

• When ultimate aim is to transfer either to the private entity or to PPP but for public
purpose.

• When government acquires land and immediately transfer to private entity but again
for public purpose.

Now it’s very important that if there is no public purpose then the government would not be
acquiring land and this is the object and philosophy of the 2013 Act.

BUT EARLIER GOVERNMENT USED TO ACQUIRE LAND FOR PUBLIC PURPOSE

AS WELL AS FOR COMPANIES AS THE WHOLE CHAPTER VII (SEC 38 to 44B) WAS
DEVOTED.

“Go by Preliminary Notification under sec 4 as well as the object, we will get to know.”

REHABILITATION AND RESETTLEMENT:

• Section 31, 32,41,42,46 read with Second and Third Schedule.

• Elements of Rehabilitation and Resettlement Entitlements.

House:

If a family loses a house in a rural area as a result of the acquisition, then the law requires a
constructed house to be provided to them

Land:

In the case of irrigation project, each affected family which has lost agricultural land is to be
allotted, a minimum of one acre of land in the command area of the project.

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Offer for developed land:

When land is acquired for urbanization, 20% of developed land to be reserved and offered to
land owning project affected families.

2013 Act and its provisions:

➢ There are total 114 sections in this Act while in the 1894 Act total section were 55.

➢ There are total four schedule attached with the 2013 Act.

➢ Schedule I deals with the compensation.

➢ Schedule II deals with the elements of R & R.

➢ Schedule III deals with the provisions of infrastructural amenities.

➢ Schedule IV deals with certain laws which are exempted from the purview of this act.

NEW CONCEPTS UNDER THE LAND ACQUISITION ACT, 2013:

Land Bank

Section 101 of the Act provides that when any land acquired under this act remains
unutilized for a period of 5 years from the date of taking over the possession, the same
shall be returned to the original owner or to the Land bank of the appropriate
government.

Option to the Appropriate government to take the land on lease

Section 104 of the Act provides that the appropriate government be free to exercise
the option of taking the land on lease instead of acquisition, for any public purpose.

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Rehabilitation and Resettlement Provisions

1894 Act provided for payment of compensation but was silent in rehabilitating those
who have been displaced but the new 2013 Act contains provisions on Rehabilitation
and Resettlement package in the second schedule to the Act.

Mandatory SIA Study

Social Impact Assessment has been made mandatory before any land acquisition.

Special Land Acquisition Officer v. Anasuya Bai1:

In this case the land was acquired under the Karnataka Industrial Areas Development Act;
however, the compensation to the landowner was not paid in the stipulated time frame, where
in this case such time limit was set by the old Land Acquisition Act, and the acquisition was
quashed by the High Court. This decision of the High Court was set aside by the Supreme
Court and observed that the Karnataka Industrial Areas Development Act is a self-contained
code and the Central Act is not supplemental to it. It was, therefore, held that where a
subsequent Act incorporates provisions of a previous Act, then the borrowed provisions
become an integral and independent part of the subsequent Act and are totally unaffected by
any repeal or amendment in the previous Act.2

RETROSPECTIVE APPLICABILITY OF THE 2013 ACT:

RETROSPECTIVE EFFECT

When the 2013 Act will apply retrospectively-

• If the acquisition has been initiated under the Land Acquisition Act, 1894 (a
preliminary notification has been issued under Section 4 of that Act) but the award
under Section 11 of that act has not been passed then the provisions of the new law
which entitle the effected party to enhance compensation will apply.

1
(2017) 3 SCC 313
2
Civil, e-Newsletter 02 CJA Feb. 2017

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• Where the award under section 11 of the Land Acquisition Act, 1894 was passed five
or more years ago but compensation has not been accepted or the physical possession
of the land has not been taken by the acquiring authority then the acquisition will be
treated as having lapsed and a fresh acquisition, if necessary, will be carried out under
the new act.

• Where an award has been made under section 11 of the Land Acquisition Act, 1894
and compensation in respect of a majority of land holdings has not been accepted,
then, all beneficiaries or persons who are likely to be affected by the acquisition (as
specified in the notification for acquisition under Section 4 of the said Land
Acquisition Act, 1894), shall be entitled to compensation as per the provisions of the
new law.

Pune Municipal Corporation vs. Harakchand Solanki. (2014) 3 SCC 183.

On 24 January 2014, a three-judge bench of the Supreme Court of India pronounced the very
first judgment on the Right to Fair Compensation in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and
Resettlement Act, 2013.

Facts-

Number of cases were combined and in all one thing was common that a period of five or
more years had passed since the land acquisition award had been made under section 11 of
the Land Acquisition Act, 1894 and the applicants had refused to accept the compensation.

In this litigation, the acquiring authority (the Pune Municipal Corporation) argued that they
had deposited the amount in the treasury of the Government in fulfillment of their obligations
and therefore satisfied the requirement of paying compensation.

Judgment-

A three-judge bench of the SC (Justice Lodha, Madan Lokur and Kurien Joseph) held that
compensation would only be deemed to have been paid if it had been deposited with the court
and after having been offered to the individual concerned. In this case, the compensation had
only been deposited in the treasury.

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A.P v. Ravi Santosh Reddy3:

The Andhra Pradesh government in a 1987 land acquisition case dragged the landowner for 20
years, court to court, to challenge his claims of Rs. 50,000. In the meantime, the claimant passed
away mid-way in this long-drawn court process. When the state government approached the
Supreme Court, successors of the deceased failed to appear before it. However, in May 2016,
the Supreme Court in gave its judgement and went on to pass strong strictures against the state
government for abuse of legal process and said, “In our considered opinion, the State
unnecessarily pursued this pity matter to this Court in this appeal, which does not involve any
arguable point either on facts or in law nor it involves any point of public importance and nor
it involves any substantial money claim. What was involved was only the calculation of
payment of interest on the decretal sum for a particular period. In this Court also, learned
counsel was unable to show any kind of illegality or perversity in the said calculation made by
the executing Court while working out the liability of the State in paying Rs.50, 000/- towards
interest. Therefore, it was, in our view, a sheer abuse of process on the part of the State to
pursue a matter in filing a misconceived appeal against an interim order, which we do not
approve.”, further adding: “It is unfortunate that a genuine claim of the land owner was not
satisfied by the state for such a long time.”

LAND ACQUISITION ACT, 2103 ADVANTAGES OVER LAND ACQUISITION

ACT,1894:

1. The title
1894 - The name of old law sounds like the primary purpose was the acquisition of land.
2013 - The title has been amended to reflect the principle objective of the new Bill is fair
compensation, thorough resettlement and rehabilitation of those affected, adequate safeguards
for their well-being and complete transparency in the process of land acquisition.

2. Forced acquisitions
1894 once the acquiring authority has formed the intention to acquire a particular plot of land,

3
AIR 2016 SC 2579

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it can carry out the acquisition regardless of how the person whose land is sought to be
acquired is affected.
2013 In cases where PPP projects are involved or acquisition is taking place for private
companies, the Bill requires the consent of no less than 70% and 80% respectively (in both
cases) of those whose land is sought to be acquired. This ensures that no forcible acquisition
can take place.

3. No safeguards
There is no real appeal mechanism to stop the process of the acquisition. A hearing (under
section 5A) is prescribed but this is not a discussion or negotiation. The views expressed are
not required to be taken on board by the officer conducting the hearing.
2013 – provides Multiple checks and balances. It involves the participation of local
Panchayati Raj institutions prior to the start of any acquisition proceeding. Monitoring
committees at the national and state levels to ensure that R&R obligations are met have also
been established.

4. Silent on resettlement and rehabilitation of those displaced:

There are absolutely no provisions in the 1894 law relating to the resettlement and
rehabilitation of those displaced by the acquisition.
2013 – This law links land acquisition and the accompanying obligations for resettlement and
rehabilitation

5. Urgency clause:
This is the most criticized section of the Law. The clause never truly defines what constitutes
an urgent need and leaves it to the discretion of the acquiring authority. As a result almost all
acquisitions under the Act invoke the urgency clause. This results in the complete
dispossession of the land without even the token satisfaction of the processes listed under the
Act.

6. Low rates of compensation:

1894 - The rates paid for the land acquired are the prevailing circle rates in the area which are
outdated and hence not even remotely indicative of the actual rates prevailing in the area.
2013 Bill proposes the payment of compensations that are up to four times the market value

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in rural areas and twice the market value in urban areas.

Also 2013 bill speaks about Retrospective operation, multiple checks and balances, special
safeguards for tribal communities and other disadvantaged groups, compensation for
livelihood losers, caps on acquisition of multi-crop and agricultural land, return of unutilized
land, exemption from income tax and stamp duty, time-bound social impact assessment,
Share in developed land, damage to crops to be included in price, affected family to include
tenants, monthly subsistence allowance etc.

RECENT LANDMARK RULING AS ON 06th MARCH 2020

Indore Development Authority v. Manohar Lal4:

In the case of Indore Development Authority v. Manohar Lal, it was argued by the
landowners that acquisitions have lapsed under the Land Acquisition Act of 1894, and fresh
proceedings must start under the Land Acquisition Act, 2013.

In this important judgement the Supreme Court ruled that pending cases under the 2013
Act will lapse under two circumstances and the process of acquisition will need to start over
again.

The apex court ruled that fresh proceedings under the Land Acquisition Act of 2013 will need
to be initiated only if:

• Possession of land hasn’t taken place

• Compensation amount hasn’t been paid to landowners. Here, payment of compensation
not only means that money must be paid to landowners or deposited in court, but the
amount deposited in a government treasury will also be considered, the court has said.
This means even if the compensation amount was deposited with the government, fresh
acquisition under the 2013 law will not apply.5

4
(SLP(C) No.-009036-009038 / 2016)
5
Aparna Chaturvedi, Land Acquisition: Supreme Court Lays Down Two Conditions For
Pending Cases, BLOOMBERG QUINT (Mar. 06, 2020)

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It was further held by the 5-judge bench that the landowners cannot claim compensation under
Section 24(2) of the Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition,
Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013, if they had refused the compensation provided or
appealed for higher compensation. However, in case the compensation is not made under the
provisions of Section 24(1)(a) of the Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land
Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 as on the date commencement of the
2013 Act, i.e., 1.1.2014, in such cases the proceedings will not amount to be lapsed and
compensation has to be awarded as per the provisions of the Act of 2013.

With regards to Section 24 of the Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land
Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 which states:

“(1) Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act, in any case of land acquisition
proceedings initiated under the Land Acquisition Act, 1894, —

(a) where no award under section 11 of the said Land Acquisition Act has been made, then, all
provisions of this Act relating to the determination of compensation shall apply; or

(b) where an award under said section 11 has been made, then such proceedings shall continue
under the provisions of the said Land Acquisition Act, as if the said Act has not been repealed.

(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), in case of land acquisition

proceedings initiated under the Land Acquisition Act, 1894 (1 of 1894), where an award under
the said section 11 has been made five years or more prior to the commencement of this Act
but the physical possession of the land has not been taken or the compensation has not been
paid the said proceedings shall be deemed to have lapsed and the appropriate Government, if
it so chooses, shall initiate the proceedings of such land acquisition afresh in accordance with
the provisions of this Act:

Provided that where an award has been made and compensation in respect of a majority of land
holdings has not been deposited in the account of the beneficiaries, then, all beneficiaries
specified in the notification for acquisition under section 4 of the said Land Acquisition Act,

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shall be entitled to compensation in accordance with the provisions of this Act.”6, the court
gave the following interpretations and held

1. “In case the award has been passed within the window period of five years excluding
the period covered by an interim order of the court, then proceedings shall continue as
provided under Section 24(1) (b) of the Act of 2013 under the Act of 1894 as if it has
not been repealed.
2. The word ‘or’ used in Section 24(2) between possession and compensation has to be
read as ‘nor’ or as ‘and’. The deemed lapse of land acquisition proceedings under
Section 24(2) of the Act of 2013 takes place where due to inaction of authorities for
five years or more prior to commencement of the said Act, the possession of land has
not been taken nor compensation has been paid.
3. The expression ‘paid’ in the main part of Section 24(2) of the Act of 2013 does not
include a deposit of compensation in court.
4. In case a person has been tendered the compensation as provided under Section 31(1)
of the Act of 1894, it is not open to him to claim that acquisition has lapsed under
Section 24(2) due to non-payment or non-deposit of compensation in court. The
obligation to pay is complete by tendering the amount under Section 31(1).
5. The proviso to Section 24(2) of the Act of 2013 is to be treated as part of Section 24(2)
not part of Section 24(1)(b).
6. The mode of taking possession under the Act of 1894 and as contemplated under
Section 24(2) is by drawing of inquest report/ memorandum. Once award has been
passed on taking possession under Section 16 of the Act of 1894, the land vests in State
there is no divesting provided under Section 24(2) of the Act of 2013, as once
possession has been taken there is no lapse under Section 24(2).
7. The provisions of Section 24(2) providing for a deemed lapse of proceedings are
applicable in case authorities have failed due to their inaction to take possession and
pay compensation for five years or more before the Act of 2013 came into force, in a
proceeding for land acquisition pending with concerned authority as on 1.1.2014. The
period of subsistence of interim orders passed by court has to be excluded in the
computation of five years.

6
Section 24, The Right To Fair Compensation And Transparency In Land Acquisition,
Rehabilitation And Resettlement Act, 2013.

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8. Section 24(2) of the Act of 2013 does not give rise to new cause of action to question
the legality of concluded proceedings of land 319 acquisition. Section 24 applies to a
proceeding pending on the date of enforcement of the Act of 2013, i.e., 1.1.2014. It
does not revive stale and time-barred claims and does not reopen concluded
proceedings nor allow landowners to question the legality of mode of taking possession
to reopen proceedings or mode of deposit of compensation in the treasury instead of
court to invalidate acquisition.”7

7
Indore Development Authority v. Manohar Lal, SLP(C) No.-009036-009038 / 2016)

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

• Legaldesire.com
• Outlookindia.com
• Icrier.org
• Tclindia.in
• papers.ssrn.com
• prsindia.org
• indiacode.nic.in
• legislative.gov.in
• indiatoday.in
• dolr.gov.in
• mondaq.com

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