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11 Basic Electronics Engg EM
11 Basic Electronics Engg EM
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
Content Creation
The wise
possess all
This book is written in accordance with the new guidelines formulated by Tamilnadu
Government Curriculum Framework (TNCF-2017) Committee to strengthen the higher
secondary education on par with the Global Standards by providing different kinds of
learning opportunities to promote holistic approach to education. The objectives of this
book on Electronics Equipment is not only for knowledge upgradation but also for pro-
viding basic skills viz., hands-on-experience with electronic circuits, trouble shooting
of minor problems in electronic equipment, handling of test and measuring equipment.
This book covers the up-to-date curriculum in the area of Electronics and related
fields to encourage the multidisciplinary approach and discourage rote learning of
Electronics with different subject areas. Each Chapter has been designed and written in
such a way to inculcate the basic knowledge of the Electronics to the students and also to
give opportunity to the stakeholders to provide a platform for exhibiting their creativity.
Each Chapter starts with the introduction of the concerned topic and covers the
contribution from different domains such as brief history of scientists and their related
inventions, proverbs or Tamil literature quotes related to the particular scientific con-
cept, learning objectives, learning outcomes and detailed description of the concepts with
the related figures, equations for the easy and deep understanding of the subject matter.
Further, several solved problems and self-evaluation exercises are given in each Chapter
to motivate the students for self-learning and to develop self-confidence in the subject
matter.
We appreciate the initiatives, encouragement and guidance extended by the
Tamilnadu Curriculum Development committee headed by Prof. M. Anandakrishnan,
who is responsible for shaping this book to this higher level. We are indebted to the institu-
tions and organisations, which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources,
material and personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the Tamilnadu State
Council for Education Research and Training (SCERT) for their valuable support. For the
systemic reform and continuous improvement in the standard of this book, we welcome
critical comments and valuable suggestions, which will enable us to undertake further
revision and refinement of the subject matters covered in this book.
We hope this book will bring an appreciable change in the teaching-learning pro-
cess. We wish all the stakeholders to make use of this book effectively, to get the intended
outcomes and benefits.
iii
After completion of Higher Secondary (+2) Vocational Engineering (EE) course, students
can pursue the following courses / Jobs / Self-employment as detailed below:
Vocational Stream
The Vocational Engineering students are blessed with two major opportunities after com-
pleting their +2.
Preface iii
How to Use the Book iv
Career Guidance v
Case Study
P.Anand 225
M.Prabhu 225
G.T.Kannan 226
vi
CHAPTER
BASIC ELECTRICAL
PRINCIPLES
CONTENT
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
2 Electronics Equipment
U
Positive half
Initially, electricity was known cycle
as electric fluid.
t
Negative half
1.2 TYPES OF ELECTRICITY cycle
Generally there are two types of Electricity. Figure 1.1 AC sine waveform
They are:
1.2.2.3 Amplitude
1. Alternating Current (AC)
2. Direct Current (DC) Amplitude is the distance from the X-axis
to the vertex or peak of the any one half
1.2.1 Alternating Current cycle of the AC waveform. Its unit is volts.
The direction of current varies with time
1.2.2.4 Polarities
is called as alternating current. It has two
terminals viz., phase and Neutral. If the The top half cycle is positive half cycle
phase terminal acts as ‘+VE’, then neutral and the bottom half cycle is negative half
terminal acts as ‘-VE’ terminal. If phase cycle. Both half cycles combined together
terminal acts as ‘-VE’, then neutral termi- to form the one complete full cycle.
nal acts as ‘+VE’ terminal.
1.2.2.5 Wavelength
If you test the phase terminal with
The length from starting point of the wave
a line tester, you may see the tester shows
to the finishing point, which includes one
light indication. Neutral shows no indica-
positive half cycle and one negative half
tion. Neutral is a common terminal used
cycle, is called wavelength. Its unit is
as a return path current flowing from
meter.
phase to neutral through the connected
device. It is neither ‘+VE’ nor –VE. 1.2.2.6 Peak to Peak Value
1.2.2.1 Voltage and Frequency of The distance between positive peak and
Household AC Supply negative peak is referred as peak to peak
In our country, the voltage and frequency value. Its unit is volt.
of single phase supply is maintained as
220V/50Hz. In Foreign Countries, par- 1.2.2.7 Angles
ticularly in U.S.A, it is maintained as The starting point of the wave is 0°, +VE
110V/60Hz AC. Figure 1.1 shows the peak is 90°, the end of positive half cycle
waveform of the alternating current. is 180°, peak of negative half cycle is 270°
Chapter 1 Basic Electrical Principles 3
1.2.2.8 Frequency
1.2.3 Direct Current
The number of complete cycles per second
The direction of current does not vary with
is called Frequency. Its unit is Hertz (Hz).
time. Therefore, it is called as Direct Current.
Higher value units are kilo-Hertz (kHz),
We can get DC from battery or by convert-
Mega-hertz (MHz), Gigahertz(GHz) and
ing AC into DC using rectifier circuits.
so on.
Figure 1.3 represents the direct current.
Amp
1 2 3 +
0 t
Magnitude
OV
Water pressure
Water with pressure due to +–
air and gravitational force Bulb
Voltage
Water
pipe
Tank
Water flow Switch
Current flow
Figure 1.4 Comparison of voltage with pressure of Figure 1.5 Comparison of electric current with flow
water of water
Low resistance to the flow of water High resistance to the flow of water
(Low electrical resistance) (High electrical resistance)
(a) (b)
1A 0.5A
1 Volt 1 Volt
1Ω 2Ω
6 Electronics Equipment
3
Ohm’s law states that at constant
temperature, the current flows in
a circuit is directly proportional
to the voltage and inversely proportional
1. Medium Pressure to the resistance in the circuit.
2. High Pressure
3. Very High Pressure Voltage (Volt)
Current (Ampere) =
Resistance (ohm
Figure 1.8 Demonstration of Ohm’s law
V
I=
Take a plastic bottle and make three R
equal sizes of holes viz. (i) Top (ii) centre
and (iii) bottom and fill up the bottle with The other forms of Ohm’s law are
water. given below:
8 Electronics Equipment
E IR
Current
R
Potential
R2 difference Supply voltage Resistance
VR
Load
Bulb
–
AC
supply
Bulb
AC
supply
AC
10 Electronics Equipment
(a)
Switch
Fuse blown within a second
(open circuit)
No current
Bulb S
flow
Short
AC circuit
supply A.C. Load
supply
Short
circuit
Series circuit
1. The current I is equal in all the
R1 R2 resistors.
2. The voltage drop across each resistor
depends upon their resistance value
A.C. Only one path for
supply current flow
i.e.,
V1 = I . R
V2 = I . R
V3 = I . R
Figure 1.18 Series circuit
3. The EMF applied to the circuit is equal
to the sum of the voltage drops across
1.4.14 Parallel Circuit all resistors (Kirchhoff ’s voltage law).
A circuit, in which all the loads connected, Hence V=V1+V2+V3
have individual path for current flow, then We can derive formula for Total
it is said to be parallel circuit. Figure 1.19 resistance of a series circuit from the
shows the parallel circuit. above equation.
12 Electronics Equipment
I 100Ω R1 R2 200Ω
Figure 1.22
V1 V2
300V power Figure 1.22 shows R1, R2 and R3 are con-
supply
nected in parallel. When the voltage ‘V’ is
applied in between the ends of the circuit,
Figure 1.21
the following points are to be noted.
Chapter 1 Basic Electrical Principles 13
applied. Wire
No current Current flow
in other path
flow
cut
2. The current flows through resistors A.C. R1 R2
supply
will differ according to the value of
the resistor.
The current flows through resis-
tor R1 is referred as I1, whereas the Figure 1.23
current flows through resistorR2 , is 5. The current in this circuit takes two
referred as I2. or more branch paths from main
path. The current takes branch path
I1 = V I2 = V
R1 R2 (i.e. flows through each resistor) is
called branch current.
3. Hence, the sum of the currents flows
through the individual resistor is 1.6.1 Uses of Parallel Connection
equal to the flow of total current in the At homes and industries, this type of con-
circuit. Using this, we can derive the nection is used.
formula for the total resistance (R).
I = I1 + I2
V V
= +
V Problems
As per ohm’s law,
R R1 R2 1. Two resistors of values 10Ω and
15Ω are connected in parallel
V 1 1
=V + with 60V power supply. Prove that
R R1 R 2 the sum of the branch currents is
Cancelling ‘V’ on both sides, equal to the total current.
1 1
= +1
R R1 R2
I
I1 I2
Again simplifying the above formula by
taking LCM, 60V R1 R2 15Ω
power
1 R + R1
=V 2 supply 10Ω
R R1R2
14 Electronics Equipment
(continued)
I = 10 A 250V R1 R2
power
V 60 supply 50Ω 50Ω
Branch current I1 = =
R1 10
I1 = 6 A
V 60 Figure 1.25
Branch current I2 = R = 15
2 Total Resistance
I2 = 4 A R R 50 × 50 2500
R= 1 2 = = = 25Ω
R1 + R2 50 + 50 100
I = I1 + I2
R = 25 Ω
10A = 6A + 4A
10 A = 10 A Total current I = V = 250 = 10A
R 25
The sum of the branch currents is equal I = 10 A
to the total current in a parallel circuit. V 250
Hence, the theorem is proved. Branch current I1 = R = 50 = 5A
1
I1 = 5 A
V 250
Branch current I2 = = = 5A
R2 50
I2 = 5 A
In parallel connection, the total
I = I1 + I2
resistance is always lower than
the lowest resistance connected 10A = 5A + 5A
in the circuit. 10A = 10A
Ex., If two resistors 10Ω and 15Ω,are The sum of the branch currents is equal
connected in parallel circuit, the to the total current in a parallel circuit.
total resistance is lower than 10 Ω. Hence the theorem is proved.
R = 10 X 15 /25 = 6 Ω. Notice that the
total resistance (6 Ω) is lower than the
lowest resistance (10 Ω). (Here, 10 Ω Activity 1.2
is the lowest resistance connected in If two equal value resistors are con-
the circuit).
nected in parallel circuit, the total
resistance of the circuit will be half of
any one of resistance value.
Ex., If 100 Ω and 100 Ω are connected
2 Two resistors of values 50 Ω and in parallel, the total resistance is (100 X
50Ω are connected in parallel with 100) / (100+100) = 10,000/200 = 50 Ω.
250 V power supply. Prove that Shortly, 100/2 = 50 Ω.
the sum of the branch currents is
Check it through various examples on
equal to the total current.
your own.
R3 4Ω
In a circuit, some resistors may be con- R2 15 Ω
nected in series and some may be con-
nected in parallel. In this, both series and
parallel connection resistors are calculated Electrical supply
R1
R3 V
(b)
Figure 1.28
R2
V
1.8 CLASSIFICATION OF
Figure 1.27 RESISTORS
18 Electronics Equipment
Carbon track
(a) (b)
Rotating
Figure 1.37 SMD resistors
wiper
Shaft
Advantages Resistive
material
1. This type of resistor has small leads
or points that are soldered on c opper Terminals
place machine.
Wiper slider for
“standard” volume
Disadvantages Casing
Terminal 3
control application
(Terminal 2)
(GND)
1. Replacement of faulty resistors is
complicated. Figure 1.38 Variable resistor
(a) (b)
Figure 1.40 Posistors
Center pin
1.8.10 Negative Temperature
Coefficient resistor (NTC)
If the temperature of this resistor increases,
its resistance value decreases. Hence it is
known as Negative Temperature Coefficient
Left pin Right pin (NTC) resistor. It is also called as Thermistor.
To avoid the surge current while switching
on a power supply, the NTC type of resistors
Figure 1.39 Semi variable resistors
is used. It is shown in Figure 1.41.
Uses
1. Used in CRT type television receivers
2. Used in stabilizers and inverters.
20 Electronics Equipment
1 2 3 4 Green 5 105 -
Blue 6 106 -
Violet 7 107 -
Figure 1.42(a) Color coding in a resistor Grey 8 108 -
The first colour denotes the value White 9 109 -
of first digit, second colour denotes the Gold - 10-1 ±5%
value of second digit and the third colour Silver - 10-2 ±10%
(called as multiplier) denotes the number
No colour - - ±20%
of zeros followed by the two digit. The
fourth colour denotes tolerance level. If
it is gold, the tolerance value of the resis- Activity 1.3
tor is 5% and if it is silver the tolerance is
Make a colour circle showing Resistor
10% of the value. Figure 1.42(a) shows the
values using colour codes as shown in
resistor with colour code. Table 1.1 shows
the Figure 1.42(b).
the colour coding of the resistor.
7
6
Tolerance
t
i
g
8
i
Multiplier
9
d
1
2n
2nd digit 5
2
1st digit
M
8
0
0M
9
00
3
k
±0.5%
3 rd
±1
±0
0k x0 0
d
.2
%
.1
±2
5%
±0 4
%
4 7 i
.1%
g
Re sista
in g
k ±5%
i
±0.05%
x0.01
cod
t
t 0%
nc
e c olo u i
r
±1
00
To 5 g 1
±2 ne
0%
ran le M
No
ul
6 ce tip i
3
lie
9
r
d
0
none
6
2 1st
8
7
5
3
2
1 4
12 × 1 Tolerance Calculation
12 Ω
1. Find the tolerance value of the resis-
Example 3: Brown Black Red
tor given below
1 0 × 102
Brown Black Brown Gold
10 ×100
100Ω ± 5% = 100Ω ± 5Ω
1,000Ω = 1k Ω
Tolerance value of 100Ω = 95Ω to 105 Ω
Example 4: Yellow Violet Gold
47×10-1
47
10
= 4.7 Ω Figure 1.45(a) Calculating tolerance code
22 Electronics Equipment
Currents flow in
Figure 1.45(b) Calculating tolerance code
I1
J
1.9.2 Faults in Resistors I5 I2
Currents
1. Resistors may get opened because of flow out I3
V1= IR1
6I1+2(I1+I2) = 90
8I1 + 2I2 = 90 Eqn.. 1.1
+
V R2 2. CBEDC forms another closed circuit
– V2= IR2
8I2+2(I1+I2) = 110
2I1 + 10I2 = 110 Eqn.. 1.2
V3= IR3
To solve this, multiply Equation 1.2 by 4
R3
D C on both sides, Therefore,
Figure 1.47 Kirchhoff’s voltage law 8I1+40I2 = 440 Eqn.. 1.3
24 Electronics Equipment
4V 20Ω R3 F 6V
The minus symbol shows the current
flows in the opposite direction.
I1+ I2
F E D 1.11 CAPACITOR
Figure 1.49
A component which stores electrical
By applying Kirchhoff ’s second law energy and discharges when needed is
(voltage law) called capacitor.
In circuit ABEFA,
The unit for measuring capacitance
5I1+20(I1 + I2) = 4
is Farad, which is used to measure higher
25I1+20I2 = 4 Eqn.. 1 values.
I2 = 14
40 Dielectric
Electrode
I2 = 0.35 A
Substitute the value of I2 in Eqn. 1, we get, Figure 1.50 Capacitor
25I1 + 20(0.35) = 4
Unit Farad was named after the
25I1 = 4 -7 = -3 British scientist Michael Faraday.
Metal road
Non-conductive Conductive parallel plates
top
Electrical
Q+ + – Q–
charge
Glass jar + –
+ –
Internal + –
metal + –
coating + –
Dielectric
Chain External Symbol
or wire metal
Voltage VC
coating
Charging
Figure 1.51 Leyden jar When switch S is on, current flows through
the capacitor. Due to this, the plate A of the
Capacitor was initially known as capacitor gets +ve charge and plate B gets
condenser –ve charge. Thus, electric field forms across
the plates. After complete charging , the
current flow will stop. The amount of charge
1.11.2 Construction between the plates depends upon the dielec-
Figure 1.52 shows the parts of the capac- tric material and also the distance between
itor. In this, an insulator placed between the electrodes. The charging limit depends
two parallel conducting plates is termed upon the E.M.F. of the battery.
as a dielectric medium. The two parallel
Discharging
plates are termed as electrodes. Based on
the insulator used in the capacitors, they If a load is connected to that charged
are named as paper, ceramic, mica, and capacitor after removing from the circuit,
polyester capacitors. the electrical energy will discharge. This
is known as discharging of capacitor.
26 Electronics Equipment
Uses
1. Used in high frequency coupling
circuits.
2. Used in tuning circuits.
Paper soaked in dielectric
1.11.7.1.3 Polyester capacitors
Figure 1.54 (b) Paper Capacitor
Figure 1.56 shows a Polyester capacitor.
Available capacitor values are from It uses polyester film as a dielectric
0.001 µF. Voltage rating from 100 V to medium and aluminium foils as conduct-
1500 V. ing plates.
28 Electronics Equipment
Advantage
It can be used in high voltage applications
having voltage rating up to 2 kV.
Figure 1.58
Uses
1. Coupling Figure 1.58 shows the values of capacitors
as 102 and 103.
2. Decoupling
102 means 10 X 102= 1000pF
1.11.7.1.4 Ceramic capacitor = 1kilo pico Farad = 1kpF
Figure 1.57 shows the Ceramic capacitor. 103 means 10×103=10,000pF
= 10 kilo pico Farad = 10kpF
Protective
coating Ceramic disc
(dielectric)
1.11.7.1.5 Electrolytic capacitor
Figure 1.59 shows the electrolytic capacitor.
In this, aluminium oxide is used as dielec-
Electrode
(Silver coating)
tric medium. Pure aluminium foils are used
as anode (+). Aluminium paste is coated in
the dielectric and it is used as cathode (-).
Connecting
wire
Precautions
Figure 1.57 Ceramic Capacitor Since it has polarities (+ and -), it has
to be connected with DC supply only
In this, ceramic is used as dielec-
with correct polarities. Only –ve polar-
tric medium. Silver coating is made on
ity is printed in the capacitor. The
both sides of the ceramic. It is also called
other terminal is taken as +ve termi-
as Disc Capacitor, because it looks like a
nal. Care must be taken while connect-
small disc.
ing an electrolytic capacitor in a circuit,
Chapter 1 Basic Electrical Principles 29
Dielectric
Metal plate
Aluminum casing
Plastic
insulation
Paper spacer,
filled with
Uses
electrolyte
Roughned Dielectric 1. Used in starting the AC motors.
anode foil (Al2O3)
2. Used in CRT model TV receivers.
Negative lead
Positive lead
Electrolytic capacitors should be
(a) 4.7 μF/35 V tantalum capacitor
connected in correct polarities.
Otherwise the capacitor will burst out Sintered and oxidized Polymer electrolyte
tantalum anode Carbon
which is very dangerous. Silver Soldered
Welded
Available capacitor values are from
0.47µF to 4700µF and voltage rating from
Tantalum
3V to 500V. wire
Washer
Uses
Leadframe Leadframe
Molded case
1. Filtering (Anode +) (Cathode –)
30 Electronics Equipment
Connecting + –
terminals Porous paper
separators
Porous separator
Current collector
Carbon electrode
Carbon electrode
Current collector
Capacitor
body
Double-side
coated electrodes
C1 C2
stator
Figure 1.63(a) Working voltage
In the Figure 1.63(a), 1,000 micro Figure 1.64 Ganged capacitor (Metal)
farad / 25volts is mentioned in the capacitor.
25 V is the maximum voltage to be applied. If rotor moves outward, the area between
Two third of 25 V, that is 16 V should be stator and rotor is less, capacitance
normally applied to this capacitor. also becomes low value. If rotor moves
inside the stator, the area becomes large.
1.11.8 Variable Capacitor Hence capacitance value also becomes
In variable capacitor, the capacitance value high. The minimum capacitance is 49
can be changed within a particular limit. pF and maximum is 500pF. It consists of
two variable capacitors as shown in the
In this section, differ-
Figure 1.64.
ent types of variable capacitors
used in electronics circuit are Variable capacitor
1.11.8.1.2 PVC Gang
Symbol
discussed.
In this type of gang, thin layer of PVC acts
1.11.8.1 Ganged Capacitor as a dielectric medium.
Two variable capacitors are arranged in a Rotor is connected with chassis. Its
setup and can be varied through a com- value depends upon the area of plates. It is
mon shaft is called Ganged capacitor. shown in figure 1.65.
It is of two types:
1. Metal gang
2. PVC gang
In this, a plate is kept static Find out the total capacitance, when
(unmoved) and another plate is placed at two capacitors of values 10 µF, 15 µF are
a distance and it is in such a way that the connected in series.
second plate can be moved little by little Total capacitance
towards the first plate. The second plate C1C2
C=
is attached with the screw for comfortable C1 + C2
movement.
10 × 15
When the plates are nearer, the C=
25
capacitance is high and when it is at a dis-
tance the capacitance is low. This type of Total capacitance C = 6 µF
capacitor is said to be Trimmer. It is also
called as button trimmer. It is available in
values from 4pF to 70pF. 1.11.10 Capacitors in Parallel
Figure 1.68 shows a circuit in which the
Uses capacitors are connected in parallel.
It is used in pre-tuning circuits of the When the capacitors are connected
radio receivers. in parallel as shown in Figure 1.68, the
total capacitance is C = C1 + C2
1.11.9 Capacitor in series
C1
+
+
C1 C2
C2
1.11.11 A
ction of a Capacitor in DC
ic
Circuit
Figure 1.69 shows a capacitor connected C +Q
in a DC circuit. V rms i VC
+Q
Current
R Vs positive half-cycle
Resistor
Capacitor Capacitor
Capacitor charging discharging
+
+ + + +
V
V
Capacitor Capacitor
Battery – – – – charging discharging
– Vs negative half-cycle
LEARNING OUTCOMES
34 Electronics Equipment
QUESTIONS
I. Choose the best answer from the given four options. Each question carries one mark
1. The unit of current is
a) Volt b) Ampere c) Ohms d) None of these
3. Two resistors are connected in series, the total resistance value is calculated by
a) R = R1 + R2 b) R = R1 /R2 c) R = R1 X R2 d) R = R1 + R2/R1
4. If two resistors 150Ω and 150Ω are connected in parallel, the total resistance is
a) 50Ω b) 100 Ω c) 200Ω d) 75 Ω
9. When two capacitors are connected in parallel, the total capacitance value is
a) C = C1 + C2 / C1 +C2 b) C = C1 + C2
c) C = C1 + C2 / C1.C2 d) C = C1- C2
II. Answer in few sentences. Each question carries three marks. (3 marks)
1. Define Ohm’s law.
2. Define open-circuit and short-circuit.
3. Draw symbols for i) AC supply ii) DC supply iii) Resistor
4. What is meant by a resistor?
5. What is meant by tolerance in resistors?
6. If 100 Ohms and 150 Ohms are connected in parallel in a circuit , calculate the total resistance
of the circuit.
7. If 15 Ohms and 10 Ohms are connected in series with 50Volts, Calculate the current flow in
this circuit.
8. Write the expansion for i) NTC ii ) PTC iii) PCB
9. Write short notes on i) SMD capacitor and ii) Ultra capacitor
10. State any three advantages of tantalum capacitors.
11. Define capacitive reactance.
12. What is meant by variable capacitor? Draw its symbol.
36 Electronics Equipment
I1+I2
100V I1 I2 110V
20Ω
F E D
2. In a series circuit, two resistors 50Ω and 100Ω are connected with 300 V supply. Prove that
the sum of the voltage drops across the resistors is equal to the EMF applied in the circuit.
3. In a parallel circuit, two resistors 100 Ω and 150Ω are connected with 240V supply. Prove
that the sum of branch currents is equal to the Total current of the circuit.
4. List out the functions of a capacitor.
Answers
1) b 2) b 3) a 4) d 5) c
6) d 7) b 8) c 9) b 10) c
CHAPTER
ELECTRICAL DEVICES
விளக்கம்:
செய்யும் செயலை முடிப்பதற்கு வேண்டிய கருவிகளுடன், ஏற்றக் காலத்தையும்
அறிந்து செய்தால், அரிய செயல்கள் என்பது இல்லை.
“True wisdom wards off woes, A circling fortress high; Its inner strength
man’s eager foes Unshaken will defy”. #kural 421
Meaning: Wisdom is a weapon to ward off destruction; it is an inner
fortress which enemies cannot destroy.
CONTENT
2.1. Cells 2.5. Fuses
2.2. Inductors 2.6. Circuit Breakers
2.3. Transformers 2.7. Switches
2.4. Microphones and Loud 2.8. Electronic Servicing – Safety
Speakers Precautions
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Confidence and hard work is the best medicine to kill the disease called
failure. It will make you successful person.
–A.P.J Abdul Kalam
38 Electronics Equipment
38
Negative terminal
– – – –
in flash lights, emergency lights and toys.
Serial arrangement
+ – + – + – + –
Current
– – Charge
– ––
Positive Negative 1.5V 1.5V 1.5V 1.5V
+ +
– + + + – –– Figure 2.3 Cells Connected in Series
+
+ Separator +
– –
+ ++ Figure 2.3 shows the series connection
+ +
Cathode
+
Anode
of cells. Cells have a particular potential
Electrolyte
difference (Eg.1.2 V, 1.5 V, etc.). If higher
Protective
casing
Positive
terminal
voltage is needed (E.g. 6 V, 9 V, 12 V) cells
Negative
terminal are connected in series. The current flow
through in each cell is equal and same.
Cell divider
Positive electrode If four cells are connected in series
(lead dioxide)
Negative electrode
(1.5 V each) the total EMF is,
(lead)
Dilute H2SO4
ET = n×e
= 4×1.5 = 6 V
Figure 2.2(b) Structure of Secondary Cell
where ‘n’ is number of cells and ‘e’ is
the voltage of the cell.
2.1.2. Capacity of Cells
The capacity of the cells is termed in 2.1.3.2 Cells in Parallel
Ampere-hour (Ah). This denotes the sup- In this method, the positive terminal of
ply of current based on time. each cell is connected simultaneously and
40 Electronics Equipment
Problems
Let four batteries are connected in par-
allel having a voltage and current rating
of 12V/7Ah, 12V/10Ah, 12V/7Ah and
12V/6Ah. Calculate the total current
rating of the circuit.
Figure 2.5 Inductors
+ + + + +
12V 12V 12V 12V
–
7Ah
–
10Ah
–
7Ah
–
6Ah
–
Load
2.2.1 Inductance
Whenever current passes through a coil,
magnetic flux is generated around it. This
Total current rating of the circuit magnetic flux opposes any change in cur-
= 7 + 10 + 7 + 6 rent due to the induced EMF. The oppo-
sition to the change in current is known
= 30 Ah as inductance. The unit of inductance is
Henry.
Copper
wire
Lower
inductance
Figure 2.6 Electro Magnetic Force
Figure 2.8 Air Core Inductors
Inductor
i
Number of turns (N)
V
Ferrite Variable
core core
2.2.4. ‘Q’ factor (Quality factor) of inductance and make them more effective
an inductor filters. RF chokes use ferrite core, which
operate effectively at high frequencies and
The ratio of the inductive reactance to is shown in Figure 2.12.
the effective resistance is known as the
‘Q’ of an inductor.
2πfL
Q=
R
Normally
Spring open contact
Coil and
iron core
Relay
casing
Insulator
Yoke
Transformers
Primary Secondary
Figure 2.17 Step-down Transformer
100 V 400 V
10 A
5 turns
20 turns 2.5 A Table 2.2 Turns ratio of step-down
transformer
Core Primary Secondary
1000 W 1000 W
Turns ratio 2 1
Voltage ratio 2 1
46 Electronics Equipment
3 turns
96 turns
3 turns
Primary
winding Secondary
Np turns winding
Primary Magnetic Np turns
current lp flux, Φ Secondary
+ lp current
Primary +
voltage Secondary
Vp voltage
– Vp
–
Transformer
core In
Out
0V 9V 2.4.1 Microphone
A device, which converts sound waves
into electrical waves, is called as micro-
Figure 2.23 Power Transformer phone. There are few types based on the
construction.
What is the difference Types of microphone
between electrical and
electronics devices? 1. Carbon microphone
The devices that work on AC (Alternating 2. Ribbon microphone
Current) are called Electrical devices and 3. Dynamic microphone
the ones that work on DC (Direct Current) 4. Condenser microphone
are called Electronic devices.
Let us see some of the important
microphones.
2.3.4 Transformer Losses
2.4.1.1 Dynamic Microphone
Even in best transformers, unavoidable
The dynamic microphone can also be
losses are occurred. These losses may be
called as moving coil microphone, which
reduced using quality materials and can-
is shown in Figure 2.24. It is working
not be totally nullified. The losses are of
under the principle of electromagnetic
three types.
induction. This works on the basis of the
Copper Loss: The loss appeared following principle which states that “in
because of the resistivity of copper string a magnetic field a conductor is placed in
in the coil. such a way that it cuts the magnetic field
Hysteresis Loss: When AC changes and then inducing an electrical field in it”.
its phase, the magnetic phase also gets
Magnet
changed. This causes some loss in the
strength of the current. This is known as Voice coil
Hysteresis loss.
Eddy Current Loss: When current Audio out
flows in an iron, it will get heated. This
heat creates some loss. This loss is said to Diaphragm
48 Electronics Equipment
Magnet
Backplate Pole piece
Resistor
Compliant material
Sound A
waves Audio output
to pre-amp Figure 2.26 Dynamic Loudspeaker
Battery
Voice coil is placed in between the
Diaphragm
strong magnetic ends in order to fill the
Figure 2.25 Condenser Microphone air gap. Spider is placed on the voice coil.
The vibrating plate will act as dia- Spider helps the voice coil to fill the
phragm. When the sound signal strikes air gap. Paper cone is used to connect the
Chapter 2 Electrical Devices 49
C1
2.4.5 Horn type Loudspeaker +
+
This type of speakers is extensively used in Tweeter
D2905/9300
Public meeting. It is designed in tube type –
funnel. It is more suitable than cone paper
LT1
type speakers for delivering very high vol- L2
2.5. FUSE
CARTRIDGE TYPE WITH
A fuse is made up of a piece of metal that GLASS TUBE AND
melts when over-heated. It should be con- WIRE FUSE LINK
Special compound
Before fusing off Lead wire Thermal element
Insulating container Phenolic case
Special compound
Thermal element
Sealant
Radial type
Working principle
Difference between Fuse and MCB
MCBs are either electromagnetic or a bi-
The difference between MCB and Fuse is
metallic strip. In either case, when turned
summarized in Table 2.3.
54 Electronics Equipment
vac
–
Symbol DPST Switch
applied in the switch. This type of switch 1. Before using the equipment, the
is used in computer keyboard, digital cir- technician must know the operation
cuits for reset, etc. of that equipment and made proper
electrical connections.
2.8 ELECTRONIC SERVICING - 2. If any fault occurs in the electronic
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS equipment, it will be checked and
repaired after the equipment is
An electronic technician must carefully
totally disconnected from the sup-
handle the work without any damage to the
ply. E.g. TV, DVD players
equipment. He must know all the operations
of electronic equipment. Electrical accident 3. While removing the plug-point pin
may occur only due to carelessness. To avoid from the socket, it should be done
this, electronic technician must follow the properly. We should not pull the
rules and regulations when working. wire.
56 Electronics Equipment
LEARNING OUTCOMES
GLOSSARY
S. No Terms Explanation
1 Auto transformer Transformer that uses a common winding for both pri-
mary and secondary windings
2 Electromotive Measured in volts, a force that exists between positive
Force and negative charges
3 Inductors A device for introducing inductance into a circuit
4 Electrostatic Relating to stationary electric charges or fields as
opposed to electric currents
5 Troubleshoot Trace and correct faults in an electronic system
Chapter 2 Electrical Devices 57
QUESTIONS
I Choose the best answer 1 Mark
1. A device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
a) Capacitor b) Cell c) Resistor d) Transformer
10. Which among these is the least expensive protection for over-current in low-voltage system
a) Rewirable fuse b) Isolator c) Circuit Breaker d) Air Breaker switch
58 Electronics Equipment
Answers
1) b 2) c 3) d 4) d 5) b
6) b 7) a 8) b 9) b 10) a
CHAPTER
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
ELECTRONICS
CONTENT
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
From this chapter the students would learn about the following:
60
3. Control
Nucleus
4. Oscillations
5. Conversion of light into electricity
and Figure 3.1 Atomic structure
3.1.1 Nucleus
3.1. ATOMIC STRUCTURE It is a central part of an atom, which con-
tains protons and neutrons. A proton is a
According to modern theory, matter is positively charged particle, while the neu-
electrical in nature. All the materials are tron has the same ‘mass’ as the proton ,
composed of very tiny particles called but has no charge. Therefore the nucleus
atoms. The atoms are the root cause for of an atom is positively charged. The sum
all the matter or material existing in this of protons and neutrons decides the entire
world. weight of an atom. Because, the particle
The atom consists of a central in the extra nucleus (i.e., electrons) have
nucleus, contains protons and neutrons negligible weight as compared to protons
as shown in Figure 3.1. A proton is a and neutrons.
Chapter 3 Basic Principles of Electronics 61
ii. Insulator:
When number of valence electron of an Examples are nitrogen, sulphur and neon
atom is more than 4, the material is usu- which have 5, 6 and 8 valence electrons
ally a non-metal and an insulator. respectively as shown in Figure3.4.
+7 +16 +10
+6 +14 +32
64 Electronics Equipment
Filament
Cathode A
Glass envelope
Filament
G
Secondary
electrons
Indirectly Symbol
heated cathode
– B +
Figure 3.7 Thermionic emission
Free +
electron
+
– B + +
Emitting
Figure 3.8 Photo electric emission surface +
+
3. Secondary Emission: In this method,
+
a high velocity beam of electrons strike
Region
the metal surface and causes the elec- of intense
electric field
tron emission out of the surface as
shown in Figure 3.9. Figure 3.10 Field emission
66 Electronics Equipment
Early days of electronics made successful The study of atomic structure is very
strides by the introduction and working important for electronics engineering. The
efficiency of the vacuum tubes. During 20th size of an atom is so small that it is virtually
century, a new branch of engineering called impossible to see it even through the most
“electronics” originated from the electrical powerful microscope. Therefore, we have to
engineering, due to the arrival of the vac- employ indirect method for the study of its
uum tubes. These tubes have been finding structure. Though many scientists derived
wide applications in radio, television, long atomic theories, Bohr’s atomic model is ade-
distance telephones, sound motion pictures, quate to understand the electronics.
radar and electronic computers. A typical
vacuum tube having three electrodes called 3.5.1. Bohr’s Atomic Model
triode is shown in Figure 3.11 In 1913, Neil Bohr, Danish Physicist gave
clear explanation of
atomic structure. Bohr
Cathode postulated the following
Control (–)
points about the struc-
grid
Anode ture of the atom:
Glass (+)
1. An atom consists of Neil Bohr
tube (1885 – 1962)
positively charged
nucleus around which negatively
charged electrons revolve in differ-
ent circular orbits.
2. The electrons can revolve around
the nucleus only in certain permit-
ted orbits i.e., orbits of certain radii
Figure 3.11 Parts of the vacuum tube are allowed.
3. The electrons in each permitted orbit
Due to its size, slowness in work-
have a certain fixed amount of energy.
ing-speed, cost of production, and above
The larger the orbit (i.e., larger radius),
all the emission of heat while on work-
the greater is the energy of electrons.
ing reduced the life of many electronic
instruments. 4. If an electron is given additional
energy (e.g., heat, light, etc.), it is lifted
Continuous research was going
to the higher orbit. The atom is said
on, which paves the way for arrival of
to be in a state of excitation. This state
semiconductors.
does not lost long, because the elec-
Before studying about semiconduc- tron soon falls back to the original
tor, it would be better to know about the lower orbit. As it falls, it gives back the
structure of atom and characteristics of acquired energy in the form of heat,
electrons. light or other radiations.
Chapter 3 Basic Principles of Electronics 67
NUCLEUS
r2
r1
Edge of nucleus
Nucleus
68 Electronics Equipment
Forbidden
15 eV band
Valence band
(b) Insulators: Figure3.15 shows the At low temperature, the valence band
forbidden energy gap of the insula- is completely full and conduction band is
tors which is very large (15eV), e.g. completely empty. Therefore at low tem-
wood, glass, etc. perature semiconductor behaves like an
c) Semiconductors: Semiconductors insulator. However, even at room tempera-
(e.g. Germanium, Silicon, Graphene, ture some of electrons cross-over to conduc-
etc.)are those substance whose elec- tion band giving little conductivity to the
trical property lies in between con- semiconductor. As temperature increases,
ductors and insulators. In terms of more number of electrons cross-over to
energy band, the valence band is the conduction band and the conductivity
almost full but the conduction band increases. Because of this, the entire charac-
is empty. Further, the energy gap teristics of semiconductors get changed.
between valence band and conduc-
tion band is very small ( , 1eV) as 3.6 SEMI-CONDUCTOR
shown in Figure 3.16. Hence, smaller
electric field is required to push the In lower standards you might have studied
electron from the valence band to about the characteristics and principle of
conduction band. conductors, insulators. But you may not
studied about semiconductors. Based on
its character, it has been defined as semi-
Empty
conductor. But now, this semiconductor
Conduction band
is the Back Bone of modern electronics.
Band energy
1 eV
The character of semiconductor lies in
between conductor and insulator.
Valence band
The earlier period of (1950) elec-
Filled
tronics (communication equipments like
Radio, Television and Amplifiers) which
was dominated by vacuum tubes, gas filled
Figure3.16 Energy band of semiconductor tubes were replaced by this semiconductors.
70 Electronics Equipment
resistance
4. Nichrome 10-4 Ωm
material
+
Ge
0.7 eV
Valence band as follows.
The hole shows a missing elec-
3rd band
tron. Suppose the valence electron at L
(Figure 3.19) has free electrons due to
2nd band
thermal energy.
A Germanium
This creates a hole in the covalent bond
L. Now the hole becomes strong centre of
Conduction band attraction for the electron. So a valence
Band energy (eV)
A B
Holes
holes. Therefore, the total current inside Generally, for 108 atoms of semi-
the semiconductors is the sum of currents conductor, one impurity atom is added.
due to free electrons and holes. The purpose of adding impurity is
It may be noted that current in the to increase either the number of free elec-
external wires is fully electronic i.e., by elec- trons or holes in the semiconductor crys-
trons. Then what about holes? Referring tal. If the pentavalent impurity (having 5
to the Figure 3.21, holes being positively valence electrons) is added to the semi-
charged and move towards the negative conductor, a large number of electrons are
potential of supply. As the holes reach the produced in the semiconductor. On the
negative terminal B, electrons enter the other hand, addition of trivalent impurity
semiconductor crystal near the terminal (Having 3 valence electron) to semicon-
and combine with holes, thus cancelling ductor generates large number of holes.
each other. At the same time, the loosely Depending upon the type of impu-
held electrons near by the positive terminal rity added extrinsic semiconductors are
A are attracted away from their atoms into classified into:
the positive terminal. This creates new holes
near the positive terminal which again drift 1. N-type Semiconductor
towards the negative terminal. 2. P-type Semiconductor
Ge Ge Ge
Conduction
Free
band
electron
Band energy
Ge As Ge
Valence
Pentavalent
band
impurity
atom
Ge Ge Ge
76 Electronics Equipment
p-type
Conduction
band
Band energy
Valence
band
Indium
Indium Liquid button
p-type
A B C
78 Electronics Equipment
– +
P n External field
No External field
+ –
Figure 3.29 Reverse bias
Breakdown voltage
To apply reverse bias, connect neg-
ative terminal of the battery to p-type and “It is the minimum reverse voltage at
positive terminal to n-type as shown in which pn junction breakdown with sud-
Figure3.29. Because of increase in barrier den rise in reverse current”
potential the width of the depletion layer
is also increased. As a result, the increased Knee voltage
potential barrier prevents the flow of
charge carriers (majority carriers) across “It is the forward voltage at which the
the junction and hence the current does current through the junction starts to
not flow. increase rapidly”
At the end of this chapter the students came to know about the
following:
1. Knowledge about basic electronic principles
2. Atomic structure of elements.
3. Classification of Elements
4. Detailed knowledge of Semiconductors and its working
5. Working of PN-junction
GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY
S. No Terms Explanation
1 Acceptor atoms Trivalent atoms that accept free electrons from pentava-
lent atoms
2 Atomic number The number of positive charges or protons in the nucleus
of an atom
3 Covalent bond The way some electrons complete their valence shells by
sharing valence electrons with neighbouring atoms
4 Electron Smallest sub atomic particle of negative charge that orbits
the nucleus of an atom
5 Free electron Electrons that are not in any orbit around the nucleus
6 Hole A gap left in the covalent band when a valence electron
gains sufficient energy to jump to the conduction band
7 Junction The area where the P- type material and N-type material
meet in the semiconductor
8 Semiconductor An element which is neither a good conductor or a good
insulator, but rather lies somewhere between the two
9 Proton Sub atomic particle within the nucleus of an atom. Has a
positive charge
10 Valence shell The outermost electron shell for a given atom. The num-
ber of electrons in this shell determines the conductivity
of the atom
80 Electronics Equipment
4. The electrons in the third orbit of an atom have …………… energy than the electrons in the
second orbit.
(a) more (b) less (c) the same (d) none of the above
5. When an electron jumps from higher orbit to a lower orbit, it ……… energy.
(a) absorbs (b) emits
(c) sometimes emits, sometimes absorbs (d) none of the above
8. In an insulator the energy gap between valence and conduction band is …….
(a) very large (b) very small
(c) zero (d) none of the above
9. Which of the following element does not have three valence electrons?
(a) Boron (b) Aluminium (c) Germanium (d) Phosphorous
10. Which of the following element does not have five valence electrons?
(a) Phosphorous (b) Arsenic (c) Antimony (d) Indium
Answers
1) c 2) b 3) c 4) a 5) b
6) b 7) c 8) a 9) c 10) d
11) a 12) c 13) b 14) b 15) d
82 Electronics Equipment
CHAPTER
POWER SUPPLY
CONTENT
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
83
What is the other name for Each has its own specific areas of
Power supply application. Of the three, AC to DC power
supply is the most commonly used power
Power supply is also called as “Power Source”
supply. The objective of this lesson is how
to rectify AC into DC power supply.
4.1.1 AC to DC Power Supply
Converter 4.2. POWER SUPPLY BASICS
It is a device that converts alternative cur-
rent into direct current. Now a days almost all electronics equip-
ment consist a circuit that converts AC
Applications supply into DC supply is called DC
1. Radio and television receiver use Power Supply unit. A DC power supply
this type of power supply. unit (Commonly called as PSU) deriving
power from the AC mains (Line). It per-
2. It is also used in DVD player.
forms a number of tasks.
3. AC to DC power supply is used in all
The basic function of power supply
type of amplifiers.
is illustrated in Figure 4.1.
4.1.2 DC to DC Converter Transformer: Transformer is used to step
It is a device that converts a source of down the AC supply voltage (220 V AC,
direct current (DC) from one voltage level 50 Hz) as per the requirement of the solid
to another. state electronic devices.
Voltage
Transformer Rectifier Filter
regulator
84 Electronics Equipment
Color bands
Glass “When external voltage applied to the
junction is in such a direction that it can-
Marked
cels the potential barrier, thus permit-
ting the current flow is called as forward
Figure 4.4 Identification of diodes biasing”
SMD Diode
An SMD diode is a type of diode that is The importent term often used with pn
directly soldered on the cooper soldered junction is knee voltage.
points in the surface of printed circuit board.
4.3.4 Knee Voltage
Uses of Diodes “It is the forward voltage at which the
Diodes are used as rectifiers and detectors. current through the junction starts to
increase rapidly”
4.3.3 Forward Biasing
To apply forward bias, connect positive ter- The figure 4.6 shows the character-
minal of the battery to p-type and negative istics of PN junction diode (forward bias).
P-type N-type
Holes Electrons
Forward bias
+ –
+ –
86 Electronics Equipment
VF Reverse bias
0 0.7 1.4 2.1
A Silicon
+ –
IF (mA)
– +
V
Reverse bias
VF
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2
B Germanium
Figure 4.6 Characteristics of PN junction diode From this, the students can understand
(Forward bias)
the following:
1.
When pn junction is in forward
4.3.5 Reverse Biasing biased condition, current flow occurs.
2. When pn junction is in reverse biased
“When the external voltage applied to condition, no current flow occurs.
the junction is in such a direction that
potential barriers is increased, it is called
reverse biasing”
The important term often used with
pn junction is breakdown voltage which is
To apply reverse bias, connect neg-
explained as follows:
ative terminal of the battery to p-type and
positive terminal to n-type as shown in 4.3.6 Breakdown voltage
Figure 4.7. Because of increase in barrier
potential the width of the depletion layer
is also increased. As a result, the increased “It is the minimum reverse voltage at
potential barrier prevents the flow of which pn junction breakdown with sud-
charge carriers (majority carriers) across den rise in reverse current”.
the junction and hence the current does
not flow.
Chapter 4 Power Supply 87
Reverse saturation D
A +
current
A.C D.C
I/P RL O/P
IR (mA)
B –
(a) Half wave rectifier
Figure 4.8 Characteristics of PN junction diode
(Reverse bias)
A.C
I/P t
The figure 4.8 shows the Characteristics
of PN junction diode (Reverse bias)
Figure 4.9.
Figure 4.10 Half-wave Rectifier
Half Wave Full Wave During the positive half cycles, the
Rectifier Rectifier input voltage is applied directly to the
load resistance RL, when the forward resis-
tance of the diode is assumed to be zero.
The waveforms of the output voltage and
output current are same as that of the AC
input voltage as shown in Figure 4.10(a).
Center Tap Full Full Wave
During the negative half cycle when
Wave Rectifier Bridge Rectifier
the lower-end (B) winding of the secondary
is positive with respect of the upper-end (A),
Figure 4.9 Type of Rectifiers the diode D is under reverse-bias condition
and it does not conduct current. Thus, the
load and current across the load resistance
4.4.1 Half-wave Rectifier is zero and so no power is delivered during
This rectifier converts an AC input volt- the negative half-cycle. The input and out-
age into pulsating DC voltage for only one put waveforms are shown in Figure 4.10(b).
88 Electronics Equipment
D1
A Vin
Centre tap w†
RL π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π
AC
Input
Vout
DC output
Secondary w†
winding
π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π
B D2
Primary Centre tapped
winding transformer
(a) Full-wave rectifier (b) Input and output waveforms
2Emax D3 D2
–
Output of the full wave rectifier =
π
∴ The Average DC Voltage = 0.637 E max
Ripple Factors = 2 × f
Figure 4.12 Full-wave bridge rectifier circuit
4.6 FULL-WAVE BRIDGE
RECTIFIER The four diodes labeled D1, D2,
D3 and D4 are arranged in series pairs
As the centre-tapped transformer is with only two diodes conducting cur-
expensive and is difficult to implement, rent during each half-cycle. During the
bridge rectifier was developed. In this, positive half cycle of the supply, diodes
four diodes are arranged in the form of D1 and D3 conduct in series while D2
a bridge-configuration to produce the and D4 are reverse-biased. The cur-
desired output. Figure 4.12 shows the full rent flows through the load is shown in
wave bridge rectifier circuit. Figure 4.13.
D1
+
–
D3
Load
D4
–
+
D2
Load
Figure 4.14
Current flows Q
through the load
90 Electronics Equipment
From VO
rectifier RL
0 t
Output of D1 & D3
a) Inductor filter –
+
VIN C1
–
N 2VIN RL
N:1
+
C2
–
D2
4.10. AC ADAPTER
94 Electronics Equipment
GLOSSARY
S. No Terms Explanation
Step down Transformer in which the output AC voltage is less than the
1
transformer input AC voltage
2 Rectification Process that converts alternating current to direct current
Device or circuit that maintains a desired output under
3 Regulator
changing conditions
Abbreviation of Regulated Power Supply. It maintains a
4 RPS
constant output voltage under changing load conditions
The small variation in DC voltage that remains after filter-
5 Ripple voltage
ing in a Power supply
Network consisting of capacitors, resistors and inductors
6 Filter
used to pass certain frequencies and block others
Center tapped Circuit that make use of a center tapped transformer and
7
transformer two diodes to provide fullwave rectification
Full wave Rectifier that makes use of the full AC wave in both the
8
Rectifier positive and negative half cycles
When a repeating wave rises from zero to a positive maxi-
9 Cycle mum then back to zero and on to a negative maximum and
back to zero it is said to have completed one cycle
Difference between the maximum positive and maximum
10 Peak to peak
negative values of an AC waveform
9. In a half-wave rectifier, if AC supply is 50 Hz, then AC supply is 50 Hz, then AC ripple in the
output is
a) 100 Hz b) 25 Hz c) 50 Hz d) 12.5 Hz
PART B
II. Answer in few sentences
1. What are the types of power conversion?
2. What is meant by PSU?
3. What is rectification?
4. Give the use of voltage regulator.
5. What is half-wave rectifier?
6. Give the uses of filter circuits.
7. Write short notes on an AC adapter.
8. Write important points of zener diode
96 Electronics Equipment
PART D
Answer Key
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (b)
6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (b)
CHAPTER
TRANSISTORS AND
AMPLIFIERS
விளக்கம்:
ப�ொருள் வரும் வழிகளைப் பெருக்கச் செய்து, அவற்றால் வளத்தை
உண்டாக்கி, வரும் இடையூறுகளை ஆராய்ந்து நீக்க வல்லவனே செயல் செய்ய வேண்டும்.
CONTENT
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Try not to become a man of success, but rather try to become a man of value.
– Albert Einstein
98 Electronics Equipment 98
98
Types of Transistors
Types of transistors
1. Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
2. Field Effect Transistor (FET)
3. SMD Transistor
William Shockley 4. DIAC, TRIAC and IGBT.
Chapter 5 Transistors and Amplifiers 99
C C
n p n
N P E C
B P B N
B
N P
p n p
E C
E E
Figure 5.1 NPN and PNP Transistors Figure 5.2 PNP and NPN Transistor
+Vcc
E
Ib Rb Rc Ic
4. Collector to Emitter
5. Collector to Base
6. Base to Collector
Each pair should have one side with C
very high resistance (> 1 MΩ) and the other
Vce
side with a much lower resistance of a few
B
hundred thousand ohms. If this is the case
E
for all the transistor leads, the transistor is
Vbe
good. If not, transistor is defective.
IC + IB
VCC
RC
RB
VC
I1 R1 RC IC
IC
IB
VB VCE VBE
+
I2 R2
IE
RE
–
VB –
VEB VCB
Active Mode: In this mode, transis-
Figure 5.8 Working of NPN transistor
tor is generally used as a current amplifier.
In active mode, two junctions are differ-
5.7.2 Working of PNP Transistor
ently biased, that means, emitter-base
Figure 5.9 shows the basic connection of a junction is forward biased and collec-
PNP transistor. The forward bias causes the tor-base junction is reverse biased. In this
holes in the p type emitter to flow towards mode, current flows between emitter and
the base. This constitutes the emitter cur- collector and amount of current flow is
rent IE. As these holes cross into n-type base, proportional to base current.
they tend to combine with electrons. As the
base is lightly doped and very thin, only a Cut-Off Mode: In this mode, both
few holes (less than 5%) combine with the collector-base junction and emitter-base
electrons. The remainder holes (more than junction are reverse biased. This in turn
95%) cross into the collector region to con- not allows the current to flow from col-
stitute the collector current IC. In this way, lector to emitter, when the base-emitter
almost the entire emitter current flows into voltage is low. In this mode, device is com-
the collector region. It may be noted that pletely switched-off; as a result, the cur-
rent flowing through the device is zero.
VCC Vcc
Vin=Ov
Rb
ic OFF OFF
RC R
Vo = Ov
Vo = Ov
Vin = v
Rb
ON ON
2
The ratio of change in collector
current (ΔIC ) to the change in emitter cur-
1.5
rent (ΔIE)at constant collector base volt-
1 age VCB is known as current amplification
0.5 factor i.e.
n ∝ = ∆ IC at constant V
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 ∆ IE CB
vEB (V)
5.9.2. C
ommon Emitter
Figure 5.14 Input characteristics
Configuration
Output Characteristics Common emitter configuration is shown
It is defined as the characteristic curve in the figure 5.16. Here emitter is grounded
drawn between output voltage to output and it is used as the common terminal for
current whereas input current is constant. both input and output. It is also called as
grounded emitter configuration. Base is
To determine output characteristics, used as an input terminal whereas collec-
the emitter current IE is kept constant at zero tor is the output terminal.
and collector current Ic is increased from
zero by increasing VCB. This is repeated for
IC
higher fixed values of IE.
A curve is drawn between the out-
put voltage (VCB) to output current (IC) at
constant input current (IE) as shown in the IB
figure 5.15. RC Output
IC Input
(mA) IE=5 mA IE
5
4 mA
4 VBE VCE
3 mA
3
2 mA Figure 5.16 Common Emitter configuration
2
1 mA Input Characteristics
1
0 mA
It is defined as the characteristic curve
0 1 2 3 4 5 vCB (V) drawn between input voltage to input cur-
rent whereas output voltage is constant.
Figure 5.15 Output characteristics
IB
(mA)
vCE=0
vCE=0V Figure 5.18 Output characteristics
250
Base current amplification factor (β).
200 It is the ratio of output current to input
current. In common emitter connection,
150
the input current is the base current IB and
output current is the collector current IC.
100
The ratio of change in collector
50 current to the change in base current at
vBE(V)
n constant collector emitter voltage VCE is
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
known as current amplification factor i.e.
β = ∆ IC at constant V
Figure 5.17 Input characteristics ∆ IB CE
Output Characteristics
5.9.3 C ommon Collector
It is defined as the characteristic curve Configuration
drawn between output voltage to output
In common collector configuration cir-
current whereas input current is constant.
cuit is shown in figure 5.19. Here collector
To determine output characteris- is grounded and it is used as the common
tics, the base current IB is kept constant at terminal for both input and output. It is
zero and collector current Ic is increased also called as grounded collector config-
from zero by increasing VCE. This is uration. Base is used as an input terminal
repeated for higher fixed values of IB. whereas emitter is the output terminal.
From the characteristic it is seen
that for a constant value of IB, Ic is inde- Input Characteristics
pendent of VCB and the curves are par- It is defined as the characteristic curve
allel to the axis of VCE as shown in the drawn between input voltage to input cur-
figure 5.18. rent whereas output voltage is constant.
5
Figure 5.19 Common collector configuration 80 mA
IE
To determine the input character- 4
60 mA
istics, the emitter collector voltage VEC is 3
kept constant at zero and base current IB is 40 mA
IB(μA)
Current Amplification Factor(γ).
It is the ratio of output current to input
current. In common collector connection, the
100 input current is the base current IB and output
current is the emitter current IE.
80 VEC = 4V
The ratio of change in emitter current to
60 VEC = 2V the change in base current at constant emitter
collector voltage VEC is known as current
40
amplification factor i.e.
20 γ = ∆ IE at constant V
∆ IB EC
0 1 2 3 4 5 VBC
5.10 MULTISTAGE
CC input characteristics
TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER
Figure 5.20 Input characteristics
A transistor circuit containing more than
Output Characteristics one stage of amplification is known as
multistage transistor amplifier.
It is defined as the characteristic curve
drawn between output voltage to output In a multistage amplifier, a number
current whereas input current is constant. of single amplifiers are connected in cascade
Chapter 5 Transistors and Amplifiers 109
arrangement, i.e., output of the first-stage is Figure 5.23 shows two stages of an
connected to the input of the second-stage RC coupled amplifier. A coupling capac-
through a suitable coupling device, and so itor CC is used to connect the output of
on. Figure 5.22 shows the block diagram of first-stage to the base (i.e. input) of the
the multistage transistor amplifier. second-stage and so on. As the coupling
from one stage to next is achieved by a
Coupling of Amplifiers
coupling capacitor followed by a connec-
Name of Name of Multistage tion to a shunt resistor, therefore, such
Coupling Amplifier
amplifiers are called resistance-capaci-
RC coupling RC coupled amplifier
tance coupled amplifiers.
Transformer Transformer coupled
Operation: When AC signal is
coupling amplifier
applied to the base of the first transistors,
Direct coupling Direct coupled amplifier
it appears in the amplified form across
its collector load RC. Then, the amplified
5.10.1 R
C Coupled Transistor signal is given to the base of next stage
Amplifier through coupling capacitor C C. The sec-
This is the most popular type of coupling ond stage does further amplification of
because it is cheap and provides excellent the signal. In this way, the cascaded (one
audio fidelity over a wide range of fre- after another) stages amplify the sig-
quency. It is usually employed for voltage nal and the overall gain is considerably
amplification. increased.
+VCC
RC RC
R1 R1
CC CC
Cin
Input
Signal
R2 R2 Output
RE CE RE CE
+VCC
RC RC
T2
T1 T3
Output
Input
RC
Microphone
Voltage Voltage
amplifier amplifier Power
(Pre amplifier) (Driver amplifier) amplifier
Invariably transformer
3. Coupling Usually RC coupling
coupling
4. Input voltage Low (a few mV) High ( 2- 4V)
5. Collector current Low(1 mA) High( >100mA)
6. Power output Low High
7. Output impedance High (12kΩ) Low(200Ω)
Np Zout
R1 = LS
Ns Zin
+24V
C1
+
+12V
Input +
R2 0V
R3 C2
0V
two transistors are used in Class B opera- beyond cut- off. Figure 5.28 shows a Class
tion as shown in Figure 5.27. One transis- C power amplifier with the associated
tor amplifies the positive half cycle of the input-output waveforms. The efficiency
signal while the other amplifies the neg- of Class C power amplifier is around 90%.
ative half cycle. The efficiency of Class B
power amplifier is around 75%.
+VCC
+Vcc
+V +V
C3
Rc
VOut
C1
Q1
0 0 T
T Output signal RB
Vin
–V Input signal –V
Re VBB
Ic
5.12.3. Class C Power Amplifier
– – – –
If the collector current flows for less than
half cycle of the input signal, it is called Vout
Application
Q2 +
+ This type of amplifier is used in stereo
PNP
VS VO amplifiers.
–
–
5.12.5 Differential Amplifier
–VEE A differential amplifier amplifies the volt-
Figure 5.29 Simplified complementary symmetry
age difference between the two inputs. An
amplifier example of a configuration of the amplifier
is connecting the emitters of two transistors
Figure 5.29 shows the transistor with equal characteristics as shown in Figure
push-pull amplifier using complemen- 5.30(a). The voltage difference applied to
tary symmetry. It employs one NPN and the base of these transistors is amplified.
one PNP transistor and requires no cen- Figure 5.30(b) shows the waveforms at each
tre-tapped transformers. The circuit node of the differential amplifier.
action is follows. During the positive half The output of differential amplifier
cycle of the input signal, transistor Q1(the circuitry shown in Figure 5.30(a) is fur-
NPN transistor) conducts current while ther amplified and applied utilizing nega-
Q2(the PNP transistor) is cut-off. During tive feedback. Presently, high performance
the negative half cycle of the input signal, and inexpensive differential amplifiers,
transistor Q2 (the PNP transistor) con- so-called operational amplifiers (inte-
ducts current while Q1 (the NPN transis- grated circuit), are available in the market.
tor) is cut-off.
If two input signals of the differ-
In this way, NPN transistor ampli- ential amplifier are the same, the (differ-
fies the positive half cycles of the signal ential) output will be nearly zero. That
while the PNP transistor amplifies the is, common mode noise of the input is
negative half cycles of the signal. Note greatly attenuated, and only the signal is
that we generally use an output trans- amplified. A function of the amplifier to
former (not centre tapped) for impedance reduce the common-mode noise is CMRR
matching. (common- mode rejection ratio).
Chapter 5 Transistors and Amplifiers 115
R1 R2
eout1
eout1 eout2 ein1
–V
(a) Differential Amplifier Circuitry (b) Output waveforms
1. Positive Feedback
2. Negative Feedback
Feedback Feedback
5.13.1 Positive Feedback network
When the feedback energy (voltage or cur- Figure 5.32 Negative Feedback
rent) is in phase with the input signal and
thus enhances the input signal, the feedback
5.14 DISTORTION IN
AMPLIFIERS
is called positive feedback or regenerative
feedback. This is illustrated in Figure 5.31. The change in output wave-shape from
the input wave-shape of an amplifier is
Source Input Amplifier Output known as distortion.
(A)
The distortion can be classified as
follows
Feedback Feedback 1. Amplitude distortion
network
2. Phase distortion
Figure 5.31 Positive Feedback 3. Frequency distortion
116 Electronics Equipment
Distorted output
signal
ωt 0v
0
Input
signal
GLOSSARY
S. No Terms Explanation
The region of BJT operation between saturation and cutoff
1 Active region
used for linear amplification
A circuit that increases the voltage, current or a power of a
2 Amplifier
signal
Cascaded An amplifier with two or more stages arranged in a series
3
amplifier configuration
Emitter A common collector amplifier. Has a high current gain,
4
follower high input impedance and low output impedance
Feedback An amplifier with an external signal path from its output
5
amplifier back to its input
Increase in voltage, current and/or power. Gain is expressed
6 Gain as a ratio of amplifier output value to the corresponding
amplifier input value
Sound reproduction equipment that reproduces sound as
7 High fidelity
near to the original sound as possible
Unwanted electromagnetic radiation within an electrical or
8 Noise
mechanical system
A bipolar junction transistor with an N-type base and
9 PNP transistor
P-type emitter and collector
An amplifier designed to deliver maximum power output to
Power
10 a load. Example : in an audio system, it is the power ampli-
Amplifier
fier that drives the loudspeaker
PART A
I Choose the best answer. 1 Mark
1. A transistor has ……..
a) One pn junction b) Two pn junction c) Three pn junction d) Four pn junction
2. The number of depletion layers in a transistor is …………….
a) Four b) Three c) One d) Two
3. The base of a transistor is ……… doped.
a) Heavily b) Moderately c) Lightly d) None of the above
4. In a PNP transistor, the current carriers are ………
a) Acceptor ions b) Donor ions c) Free electrons d) Holes
PART B
II. Answer in few sentences 3 Marks
1. What is meant by a transistor?
2. Give the symbol of PNP and NPN transistor.
3. Write short notes on SMD transistor.
4. What is the bias needed to make the transistor work?
5. What are the various methods of transistor biasing?
6. Write about the different modes of transistor.
7. What are basic amplifier configurations?
8. Define an amplifier
9. What is the reason of employing more than one stage in amplifier?
10. If the output signal current is 5A peak to peak and input signal current is 200 mA peak to peak,
calculate the current gain.
11. If the output signal voltage 2 V peak to peak and input signal voltage is 20 mV peak to peak,
calculate the voltage gain.
12. What is meant by voltage amplifier?
13. What is meant by power amplifier?
14. What are the classification of power amplifiers?
15. What is meant by feedback?
16. What are the types of feedback?
17. Define negative feedback.
18. Write down the types of distortion occurs in amplifier.
19. What is meant by “Noise”.
PART C
III Explain the following questions 5 Marks
1. How will you identify the leads of transistor?
2. Write short notes about transistor testing.
3. Explain the biasing principles in transistor.
4. Explain the working principles of NPN transistor
5. How transistor works as a switch? Explain.
PART D
IV Explain briefly the following questions. 10 Marks
1. Explain how transistor works as an amplifier.
2. Write some factors about transistor
3. Briefly explain about operating modes of transistor.
4. Explain the working principle of RC coupled amplifier.
5. With neat diagram explain the working of complementary symmetry amplifier.
6. Explain the distortions occur in amplifier.
ANSWERS
(b) 2.
1. (b) 3.
(c) 4.
(d) 5.
(c)
(c) 7.
6. (b) 8.
(d) 9.
(c) 10.
(a)
(d) 12.
11. (a) 13.
(a) 14.
(a) 15.
(b)
CHAPTER
SPECIAL TYPE
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
விளக்கம்
ஒருவனுக்கு ஒளி ஊக்கமிகுதியே ஆகும், ஒருவனுக்கு இழிவு அந்த ஊக்கம்
இல்லாமலேயே உயிர்வாழலாம் என்று எண்ணுதலாம்.
Couplet Explanation:
One's light is the abundance of one's courage; one's darkness is the desire to live destitute of such
(a state of mind).
CONTENT
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Understand
the basic concepts of special type of semiconductor
devices.
2. Describe
the working principles of special semiconductor devices.
3. Understand
the switching action of Thyristor devices.
4. Know about various applications of the semiconductor devices.
Diffused
+
P-type
Vs
Epitaxial
N-type –
Flat side
Anode (+) Cathode (–)
Gold film cathode
a) connection b) Short lead
LEDs radiate different colours like radiated in the form of the light energy. The
red, green, yellow, orange, blue and white brightness of the emitted light is directly
depend on material used. Some LEDs emit proportional to the forward bias current.
infrared (invisible) light also. The colour
Advantages
of the emitted light depends on the type of
material used as given below. ●● LED can be switched ON and OFF at
very fast speed (1 ns).
●● Gallium arsenide (GaAs) –Infrared
●● Its operating voltage is from 1.5 V to
Radiation (Invisible)
3.3 V with low current (some mA).
●● Gallium phosphide (GaP) –Red or Green
●● It has a life time of 1,00,000 hours.
●● Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)-
●● LEDs are small in size and light in weight.
Red or Yellow
●● They require no heating and warm up
Working Principle time.
When an LED is forward biased, the elec-
trons and holes move towards the junc- 6.2 SEVEN SEGMENT LED
tion and recombination takes place. This
LEDs are often grouped to form seven
makes the electrons lying in the conduc-
segment displays. They are generally used
tion band of N region fall into the holes
as numerical indicators and consist of a
lying in the valence band of P region.
number of LEDs arranged as seven seg-
The difference of energy between the ments as shown in the Figure 6.2.
conduction band and the valance band is
Pin 1 3,8
A
F B
G
E C
D
A B C D E F G DP
DP 7 6 4 2 1 9 10 5
A B
Light
n+ n+
n–
Semi-insulating substrate
470 Ohms
Construct Automatic Street
light using LED and LDR 8
VCC
LDR
Switch
4
RESET
LED
2
TRIG
6 3
THR OUT
5 CONT
7
DIS
Battery 9V
50 K ohms
4Pcs LED
1
GND
IC 555
Glass
inside with transparent electrodes sepa- coatings, the arrangement of molecular pat-
rated by a liquid crystal layer of 5 to 50 µm tern gets disturbed. As a result, refractive
thick. The oxide coating on the front sheet index of the medium of the crystal changes.
is etched to produce a single or multi-seg- Therefore, the incident light is reflected in
ment pattern of characters with each seg- different directions. Now, the liquid appears
ment properly insulated from each other. dark in the white background. The area not
Working Principle: Figure 6.4(b) enclosed by conducting surfaces remains
shows the LCD working principle. When translucent.
AC voltage is not applied to the plates of Advantages of LCD
the molecules of liquid crystal, which align
1. The operating voltage required is
themselves in perpendicular (or parallel)
small (3 to 20 V/AC).
direction and appear transparent. When
2. They are economical.
a voltage is applied across the conductive
3. They have low power consumption.
Gap and
sealed
Portion
Conductive coating
Glass
Incident photons
– +
– +
– +
– +
P-type N-type
Depletion or intrinsic
region Anode Cathode
– +
(a) PIN Configuration of Photodiode (b) Photodiode Symbol
sistor amplifier. When the photo transis- The voltage (VCE) applied to the tran-
tor is illuminated, it permits the flow of sistor makes emitter-base junction forward
current. biased and collector-base junction reverse
Chapter 7 Special Type Semiconductor Devices 129
Sun light
Glass
Metal ring +
P
Junction N
– – +
Metal contact
(a) PN Junction Solar Cell (b) Symbol of Solar Cell
Base 2
n-Type bar
B2
(Base2)
Emitter p
E
n-type (Emitter)
bar
p-Type
region
(Base1) B1
Base 1
Structure of UJT Symbol of UJT
Gate (G)
p n-type p
bar
D
Depletion G
Depletion
region
region
Source (S) S
ID ID
D D
+ +
VDS VDS
– –
G G
P P P P
VDS VDS
S S
N VGS N
– –
VGS VGS + S
+ S
(a) JFET without Gate Voltage (b) JFET with Gate Voltage
Gate (G)
P-type substrate
Source(S)
diffused. These two N regions act as Source When gate is given a positive volt-
(S) and Drain (D). A thin layer of SiO2 is age (due to capacitor action), induced
grown over its surface then a metal contact negative charges will be setup in the
is provided at the top of the SiO2layer, which P-type substrate just adjacent to the SiO2
acts as a Gate (G). The oxide layer provides layer. These negative charges, which are
high input impedance (1010 Ω to 1015 Ω) to minority carriers in the P-type substrate
the MOSFET. form an inversion layer (N-type layer)
Working Principle: Figure 6.12 between source and drain. This layer
shows the normal biasing of n-channel formed only if VGS exceeds a certain value
E-MOSFET. It is always operated with called threshold voltage (VGS(th)). When the
positive gate to source voltage (VGS). The gate to source voltage is greater than VGS(th),
drain is kept at positive potential (VDS) drain current (ID) will flow from drain to
with respect to the source. When VGS is source through the induced N-channel
equal to zero, the PN junction between the (Inversion layer). Thus, the drain current
drain and the substrate is reverse biased. is ‘enhanced’ by the positive gate voltage
Hence, only very small leakage current and hence this device is called enhance-
(ID) flows through the device. ment type MOSFET.
P-type substrate
N+ N N+
P-type substrate
Enhancement Mode: In this mode,
(a) N–Channel DE-MOSFET Structure both the gate and drain are maintained at
Drain Drain positive potential with respect to source.
(D) (D)
The positive gate voltage induces the charges
in the N-channel. These induced negative
Gate
(G)
charges make N-channel between source
Gate
(G) and drain more conductive. As the positive
Source Source gate to source voltage increases, the drain
(S) (S)
current also increases. Hence, the mode of
N-channel P-channel
operation is called ‘enhancement mode’.
(b) Symbol of DE-MOSFET
6.11. SILICON CONTROLLED have three leads, they are anode (A), cath-
RECTIFIER (SCR) ode (K) and gate (G). The end P-layer acts as
anode, the end N-layer acts as cathode and
SCR is a three terminal and three junction the P-layer nearer to cathode acts as gate.
semiconductor device acts as true elec-
tronic switch. It is a unidirectional device. A
It converts AC to DC and controls the
amount of power fed to the load. It con- Anode
tains the features of a rectifier and tran-
Anode
sistor. SCR is widely used device in the 3
P
A
3
Thyristor family, so it is commonly called N
2
G 2
as Thyristor. 1
P
History: The SCR Gate 1
N
G
was proposed by Gate
Moll
Bell Lab. It was devel- Figure 6.15: SCR Structure and Symbol
oped by Gordon Hall
and his team engineers at General Electric Working Principle: In the normal
Company in the year 1956. operating conditions of SCR, the anode
Construction: SCR consists of four (A) is always kept at high positive poten-
semiconductor layers forming a PNPN- tial with respect to cathode (K), and gate
structure as shown in the Figure 6.15. There (G) is at small positive potential with
are three junctions namely J1, J2, J3. SCR respect to cathode. A load resistor (RL) is
Application of SCR
V
RL
1. The SCR is used in the circuit of AC
Figure 6.16 Forward Biasing of SCR voltage stabilizer.
+ -
6.12. DIAC
VG
J1 J2 J3
G
The DIAC is a bidirectional semiconductor
–
A
p n p
–
n
K switching device. It can be switched ‘ON’
–
using both polarities. DIAC is a short ver-
–
sion of DIODE Alternating Current. It is
widely used as a triggering device of a Triac,
RL V especially, for AC switches, dimmer applica-
Figure 6.17 SCR with Gate Voltage tion and starter circuits in fluorescent lamps.
Chapter 7 Special Type Semiconductor Devices 139
N3 P1
When MT2 is positive with respect RL
J4 J1
to MT1, the junction J1 and J3 are for- –
P1 N1
I J1 J2
ward biased, whereas junction J2 andJ4 V
N1 P2 I
+
are reverse biased. Therefore, no current P2
J2 J3
N2
flows through the diode P2N1P1N3. Since
MT1
the junction J2 is under reverse biased (+) MT1
(a) Basic Structure (b) Symbol of Schematic
condition, initially a small leakage current
flows through the diode P1N1P2N2. When Figure 6.20 Structure and Symbol Schematic when
MT2 is negative w.r.t. MT1
the applied voltage exceeds the break over
voltage, the reverse biased junction J2
Application of DIAC
breaks due to avalanche effect. Therefore,
the current flows from MT2 to MT1 1. Used as Triggering device in TRIAC
through P1N1P2N2 as shown in Figure 6.19. Power Control System.
140 Electronics Equipment
Main terminal 2
Main terminal 2 MT2
MT2
N4
P1
P1N1P2N2
N2 SCR1 SCR2
P2N1P1N4
P2 Main
Gate G
terminal 2
N3 N2
Main terminal 1
Gate G MT1 Main terminal 1
MT1
Main
Gate
terminal 1
S + S + S S
G G G – G
–
+ V – V + V V
–
VG – VG – VG + +
– + – + VG
n+ n+
J3 p Body region
J2 N-channel Gate (G)
n– Drift region MOSFET
n+ Buffer layer (PT IGBT) structure
J1
p+ Substrate (injecting layer) Gate (G)
Emitter (E)
(Source) Emitter (E)
Collector (Drain)
(a) Structure (b) Equivalent Circuit (c) Symbol
GLOSSARY
S. No Terms Explanation
1 Diffusion The intermingling of substances by the natural move-
ment of their particles
2 Electroluminescence Luminescence produced electrically by the application
of a voltage
3 Gate The controlling terminal of a FET. A voltage on the gate
control the current flow between the source and drain
4 Indicators A thing that indicates the state or level of something
5 Intensity The measurable amount of a property such as force,
brightness or a magnetic field
6 Monolithic Solid state circuit composed of active and passive com-
ponents formed in a single chip
7 Nematic Relating to or denoting a state of liquid crystal in which
the molecules are oriented in parallel but not arranged
in well-defined planes
8 Optoelectronics Technology concerned with the combined use of elec-
tronics and light
9 Q Factor A measure of the quality of a resonant circuit
10 Radiation The emission of energy as electromagnetic waves or as
moving subatomic particles especially high energy par-
ticles which causes ionization
11 Selenium It is a grey crystalline non-metal with semiconductor
properties
12 Substrate An underlying substance or layer
13 Terminal A point of connection for closing an electric circuit
14 Threshold The magnitude or intensity that must be exceeded for a
certain reaction to occur
15 Thyristor A four layered semiconductor rectifier in which the
flow of current between two electrodes is triggered by a
signal at a third electrode
144 Electronics Equipment
c) Alter the externally available illumination d) None of the above
9) The enhancement type basically termed as normally-off MOSFET works only with large
................
a) Positive gate voltage b) Negative gate voltage
c) Positive drain voltage d) Negative drain voltage
PART B
II Answer in few sentences 3 Marks
1. What are the advantages of LED?
2. How will you display number 9 in seven segment display?
3. Draw the symbol of LDR. Also mention its other names.
4. Differentiate photodiode and phototransistor.
5. What are the disadvantages of LCD?
6. How can we get electricity from the sun?
7. How will you use UJT as an oscillator? Explain.
8. What is called inter-base resistance in UJT?
9. Why FET is called as ‘voltage operated device’?
10. What is called forward conduction region on SCR? Explain.
11. State any three applications of MOSFET.
12. What is DIAC?
13. Draw the symbol of TRIAC. Mention its terminals.
14. Write any three application of TRIAC.
15. What is the function of IGBT?
PART C
III Explain the following questions 5 Marks
1. Explain the construction and working of LED.
2. Write short notes on seven segment display.
3. Compare LED and LCD.
4. Explain the working principle of solar cell.
5. Compare JFET and MOSFET.
6. Why SCR operating only in forward biased condition? Explain.
7. Explain the working functions of DIAC.
8. Write short notes on IGBT.
ANSWERS
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5.(d)
6. (d) 7.(d) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10.(a)
11.(d) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (b)
CHAPTER
OSCILLATORS
விளக்கம்
ச�ோர்வு இல்லாத ஊக்கம் உடையவனிடத்தில் ஆக்கமானது தானே அவன் உள்ள
இடத்திற்கு வழிக் கேட்டுக்கொண்டு ப�ோய்ச் சேரும்.
Couplet Explanation:
Wealth will find its own way to the man of unfailing energy.
CONTENT
7.6. Multivibrators
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
2. Feedback Oscillators
7.2.2. Undamped Oscillation
Negative resistance oscillator has Figure 7.2(b) shows the undamped oscil-
the negative resistance amplifying device lations. In these types, the amplitude of
to neutralize the positive resistance of the each oscillation remains constant with
oscillator. Feedback oscillator uses posi- time. Although the electrical system in
tive feedback in the feedback amplifiers to which these oscillations are being gen-
satisfy the Barkhausen criterion erated has losses, but now right amount
of energy is being supplied to overcome
7.1.3. A
ccording to the Frequency these losses. Therefore, the generated
Generated wave remains constant. It is also called as
1. Audio frequency (AF) oscillator: sustained oscillations. These continuous
20Hz to 20 kHz waves are produced by electronic oscil-
lator circuits for utilizing in various elec-
2. Radio frequency (RF) oscillator tronic equipment.
20 kHz-30 MHz
3. Very high frequency (VHF) oscillator:
30 MHz-300 MHz e
Feedback network
(Frequency control)
e.g. x 1/30
Figure 7.3 Block Diagram of an Oscillator
Positive feedback Out
RB RC
Output
C0
Q
C1 C2 C3
R1 R2
R3
RE CE
R1 R.F. choke
Co
Vout
Ci C1
Q
Y
C2
R2
RE CE
the converse effect, an electric field results crystal resonant frequency, the circuit pro-
in mechanical strain. The advantage of the duces more stable oscillations. The crystal
crystal is its very high Q as a resonant cir- frequency is dependent on temperature.
cuit, which results in good frequency sta-
Advantages
bility for the oscillator.
1. High ‘Q’ factor
Circuit Description: In the circuit
shown in Figure 7.8, the resistors R1 and 2. Excellent frequency stability
R2 form the voltage divider network, while 3. Simple circuit
the emitter resistor RE stabilizes the circuit.
Further, CE acts as an AC by pass capacitor, Disadvantages
while the coupling capacitor Ci is used to 1. Not to be used as tuned oscillators
block DC signal propagation between col- 2. Crystal is fragile type, hence it is
lector and base terminals. The RF coil in used only in low power circuits
the circuit which offers dual advantages,
as it provides even the DC bias and frees 7.5.4. A
pplication of crystal
the circuit output from being affected by oscillator
the AC signal on the power lines. Crystal oscillators are used in the micro-
Working Principle: When the processor and microcontroller for provid-
supply is switched ‘ON’, the capacitor C1 ing the clock signals. It generates clock
is charged. It fully charged, then starts pulses required for the synchronization
discharging through the crystal and pro- of all the internal operations. The use of
duces oscillation. The frequency of the crystal oscillator in military and aero-
oscillation depends upon the values of C1, space is to establish an efficient commu-
C2 and the RLC values of the crystal. If the nication system for navigation purpose in
frequency of the oscillation is equal to its the guidance systems.
156 Electronics Equipment
RL1 RL2
C1 C2
C
A
B
R1 R2
VO
Q1 Q2
VC1 R3 R4
–VBB
Input 1 Input 2
C3 C4
transistor Q1 through a resistor R2. Similarly, then in its second stable state until a positive
the output of Q1 is coupled to the base of trigger pulse is applied to the base of Q1.
Q2 through resistor R1. The main purpose A similar action can be achieved by
of capacitors C1 and C2 is to improve the applying a negative pulse at the set input
switching characteristic of the circuit by for transition from the first stable state to
passing the high frequency components of the second stable state and by applying a
the square wave pulses. This allows fast rise negative pulse at the reset input, reverse
and fall times, so that these square waves will transition can be obtained.
not be distorted. C1 and C2 are called com-
mutating capacitors or speed up capacitors. Applications
Working Principle: When the circuit 1. It is used in computer memory circuits.
is switched-ON, one of the transistors will 2. It is used as memory element in shift
start conduct slightly higher than the other. registers, counters and so on.
This transistor is thus driven into saturation 3. It can also be used as a frequency divider.
(i.e. ON). Then, because of the regenerative
feedback action, the other transistor is taken
into cut-off (i.e. OFF) state. Let us consider Uses of multivibrator
transistor Q1 is ON and Q2 is OFF. It is a sta-
●● They are used as a frequency divider
ble state of the circuit and will remain in this ●● Used as sawtooth generators
state till a trigger pulse is applied from out- ●● They are used as wave and pulse
side. A positive triggering pulse applied to the generator.
reset input (base of Q2) increases its forward ●● They are used as standard fre-
bias, thereby turning transistor Q2 ON, and quency source.
there is an increase in collector current and ●● They are used in Radar and TV
circuits
decrease in collector voltage occur. The fall in
●● They are also used as memory ele-
the collector voltage is coupled to the base of ments in computer.
Q1, which in turn turned OFF. The circuit is
158 Electronics Equipment
GLOSSARY
S. No Terms Explanation
1 Amplitude Magnitude or size of a signal or voltage
It is a range of frequencies or information, that a circuit can
2 Bandwidth
handle
3 Crystal A crystalline piece of semiconductor used as an oscillator
To cause a decrease in amplitude of successive oscillations or
4 Damped
waves
A part of output signal from an amplifier is given to the
5 Feedback
input of the same device
6 Frequency The number of cycles occur at a particular period of time
A device consisting of two amplifying transistors, each with
7 Multivibrator its output connected to the input of the other, which pro-
duces an oscillator signal
Non Other than sine wave (square, triangular, rectangular and
8
sinusoidal sawtooth wave)
Regular variation in magnitude or position about a central
9 Oscillation
point, especially of an electric current or voltage
10 Phase shift A change in phase of a waveform
11 Regeneration Positive feedback
Resonant A resonant, or tuned circuit combines an inductor and
12
circuit capacitor to make a circuit that is responsive to a frequency
13 Sinusoidal Having a form of sine curve, a sinusoidal waveform
The operation or activity of two or more things at the same
14 Synchronization
time or rate
15 Undamped Oscillations having constant amplitude
8. The crystal oscillator frequency is very stable due to ……….. of the crystal.
a) Rigidity b) Vibrations c) Low Q d) High Q
PART C
III Explain the following questions 5 Marks
1. Explain damped and undamped oscillation with waveform diagram.
2. Draw and explain the essentials parts of an oscillator.
3. Explain the conditions for oscillation.
4. Write short notes on Astable and Monostable multivibrators.
5. Why positive feedback is much needed in an oscillator function? Justify it.
PART D
IV Answer the following questions in detail 10 marks
1. Describe the construction and working principle of Hartley oscillator circuit.
2. Explain the working principle of RC phase shift oscillator with circuit diagram.
3. Draw and explain the working functions of crystal oscillator.
4. Explain the construction and working principle of bistable multivibrator with circuit diagram.
ANSWERS
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4.(a)
5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (d)
9. (b) 10. (a) 11. (b) 12. (b)
CHAPTER
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
“The twain that lore of numbers and of letters give are eyes, the wise
declare, to all on earth that live”. # kural 392
Meaning - Letters and numbers are the two eyes of man.
எண்ணென்ப ஏனை யெழுத்தென்ப இவ்விரண்டும்
கண்ணென்ப வாழும் உயிர்க்கு.. குறள்#392
CONTENT
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Analog system
Amplitude
0.5
2. Digital system
This Chapter covers the basic con- Time
Who is the inventor of logic Digital operations have two states (i.e.
gates? ON or OFF) and hence it is more sim-
ple and reliable than many valued analog
Walther Bothe, inventor of the coincidence
circuit, got part of the 1954 Nobel Prize operations.
in Physics, for the first modern electronic
AND gate in 1924. Konrad Zuse designed
and built electromechanical logic gates for 8.2 DIGITAL CIRCUIT
his computer Z1 (1935-38)
An electronic circuit that handles only a
digital signal is called a digital circuit.
Example: Digital calculator, Digital
8.1. ANALOG AND DIGITAL computer
SIGNALS
The digital operation is a two
state operation (i.e. ON or OFF, 1 or 0)
i) Analog Signals
and therefore a digital circuit uses only
A continuously varying signal(voltage or two digits 1 and 0 in the binary number
current) is called as an analog signal. system. In order to understand the con-
Example: Sinusoidal waves. cepts in digital circuits, first we discuss
Hence, the equivalent excess-3code Step2: Add the left most bit to the adjacent
1000 0111 1011 one.
A=0 Output
Y=0 Figure 8.10 Logic gate representation of Theorem 8
A=0
Theorem 9(A=A): This theorem
states that if a variable A is complemented
A=1 Output twice, the result is the variable itself.
Y=1
A=1 Starting with A and inverting (comple-
menting) it once gives A. Inverting it once
Figure 8.8 Logic gate representation of Theorem 6 more, gives A the original value.
Chapter 8 Digital Electronics 173
8.9.1 Advantage
A B Y=A.B
1. Very simple logic the lead to identify
0 0 0
the faults very easily
0 1 0
1 0 0
2. Immune to noise
1 1 1 3. Flexibility of programming
4. Design and testing is very simple
Figure 8.13 Symbol and Truth Table of AND Gate compared to analog electronics
5. Achieve very high speed switching
8.8.4 NOT Gate
A NOT gate has only one input and one Disadvantage
output. For the NOT gate, when the input 1. High energy consumption than ana-
is ‘0’ (LOW), the output is ‘1’ (HIGH)and log electronic circuits
when the input is ‘1’ (HIGH), the output
2. Higher cost of design
is ‘0’ (LOW). That is, the output is com-
plement or inverse of the input. 3. Portability is difficult
4. Real world signals need conversion
Figure 8.14 shows the symbol and
truth table for the NOT gate. The input is 5. Less accurate than the analog
marked as A and the output is marked as electronics
“One of the very important characteristics of a student is to question. Let the students
ask questions.”
GLOSSARY
S. No Terms Explanation
Binary Coded Decimal. Four bit code used to portray each
1 BCD
digit of a display numbers by its 4 binary equivalent
A number system having only two symbols, 0 and 1. A base
2 Binary
of 2 number system
3 DAC Abbreviation for digital to analog converter
Relating to devices or circuits that have outputs of only two
4 Digital discrete levels. Example: 0 or 1, high or low, on or off, true or
false etc
Least Significant Bit. Right most bit (smallest weight) of a
5 LSB
binary expressed quantity
In digital electronics, the decision making capacity of gate
6 Logic circuits, in that HIGH represents a true condition and a
LOW represents a false condition
7 Low Logic level 0 or false state
8 High Logic level 1 or true state
Most Significant Bit. Left most binary bit (largest weight) of
9 MSB
a binary expressed quantity
Method describing how a logic circuit output is dependent
10 Truth table
upon the logic levels present at the circuit input
2. A sinewave is a
a) digital signal a) analog signal
c) both digital and analog signal d) neither digital nor analog.
10. The input to NOT gate is ‘1’, then the output will be
a) 0 b) 1 c) 0 or 1 d) None of the above
PART B
II. Answer in few sentence
1. What is a digital signal?
2. What are the three basic logic gates?
3. What is a binary number system?
4. What is a digital circuit?
5. What is a logic gate?
6. Describe NOT function
7. What is the single variable theorem?
8. Convert the decimal number 18 into binary number?
PART C
III Answer the following questions with suitable examples.
1. Write a short note on analog and digital signals?
2. Explain Binary number system.
3. Write a short note on Boolean algebra.
4. Write the tabular column of single variable Boolean theorem.
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of digital electronics?
6. Convert the gray code 1011 into its equivalent binary.
7. Explain the excess-3 code with an example.
PART D
IV Answer the following questions with neat sketches.
1. Explain the three logic gates.
2. Discuss in detail the concept of binary codes.
3. With neat diagram explain any five of the single variable theorem.
4. Explain the connecting symbols used in Boolean algebra.
ANSWERS
(b) 2.
1. (b) 3.
(b) 4.
(c) 5.
(b)
(d) 7.
6. (c) 8.
(c) 9.
(b) 10.
(a)
CHAPTER
FUNDAMENTALS OF
DIGITAL COMPUTERS
CONTENT
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
In this modern world, none other word is Many centuries ago humans try to develop
more popular than the word ‘computer’. machine to perform some calculations.
Through the computer we can bring the The speed of this development increased
entire world in our hand, we feel. Because after the arrival of numerals.
with the help of computer we able to watch ‘ABACUS’ was the first calcu-
all incidents happening in any part of the lating tool developed by human. The
world like enjoying the music, movies etc. credit belongs to Chinese, some says it is
Above all there is a slave to do my routines. Babylonians and Egyptians, but it is not
179
Why?
-
Because of calculator is small in
size.
Abacus - Computer is big in size?
A=2
B=3
C=A+B
Memory
PRINT C
END John Napier (1550–1617)
Location
Born February 1, 1550, Merchiston
Tower, Edinburgh, Scotland
1. The first line A = 2 means we are ask- Died 4 April 1617 (Aged 66–67)
ing the computer to keep the value of Edinburgh, Scotland
‘2’ in the memory location called ‘A’. Nationality Scottish
2. Then B = 3 means we are asking the Alma mater University of St Andrews
computer to keep the value of ‘3’ in Known for Logarithms Napier’s bones,
the memory location called ‘B’. Decimal notation
Scientific Career
3. C = A + B means asking the com-
Fields Mathematician
puter to keep the sum of A, B in the
Influenced Henry Briggs
third memory location called ‘C’.
(Performing this addition process is done
by exclusive part in computer. That we see
later.)
Analytfical Engine
A thought may arise in your mind.
Just to add two numbers, we have to
write five lines. If so, to add the num-
bers from 1 to 1000, how many lines we
have to write?
Since the computer be able to perform Yet another big difference is there.
such a big task, without committing Let we see it later.
any error, that too with high speed, is
Now let us see the evolution of
termed as big calculating machine.
computer (i.e., generation of computer).
9.3 LANGUAGES
Figure 9.10 Addition in FoxPro Teacher: From the above, which is the
computer?
These referring instructions were
Student: All the parts, Sir.
given inside the FoxPro language itself.
Hence, it is enough to give remaining Teacher: Hmm... ofcourse...
instructions. But in third generation lan-
guage, no such referring instructions were 1. KEYBOARD: It is a device which is
written inside the language. So we have to used to give any data or instruction
instruct the computer from minimum level. to the computer.
188 Electronics Equipment
Speaker
Keyboard RAM
Case
Control Unit
9.5.2.1 Input Device
1. Key Board
2. Mouse
Figure 9.13 Major Division of Central Processing
3. Light Pen Unit
Logic Idea Solution Hence, for any action there are only two
possible answers. i.e., Yes or No
Decision
Taking
Decision
We studied, till date the computer knows Compiler: Compiler means taking
only one language,i.e., machine language. together. This will take entire program
But we know only High Level Languages (whatever be the number of lines) and con-
and Application Languages, which the com- vert it into machine language. Wherever
puter does not know. But, we both want to the mistake, just it will mark it and go to
interact. How this become possible? next line. After completing the entire pro-
gram, it will list out the errors at the last.
Example:
Interpreter: The interpreter will read
●● Assume that our prime minister line by line. If there is a mistake in the first
is going to RUSSIA to meet the line, it will stop there and the error will be
Russians president. displayed. It can go to the next line, only
●● Our PM knows Hindi and English. after the particular line gets corrected.
And the Russian president knows This is the difference between
only RUSSIAN language. Compiler and Interpreter.
●● But, both want to converse.
NOTE: Along with each High Level
●● How?
Language and Application language
●● You can see a man (translator) who either Compiler or Interpreter will be
knows both Russian and English attached. Widely compilers are used.
It will read the content of ROM and A Rat can tie the bell to the CAT, when only
do accordingly. After finishing the POST a third person helps them.
it will hand over the charge to the RAM.
Now we can start to give instruction to the
computer. Now our situation is also the same.
In order to bring any one of the language
If we want to interact with the from the external memory, someone has
computer, we are in need of a to help us. Here, that particular helping
language. Without a language we hand is this Operating System.
cannot give even single instruc-
tion or interact with the computer.
If it so …whether it is a hardware or a
i.e., the speciality of computer. software?
●● Absolutely it is software.
If so, I need a language. Where are
they?
If it is software, it should be stored
●● They all in external memory. To select
in a particular memory permanently.
a particular language, we have to give
Permanent in the sense, it should be stored
a command to the computer. But, even
only in external memory. So, whenever
that particular command should also
we are switching on the computer, this
be in one particular language. Now, I
operating system which is normally in the
don’t have any language on my hand.
hard disk should be loaded to the RAM, to
●● Everything is get locked in the external serve the user instruction.
memory, then, what can we do?
Whether it can be loaded automat-
●● In order to understand this, let me try ically to the RAM? Certainly, Not. If so
to explain you through an old story. where would be the command? It should
be in ROM. After performing the POST
A family of rats are living in a house and
the next command is to seek the hard disk
there is a CAT also. The cat catches a rat per
(or any external memory) in the computer
day, as its food. Due to this the rats are so
and to search for operating system program.
worried and decided to find a solution. They
On finding that, bring it and load it in the
conversed a meeting. While on discussion a
RAM. These sequences of commands will
Chapter 7 Fundamentals of Digital Computers 197
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this Chapter student could understand the following about
the Computer.
GLOSSARY
S. No Terms Explanation
1 Bit Digit in the binary system
2 Byte Group of eight binary digits
The physical parts of a computer system, such as the elec-
3 Hardware tronic circuitry, chips, monitor, disks drives, keyboard,
modem
QUESTIONS
PART A
I. Choose the Best Answer
1. The first calculating tool developed by human.……….
a) Slide Rule (b) Nappier Bones (c) Abacus (d) Analytical Engine
6. With reference to the computer the parts which we cannot see through our eyes are
termed as ………..
(a) Hardware (b) Software
(c) Both Hardware & Software (d) None of the above
PART B
II. Answer in One or Two words
1. Write the expansion of CPU?
2. Write the expansion for ENIAC.
3. Computer can think on its own (True / False).
4. Computer can do anything on its own (True / False).
5. What is meant by Logical capability?
PART C
III. Write answers in One or Two sentences
1. Define computer.
2. Write down the names of the generation of languages.
3. Write down the major divisions of CPU.
4. What is the difference between Compiler and Interpreter?
5. Define arithmetic operations in computer.
PART D
IV. Explain in One or Two Paragraphs.
1. Write about generations of computer.
2. Define the working of ROM & RAM.
3. Whether the computer able to take decision directly? Explain.
4. Write short notes on i. Keyboard ii. Plotter iii. Hard disk iv. Pen Drive
5. Define Operating System.
PART E
V. Write answers in detail.
1. Explain in detail the generations of languages.
2. Explain the working of CPU with neat diagram.
ANSWERS
1. (c) 2.
(d) 3.
(b) 4.
(c) 5.
(b)
6. (b) 7.
(c) 8.
(b) 9. (c) 10.
(c)
10
CHAPTER
ELECTRONIC MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
The measurement has been practiced from very long back, which is
evident from the Tamil literature.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
In this Chapter, a student can learn and understand the working princi-
ples of the following instruments:
201
Scale
D’ARSONVAL
movement
N S
Meter
leads
Moving
coil
Permanent
magnets Core
Figure 10.4 Internal construction of Analog Figure 10.5 Needle at Zero Position in Multimeter
Multimeter and Galvanometer
– +
Galvanometer RX Multipliers
G R1 R2 R3 R4
1000 V
Multiplier
Ig Range selector 250 V
switch
50 V
10 V
Black test
V lead Red test
(i) Galvanometer as a voltmeter lead
RS 2.5 mA R1
IS
Range selector 25 mA R2
switch 0.25 A R3
Shunt resistance
10 A R4
I
to provide a required number of current resistance RV is used for setting zero ohm of
ranges as shown in Figure 10.7. To mea- the needle before taking any range of resis-
sure AC current, a diode should be con- tance measurements. This setting is called as
nected in series with the meter. zero ohm adjustment. As a result, accurate
ohmic readings can be measured.
10.2.2.4. Multimeter as an Ohmmeter
Two probes (A and B terminals) of
An instrument which is used for the multimeter are connected across the
measuring ohms is called as Ohm meter. resistance to be measured. If the resistance
is high, lower current flows through the
circuit and the meter will indicate higher
Figure 10.8 shows the circuit of an ohms and vice versa.
Ohmmeter. A fixed resistance R and a vari- To measure multi range Ohmic readings,
able resistance RV are connected in series various resistance values such as R1, R2 &
with the meter and a battery (fixed inside the R3 should be connected in series with bat-
meter). The fixed resistance R limits the cur- tery through selector switch as shown in
rent within the desired range and the variable the Figure 10.8 (ii)
Galvanometer RV
RV
A
R
Basic
0 Ω adj R1 R2 R3 meter
0 Ω adj
+ Resistance to
Battery R x 10 Resistance
– be measured to be
x 1K x1 Measured
Range
Selector
Switch
Battery
S F + -
Multimeter
AC Supply
Load
10.2.3.1. Components of a digital
Multimeter
Figure 10.14 shows a typical digital multi-
meter. A digital multimeter comprises of
three parts viz Figure 10.15 Banana Plugs to Crocodile Clips
1. Liquid Crystal Display
2. Rotary Selector switch and 2. Banana Plugs to IC Hook
3. Test probes. These probes are used to connect the
The display usually has four digits legs of ICs with the meter and can be
and has the ability to display a negative measured easily. It is shown in Fig 10.16
sign. A few meters have illuminated dis-
plays for better viewing in low-light situa-
tions. The selector switch allows the user
to set the multimeter to read different
parameters such as current, voltage and
resistance.
Two probes with banana plugs are
plugged into two ports on the front of the
instrument. COM stands for common and Figure 10.16 Banana Plugs to IC Hook
Constant
current
source
Buffer
amplifier
Res.
Calibrated Rectifier
attenuator circuit
1
V
AC
Calibrated
attenuator Digital display
Horizontal controls
Display Vertical controls Trigger controls
Ground clip
Probe
0 t Spot
Y-plates
Heater
a.c. / d.c.
switch Cathode Anodes X-plates
CH 1
Signal input
Y-amplifier Cathode
ray tube
Signal waveform
Y
Electron Screen
0 t beam
Volts/DIV Y-POS
POWER
16 17 18
OFF
15
19
14 7 8 20
13 6
9 MOD
2.5 22
C D E 12 2 3 EXT. C.W.
B 5 500
F 1. 800
10
24
10
00
0
3.
5
A G 60 450
4.
5
11
26
2
0
1.
50
11
40
12
300 350 0
00
0 45
25
28
4
45
0
0 160 175 2 MOD SELECT
12 00
12
50
BAND SELECT
130
30
52
0
300
0
10
1.0
0
25
200
300
4
550
100
0
G F E D C B A A B C D E F G
M.C. K.C. K.C. M.C.
4 5 6 1x10 1x100
3 7 1x1000
1x1
2 8 OUTPUT
EXTERNAL
1 9
0 10
ATT.1 ATT.2
E E
Square
Triangle
Sawtooth
Constant
current
supply
Frequency
source,1
control
C
External
frequency Output
control
Constant Resistance
Output
current diode
Frequency amplifier
supply shaping
control 2
source,2 circuit Output
Figure 10.27 shows a simple logic probe IC testers are classified into three types.
used to test the logical operations of basic 1. Logic IC Tester
gate circuits.
2. Memory IC Tester
3. Analog IC Tester
All types of ICs cannot be tested
using these IC testers. Few types of ICs
can be tested using these testers.
10.8.1 T
esting a Logic IC Using
Logic IC Tester
Figures 10.28 (a) and (b) show an AND
Figure 10.27 Logic probe gate and Hex INVERTER ICs being tested
by an IC Tester.
Red and green LEDs are used in this
probe to indicate high (1) and low (0) states,
respectively. Yellow LED is used to indicate
narrow pulses. When the logic probe is con-
nected to either an invalid logic level (that
is a fault condition) or a tri-stated output or
not connected at all, none of the LEDs will
lit up. Some logic probes have a separate
audible tone for each of the logical states.
(a) AND gate Using IC Tester
Logic probe can test a signal at a time. When
many logic levels need to be tested at a time,
a logical analyzer is used.
Uses
1. Logic probe is used to check indi-
vidual gates of the TTL, DTL and
CMOS ICS.
2. It is used to detect memory functions
in digital equipment like computer.
3. It is also used to identify narrow (b) HEX Inverter using Logic IC Tester
System
Controller
4-Quadrant
metrology
processor
Memory Voltage
sensors
RS-485 Current
sensors
Terminal
block
LEARNING OUTCOMES
GLOSSARY
S. No Terms Explanation
Function Signal generator that can produce sine, triangle and sawtooth
1 generator output waveforms
2 Ohm meter An instrument which is used for measuring ohms.
Cathode Ray It is an electronic device in which various types of waveforms can
3
oscilloscope be seen on the screen.
4 Digital Meter An instrument that uses counting methods
Calibration To adjust the correct value of a reading by comparison to a
5
standard
6 Continuity Occurs when a complete path for current exists
Multimeter Electronic test equipment that can perform multiple tasks. Typical
7
one is capable of measuring voltage, current and resistance.
Spectrum Instrument used to display the frequency domain of a waveform
8
analyser by plotting amplitude against frequency
9 Energy meter Instrument used to measure electrical energy in units
Voltmeter Instrument used to measure difference in potential between two
10
points
PART B
II. Answer in a Few Sentences. Each Question Carries Three Marks
1. Name the three important electrical parameters measured by a multimeter.
2. Define sensitivity of an analog multimeter.
3. Explain briefly about calibrating an analog multimeter.
4. What are the three major circuits in a digital meter?
5. Name any three applications of a CRO
PART D
IV. Explain in About a Page. Each Question Carries Ten Marks
1. What are the precautions to be taken while handling an Analog Multimeter?
2. Compare Digital and Analog multimeters
3. Draw a block diagram of a CRO and explain.
4. Draw the front panel of an analog signal generator and explain the functions of front panel
controls.
5. Explain the functions of a digital energy meter with neat block diagram.
ANSWERS
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (d)
6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (d)
225
5. Which of the following element does not have five valence electrons?
(a) Phosphorous (b) Arsenic (c) Antimony (d) Indium
6. Center tapped transformer is used in a ………….. rectifier.
a) Bridge type b) Half-wave c) Full-wave d) None
7. A transistor has …………PN junction
a) One b) Two c) Three d) Four
8. The emitter of a transistor is ………….. doped
a) Lightly b) Heavily c) Moderately d)None of these
9. The control element of an SCR is …………..
a) Cathode b) Anode c) Anode supply d) Gate
10. An IGBT is also known as
a) MOIGT b) COMFET c) GEMFET d) All of these
11. An oscillator produces ……… oscillations
a) Damped b) Un-damped c) Modulated d) None of these
12. The number of levels in digital signal is
a) One b) Two c) Eight d)Ten
13. How many digits in octal system
a) 10 b)2 c)8 d)16
14. Write the Odd one from the following.
a) Monitor (b) Printer (c) Mouse (d) Plotter
15. A multimeter cannot measure ………
a) Voltage b) Current c) Ohm d) Watt
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