Welding Processes Welding Processes: Welding Inspection Welding Inspection

M.Rogers M.
Rogers
WI 3.1 WI 3.1
Welding
BS 499 part 1 Welding terms

A union between pieces of metal at faces
rendered plastic or liquid by heat,pressure or
both.
Possible energy sources
Welding Inspection § Ultrasonic

§ Electron beam
Welding Processes § Friction
Course notes section reference 9, 10, 11, 12 & 13 § Electric resistance
§ Electric arc
Copyright © 2005 TWI Ltd World Centre for Materials Joining Technology Copyright © 2005 TWI Ltd World Centre for Materials Joining Technology
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
Fusion Welding WI 3.1
An Introduction to Welding Processes
The four essential factors for fusion welding
1. Fusion is achieved by melting using a high

intensity heat source
2. The welding process must be capable of
removing any oxide and contamination from
the joint
3. Atmosphere contamination must be avoided
4. The welded joint must possess the
mechanical properties required by the
specification being adapted
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
Welding Processes WI 3.1
Welding Power Sources
Drooping or Constant Current Characteristic
Welding is regarded as a joining process in which the
100
work pieces are in atomic contact O.C.V. Striking voltage (typical) for arc
90
initiation
80
Solid state processes Fusion welding processes
Required for: MMA, TIG, Plasma
§ Forge welding § Oxy-acetylene
70
arc and SAW > 1000 AMPS
60
§ Friction welding
Voltage
§ MMA (SMAW)
50
§ MIG/MAG (GMAW)
40 Large voltage variation, e.g. +
§ TIG/TAG (GTAW) Normal Operating 10v (due to changes in arc
30 Voltage Range length)
§ Sub-arc (SAW) Small amperage change
20
resulting in virtually constant
§ Electro-slag (ESW) current e.g. + 5A.
10
20 40 60 80 100 120 130 140 160 180 200
Amperage
1
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
Manual Metal Arc Processes (MMA)

WI 3.1
Manual Metal Arc Basic Equipment
§The MMA welding Process was first developed in the late 19th
century using bare wire consumables.
§MMA is a simple process in terms of equipment

Control panel Power source
§The process can by used in AC, DC+ or DC- (amps, volts)
§The process is a manual process and demands a high skill
Electrode Holding oven
from the welder. oven
Electrode
core wire §The process is widely used throughout the Electrodes Inverter power
Electrode welding industry both for shop and site source
covering
working conditions Return lead
Electric Arc Electrode holder
Gas shield Solidified slag Welding
visor/filter Power cables
Molten weld pool Build up of weld metal
Penetration
glass
USA: SMAW
Parent material
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
Manual Metal Arc Processes (MMA) WI 3.1
MMA Welding Plant
§ Transformer:
Changes mains supply voltage to a voltage suitable for
Welder controls welding. Has no moving parts and is often termed static
plant.
§ Arc length § Rectifier:
Changes a.c. to d.c., can be mechanically or statically
achieved.
§ Angle of electrode § Generator:
Produces welding current. The generator consists of an
§ Speed of travel armature rotating in a magnetic field, the armature must be
rotated at a constant speed either by a motor unit or, in the
absence of electrical power, by an internal combustion
engine.
§ Inverter:
An inverter changes d.c. to a.c. at a higher frequency.
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
MMA Welding Variables WI 3.1
MMA Welding Electrodes
Voltage
The arc voltage in the MMA process is measured as close to The three main electrode covering types
the arc as possible. It is variable with a change in arc length used in MMA welding
O.C.V.
The open circuit voltage is the voltage required to initiate, or
re-ignite the electrical arc and will change with the type of § Rutile - general purpose
electrode being used e.g 70-90 volts
Current § Basic - low hydrogen
The current used will be determined by the choice of
electrode, electrode diameter and material type and
thickness. Current has the most effect on penetration. § Cellulose - deep penetration/fusion
Polarity
Polarity is generally determined by operation and electrode
type e.g DC +ve or DC -ve
2
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
Checks When MMA Welding WI 3.1
Checks When MMA Welding
The welding equipment OCV open circuit volts
A visual check should be made on the equipment to ensure it is in A check should be made to ensure that the equipment can
good working order produce the OCV required by the consumable and that any
The electrodes voltage selector has been moved to the correct position
Checks should be made to ensure that the correct specification of Current & polarity
electrode is being used, the electrode is the correct diameter and A check should be made to ensure the current type and range is
in good condition. In the case of basic fluxed electrodes ensure as detailed on the WPS
the correct heat treatment is being carried out before use Other variables
e.g Baked at 350oC, holding 150oC, quiver temps 70oC Checks should be made for correct electrode angle, arc gap and
travel speed
Cellulose and rutile electrodes do not require pre-baking but
Safety
should be stored in a dry condition.
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMA) WI 3.1
Advantages
§ Field or shop use
Disadvantages
§ High welder skill required
Any Questions
§ Range of consumables § Low operating factor*
§ All positions § High levels of fume
§ Portable § Hydrogen control (flux)
§ Simple equipment § Stop/start problems
* Comparatively uneconomic when compared with

some other processes i.e MAG, SAW and FCAW
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
Questions WI 3.1
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG)
Manual Metal Arc Welding §The TIG welding process was first developed in the USA during
the 2nd world war for the welding of aluminum alloys
QU 1. State the main welding parameters of the MMA welding
process §The process uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode
§The arc may be initiated by a high frequency to avoid scratch
QU 2. What type of power source characteristic is considered stating, which could cause contamination of the tungsten and weld
essential for a MMA welding plant?
§The process produces very high quality
QU 3. Give the main advantages of the MMA welding process welds. Welding Torch
when compared to the MAG welding process §The TIG process is considered as a slow Current Conductor
process compared to other arc welding
QU 4. State the four criteria that will govern the number of weld processes
Shielding gas
passes in a MMA welded joint Ceramic Contact Tube
§The process requires a high Nozzle
Gas Shield
level of welder skill Tungsten
Arc
QU 5. State two types of electrical supply and give the advantages Filler Wire
Electrode
Weld Pool
of each USA: GTAW
3
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
TIG Welding Basic Equipment WI 3.1
TIG Torch Assembly
Tungsten Tungsten
housing electrode
Power source
Power control Fitted ceramic Ceramic
panel Inverter power shielding cup shield cup
source
Source control On/Off switch Gas lens

Return lead
panel
Torch Split collet
assembly Power cable hose
Gas diffuser
Tungsten Flow-meter Torch body
electrodes Spare ceramic
shielding cup
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
TIG Welding Variables WI 3.1
TIG Welding Variables
Voltage Tungsten electrodes
The voltage of the TIG welding process is variable only by the type The electrode diameter, type and vertex angle are all critical
of gas being used, and changes in the arc length factors considered as essential variables. The vertex angle is
Current as shown
The current is adjusted proportionally to the tungsten electrodes
diameter being used. The higher the current the deeper the
DC -ve AC
penetration and fusion
Polarity
Vetex angle
The polarity used for steels is always DC –ve as most of the heat
is concentrated at the +ve pole, this is required to keep the Note: too fine an angle will promote Note: when welding aluminium with
tungsten electrode at the cool end of the arc. When welding melting of the electrodes tip AC current, the tungsten end is
chamfered and forms a ball end
aluminium and its alloys AC current is used when welding
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
Tungsten Electrodes WI 3.1
Tungsten Electrodes
Metal Tungsten Filler Rod Shielding Flow Rate
Old types Thickness Joint Type Diameter Diameter Amperage Gas L/mm
mm mm mm
§Thoriated: DC -ve electrode - steels and most Butt 60-70
metals Lap 70-90
1.5 1.6 1.5 Argon 8
Corner 60-70
§1% thoriated + tungsten for higher current values Fillet 70-90
§2% thoriated for lower current values Butt 80-100
Lap 90-115 Argon
1.6-2.4 8
§Zirconiated: AC - aluminum alloys and magnesium 3.0
Corner
2.4
80-100
Fillet 90-115
Butt 115-135
New types 5.0
Lap
2.4 3.2
140-165
Argon 10
Corner 115-135
§Cerium: DC -ve elctrode - steels and most metals Fillet 140-170
§Lanthanum: AC - Aluminum alloys and magnesium Butt

Lap
160-175
170-200
6.0 3.2 4.0 160-175 Argon 10
Corner
Fillet 175-210
4
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
TIG Welding Variables WI 3.1
TIG Welding Variables
Gas type and flow rate
Generally two types of gases are used in TIG welding, argon and helium,
though nitrogen may be considered for welding copper and hydrogen
may be added for the welding of austenitic stainless steels. The gas flow
rate is also an important
Argon (Ar) Inert Helium Argon mixes
§ Suitable for welding carbon § Suitable for welding carbon 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
1. Pre-flow timer control 4. Down-Slope control (Slope-out)
steel,stainless steel, aluminium steel, stainless steel,
copper, aluminium and Adjusts the time the gas and Crater fill and controls crater
and magnesium
magnesium water valves are open pipe and the possibility of
§ Lower cost, lower flow rates 2. Up-Slope control (Slope-In) crater cracks
§ High cost, high flow rates Prevents burn throughs and the 5. Post-flow timer control
§ More suitable for thinner Adjusts the time the gas flows
§ More suitable for thicker possibility of tungsten inclusions
materials and positional 3. Output control after welding
materials and materials of
welding high thermal conductivity. Welding current control
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
Checks With TIG Welding WI 3.1
Checks With TIG Welding
The welding equipment Current and polarity
A visual check should be made to ensure the welding equipment Checks should be made to ensure that the type of current and
is in good condition polarity are correctly set, and the range is within that given on the
The torch head assembly procedure.
Check the diameter and specification of the tungsten electrode, Other welding parameters
the required vertex angle and that a gas lens is fitted correctly. Checks should be made to other parameters such as torch angle,
Check the electrode stick-out length and that the ceramic is the arc gap distance and travel speed.
correct type and in good condition Safety
Gas type and flow rate Check should be made on the current carrying capacity, or duty
Check the shielding gas is the correct type, or gas mixture and the cycle of the equipment and all electrical insulation is sound and in
flow rate is correct for the given joint design, welding position as place. Correct extraction systems should be in use to avoid
stated in the WPS exposure to toxic fume.
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding WI 3.1
Advantages
§ High quality
Disadvantages
§ High skill factor required

Any Questions
§ Good control § Small consumable range
§ All positions § High protection required

§ Low hydrogen
§ Low productivity
§ Minimal cleaning
§ High ozone levels
5
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
Questions WI 3.1
Flat or Constant Voltage Characteristic
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding
QU 1. Give three reasons for the occurrence of tungsten Flat or Constant Voltage Characteristic Used With
inclusions MIG/MAG, ESW & SAW < 1000 amps
QU 2. State the main welding parameters with the TIG welding O.C.V. Arc Voltage
Virtually no Change.
process 33
32
QU 3. Which electrode polarity is considered essential for the
31
welding of carbon steel? And give a brief description why Small Voltage
Voltage Change.
QU 4. Which electrode polarity is considered essential for the Large Current Change
welding of aluminium? And give a brief description why
QU 5. State the tungsten electrode activators required to weld

carbon steel and the light alloys
100 200 300
QU 6. State the main advantages and disadvantage of the TIG Amperage
welding process
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
Metal Active Gas Welding (MAG) WI 3.1
MAG Welding Basic Equipment
§The MIG/MAG welding process was initially developed in the USA in
the late 1940s for the welding of aluminum alloys
External wire External wire
§The process uses a continuously fed wire electrode feed unit feed motor
§The weld pool is protected by a separately supplied shielding gas control panel
Transformer/
§The process is classified as a semi- Power Rectifier
automatic welding process but may be fully control panel
Gas
Nozzle
automated Power cable &
15kg wire spool hose assembly
Wire Electrode Contact Tip §The wire electrode can be either Power return Spare contact
Electrode bare/solid wire or flux cored/hollow cable tips
Extension
Nozzle to Work wire Welding gun
Arc Length Liner for wire
assembly
USA: GMAW
Weld Pool
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
MAG Welding Torch Assembly WI 3.1
MAG Welding Transfer Modes
Torch body § Dip Transfer: Voltage < 22 Amperage < 200
On/Off switch Thin materials positional welding
Torch head assembly
(Less nozzle) § Globular Transfer: Between Dip & Spray Transfer
Limited commercial, Used only in some mechanised MAG
Hose port process using CO2 shielding gas
§ Spray Transfer: Voltage > 27 Amperage > 220
Thicker materials, limited to flat welding positions, high
deposition
§ Pulse Transfer: Both spray and dip transfer in
Nozzles or Spot welding
shrouds spacer one mode of operation, frequency range 50-300
Gas diffuser pulses/second
Contact tips
Positional welding and root runs
6
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
MAG Welding Variable Parameters WI 3.1
MAG Welding Variable Parameters
Wire feed speed Gasses
Increasing the wire feed speed automatically increases the The gasses used in MIG/MAG welding can be either 100%
CO2 or Argon + CO2 mixes.
current in the wire
§ 100% CO2: Can not sustain true spray transfer, but gives
Voltage
very good penetration. The arc is unstable which produces
The voltage is the most important setting in the spray
a lot of spatter and a coarse weld profile.
transfer mode, as it controls the arc length. In dip transfer it
§ Argon + CO2 mixes: Argon can sustain spray transfer
controls the rise in current above 24 volts, and gives a very stable arc with a reduction
Current in spatter. Argon being a cooler gas produces less
The current is automatically increased as the wire feed is penetration than CO2. Argon in normally mixed with CO2 at
a mixture of between 5-25%
increased. Current mainly affects penetration
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
MAG Welding Variable Parameters WI 3.1
Checks when MAG Welding
Inductance The welding equipment
§ Applicable to MIG/MAG process in dip transfer mode. A visual check should be made on the equipment to ensure it
§ The electrode is fed slowly through the arc until it is in good working order
touches the weld pool, at this point the output from the The electrodes
power supply is short circuited and a very high current
The diameter, specification and the quality of the wire are
flows through the electrode. If this was allowed to
continue, the wire would melt and eject excessive essential for inspection. The level of deoxidisation in the
amounts of spatter. wire, single, double or triple de-oxidised. The quality of the
§ The inclusion or the choke in the welding circuit wire winding and the copper coating should also be
controls the rate at which the current rises so that the inspected to minimize wire feed problems.
electrode tip is melted uniformly without excessive
spatter
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
Checks when MAG Welding WI 3.1
Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW)
Wire liner
Flux core
Check that the liner is the correct type and size for the wire being Insulated extension nozzle
used. Steel liners for steel and Teflon liners for aluminium. Current carrying guild tube
Wire joint
Contact tips
Flux cored hollow wire
Check the tip is the correct size for the wire being used and check
Flux powder
the amount of wear. Excessive wear will affect wire speed and Arc shield composed of
vaporized and slag forming
electrical current pick-up Flux core compounds
wires
Gas and gas flow-
flow-rates
Type of gas and the flow rate need to be checked to ensure they
comply with the WPS
Other welding variables Molten
weld
pool Metal droplets covered
Check WFS, amps, volts and travel speed Solidified weld with thin slag coating
metal and slag
7
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
Metal Active Gas Welding WI 3.1
Advantages
§ High productivity
Disadvantages
§ Lack of fusion (dip)

Any Questions
§ Easily automated § Small range of
§ All positional (dip &
consumables
pulse)
§ Protection on site
§ Material thickness
range § Complex equipment
§ Continuous electrode § Not so portable
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
Questions WI 3.1
Submerged Arc Welding Process (SAW)
Metal Active Gas Welding §Submerged arc welding was developed in the USA: SAW
Soviet Union during the 2nd world war for the
QU 1. State the possible problems when using the dip transfer
welding of thick sections Filler wire spool
mode in the MAG welding process
Flux hopper
§The process uses amps in the range Power
QU 2. State the application areas for the spray transfer mode supply
of 100 to over 2000, which gives a
when using the MAG welding process. very high current density in the wire
producing deep penetration and high
QU 3. What power source characteristic is required and electrode dilution
- +
polarity/current type for the MAG welding process §A flux is supplied separately via a
flux hopper in the form of either Slide rail
Wire electrode
QU 4. State the main variables for the MAG welding process fused or agglomerated
Flux
§The arc is submerged beneath the flux
layer and no eye protection is required
QU 5. State the advantages and disadvantages of the MAG
welding process when compared to MMA §The process is normally mechanised.
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
SAW Basic Equipment WI 3.1
Submerged Arc Welding Process (SAW)
§ Submerged arc welds are difficult to predict as the weld is made
Transformer/ up of three elements. The dilution may be as much as 60%

Rectifier
Power return resulting in a high susceptibility to solidification cracking
cable Welding carriage 15%
Power control control unit
panel
Welding carriage
Granulated Electrode wire

flux reel
25%
60%
Granulated
flux
Flux elements Electrode Dilution
8
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
Submerged Arc Welding Fluxes WI 3.1
Submerged Arc Welding Fluxes
Fused Flux Agglomerated Flux
§ Flaky appearance § Granulated appearance
§ Lower weld quality § High weld quality
§ Low moisture intake § Addition of alloys
§ Low dust tendency § Lower consumption
§ Good re-cycling § Easy slag removal
Fused SAW § Very smooth weld § Smooth weld profile

Agglomerated SAW
Fluxes Fluxes profile § High moisture intake
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
Typical SAW Imperfections WI 3.1
Submerged Arc Welding
Advantages Disadvantages
§ Porosity: from the use of damp welding fluxes or plate
contamination § Low weld-metal cost § Restricted welding
§ Easily automated positions
§ Centre line cracks: caused by high dilution and
sulphur pick-up from the parent material or deep narrow § Low levels of ozone § Arc blow on DC current
welds. § High productivity § Shrinkage defects
§ No visible arc light § Difficult penetration
§ Shrinkage cavities: caused by deep narrow welds.
§ Minimum cleaning control
§ Lack of fusion: caused by the effects of arc blow.
§ Limited joints
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1 WI 3.1
Questions
Any Questions Submerged Arc Welding Process

QU 1. State the possible problems when using damp and
contaminated fluxes when using the sub-arc process
QU 2. State the two flux types used in the sub-arc welding

process.
QU 3. Generally what power source characteristic is required

for the SAW welding process
QU 4. State three main items of sub-arc fluxes, which require

inspection
QU 5. State the advantages and disadvantages of the sub-arc

welding process
9
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
Electro--Slag Welding (ESW)
Electro WI 3.1
Electro
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1
Electro WI 3.1
Electro
§ Electro-slag welds are relatively defect free
Consumable-Guide Non Consumable-Guide
§ More suited to the joining of thick materials
Electrode
Feed Rolls Electrode Wire § No costly joint edge preparations required, square butt
Electrode Wire
Electrode § Minimal distortion
Guide Tube Feed Rolls
Drive Unit § Minimal pre-heat required

Molten Slag
Bath Electrode
Guide § Low flux consumption
Copper
Shoe Copper Shoe § High deposition
Solid Weld Solid Weld
Metal Metal § Vertical up welding position only
More suitable for short weld lengths and More suitable for longer weld lengths § Low toughness values, may require PWHT.
mechanically simpler. Can also be used and mechanically more complicated.
in portable models. § Timely Set-ups
M.Rogers M.Rogers
WI 3.1 WI 3.1
Welding Process Comparison
Any Questions Process
MMA
Electrical characteristic
Drooping / constant current

Electrode current type
DC+ve, DC-ve, AC
TIG Drooping / constant current DC-ve, AC
MIG/MAG Flat / constant voltage DC+ve,
MAG FCAW Flat / constant voltage DC+ve, DC-ve,
Drooping / constant current >1000amp

Sub-arc DC+ve, DC-ve, AC
Flat / constant voltage <1000amp
Electro-slag Flat / constant voltage DC+ve,
10
M.Rogers
WI 3.1
Any Questions
Copyright © 2005 TWI Ltd World Centre for Materials Joining Technology
11

Welding Processes Welding Processes: Welding Inspection Welding Inspection

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M.Rogers M.

BS 499 part 1 Welding terms

Welding Inspection § Ultrasonic

1. Fusion is achieved by melting using a high

20 40 60 80 100 120 130 140 160 180 200

Manual Metal Arc Processes (MMA)

§MMA is a simple process in terms of equipment

* Comparatively uneconomic when compared with

Source control On/Off switch Gas lens

§Lanthanum: AC - Aluminum alloys and magnesium Butt

§ High skill factor required

§ All positions § High protection required

QU 5. State the tungsten electrode activators required to weld

§ Lack of fusion (dip)

§ Continuous electrode § Not so portable

Transformer/ up of three elements. The dilution may be as much as 60%

Granulated Electrode wire

Flux elements Electrode Dilution

Fused SAW § Very smooth weld § Smooth weld profile

Any Questions Submerged Arc Welding Process

QU 2. State the two flux types used in the sub-arc welding

QU 3. Generally what power source characteristic is required

QU 4. State three main items of sub-arc fluxes, which require

QU 5. State the advantages and disadvantages of the sub-arc

Drive Unit § Minimal pre-heat required

Any Questions Process

Drooping / constant current

TIG Drooping / constant current DC-ve, AC

MIG/MAG Flat / constant voltage DC+ve,

MAG FCAW Flat / constant voltage DC+ve, DC-ve,

Drooping / constant current >1000amp

Electro-slag Flat / constant voltage DC+ve,

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