MODULE 2 First Law of Thermodynamics

At the end of this module, the learner shall be able to:

1. apply the relation of the different forms of energy in solving engineering
problems
2. apply the general energy equation in solving engineering problems
3. apply the first law of thermodynamics in solving engineering problems

2.4 ENTHALPY AND THE SECOND COROLLARY OF THE FIRST LAW OF

THERMODYNAMICS

At the end of this lesson, the learner shall be able to:

• relate internal energy, flow energy, and enthalpy
• relate heat, change in potential energy, change in kinetic energy, flow work, change
in internal energy and work in an open system
• apply the relation of heat, change in energies and work in solving engineering
problems

2.4.1 Flow Energy

Flow Energy (or flow work) is the energy needed to push into or out of the boundaries of a
control volume if mass flow is involved. Flow work is needed to maintain a continuous flow through a
control volume. It is the product of the pressure 𝑃 and volume 𝑉 of the system.

𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑃𝑉 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑃𝜈

∆(𝑃𝑉) = 𝑚(𝑃2 𝜈2 − 𝑃1 𝜈1 ) 𝑜𝑟 Δ(𝑃𝜈) = 𝑃2 𝜈2 − 𝑃1 𝜈1

where: ∆(𝑃𝑉) = change in total flow energy (or flow work); kJ, ft-lbf
Δ(𝑃𝜈) = change in specific flow energy (or flow work); kJ/kg, ft-lbf/lbm
𝑚 = mass; kg, lbm
𝑃2 = final absolute pressure; kPa, psi
𝑃1 = initial absolute pressure; kPa, psi
𝜈2 = final specific volume; m3/kg, ft3/lbm
𝜈1 = initial specific volume; m3/kg, ft3/lbm

NOTE:
If the pressure is a gage pressure, you must convert it first to absolute pressure by adding the appropriate
atmospheric pressure. Vacuum pressure is a negative gage pressure (−𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 ).

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚

Standard values of atmospheric pressure (𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 ) at sea level:

𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚
= 101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎
= 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖
= 760 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔
= 760 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑟
= 29.92 𝑖𝑛. 𝐻𝑔
= 1.01325 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝑘𝑔𝑓
= 1.033
𝑐𝑚2

Notes in Thermodynamics – Vargas and Blones Page 1 of 6

2.4.2 Enthalpy

Enthalpy is the sum of internal energy and flow energy (or flow work). In many thermodynamic
analyses the sum of the internal energy 𝑈 and the product of pressure 𝑃 and volume 𝑉 appears, therefore
it is convenient to give the combination a name, enthalpy, and a distinct symbol, 𝐻 or ℎ.

ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝜈 𝑜𝑟 𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉

where: h = specific enthalpy; kJ/kg, Btu/lbm

𝑢 = specific internal energy, kJ/kg, Btu/lbm
𝑃𝜈 = specific flow energy (or flow work), kJ/kg, Btu/lbm
𝐻 = total enthalpy; kJ, Btu
𝑈 = total internal energy; kJ, Btu

Δ𝐻 = 𝐻2 − 𝐻1 = 𝑚(Δℎ) = 𝑚(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )

Δ𝐻 = ∆𝑈 + ∆(𝑃𝑉) = 𝑚(Δ𝑢) + 𝑚(Δ(𝑃𝜈))

where: Δ𝐻 = change in total enthalpy, kJ, Btu

Δℎ = change in specific enthalpy; kJ/kg, Btu/lbm
𝐻2 = final total enthalpy, kJ, Btu
𝐻1 = initial total enthalpy, kJ, Btu
ℎ2 = final specific enthalpy; kJ/kg, Btu/lbm
ℎ1 = initial specific enthalpy; kJ/kg, Btu/lbm
∆𝑈 = change in total internal energy, kJ, Btu
∆(𝑃𝑉) = change in total flow work, kJ, Btu
𝑚 = mass; kg, lbm
𝜈 = specific volume; m3/kg, ft3/lbm

NOTE:
• All throughout the study of thermodynamics (and probably of mechanical engineering), the symbol
“Δ” indicates a change or a difference. That is, final value minus initial value.
For example, Δ𝑈 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 , Δ𝐻 = 𝐻2 − 𝐻1, Δ(𝑃𝜈) = 𝑃2 𝜈2 − 𝑃1 𝜈1, …

• When the property or energy is represented by both small letter and capital letter, the small letter
indicates specific values, that is, energy per unit mass; the capital letter indicates total values.
For example, ℎ is specific enthalpy (kJ/kg or Btu/lbm); 𝐻 is total enthalpy (kJ or Btu)

2.4.3 Second Corollary of the First Law of Thermodynamics: The First Law of Thermodynamics
on Open System

Recall that in open thermodynamic systems both mass and energy are allowed to transfer across
the system boundary. Open systems are also called mass-flow systems or control volume systems.
When the mass or energy flow is constant, open system is also called steady-flow system.

Energy Balance on Open System

𝑄ሶ

𝑚ሶ 1 𝑊
(𝑃𝐸)1 SYSTEM
(𝐾𝐸)1
𝑚ሶ 2
𝑈1
(𝑃𝜈)1 (𝑃𝐸)2
(𝐾𝐸)2
𝑈2
(𝑃𝜈)2

Notes in Thermodynamics – Vargas and Blones Page 2 of 6

Assuming that there is no change in the energy of the system, the energy balance on open system is

𝐸𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑄 + (𝑃𝐸)1 + (𝐾𝐸)1 + (𝑃𝑉)1 + 𝑈1 = (𝑃𝐸)2 + (𝐾𝐸)2 + (𝑃𝑉)2 + 𝑈2 + 𝑊

𝑄 = (𝑃𝐸)2 −(𝑃𝐸)1 + (𝐾𝐸)2 − (𝐾𝐸)1 + (𝑃𝑉)2 − (𝑃𝑉)1 + 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 + 𝑊

𝑄 = Δ(𝑃𝐸) + Δ(𝐾𝐸) + Δ𝑈 + Δ(𝑃𝑉) + 𝑊

𝑄 = Δ(𝑃𝐸) + Δ(𝐾𝐸) + Δ𝐻 + 𝑊

where: 𝑄 = heat added to (or removed from) the system

Δ(𝑃𝐸) = changed in potential energy
Δ(𝐾𝐸) = changed in kinetic energy
Δ𝑈 = changed in internal energy
Δ(𝑃𝜈) = changed in flow energy
Δ𝐻 = change in enthalpy
W = work done to (or done by) the system

Note:
• 𝑄 is positive (+) when heat is added to (or entering) the system
• 𝑄 is negative (−) when heat is rejected or removed from (or leaving) the system

• 𝛥(𝑃𝐸) is positive (+) when potential energy increases

• Δ(𝑃𝐸) is negative (−) when potential energy decreases

• 𝛥(𝐾𝐸) is positive (+) when kinetic energy increases

• Δ(𝐾𝐸) is negative (−) when kinetic energy decreases

• 𝛥𝑈 is positive (+) when internal energy increases

• Δ𝑈 is negative (−) when internal energy decreases

• 𝛥𝐻 is positive (+) when enthalpy increases

• Δ𝐻 is negative (−) when enthalpy decreases

• 𝑊 is positive (+) when work is done by (or leaving) the system

• 𝑊 is negative (−) when work is done on (or entering) the system
• 𝑊 also represents power if the unit is kJ/s or Btu/h or ft-lb/s

• 𝑚 = mass; kg, lbm

• 𝑚ሶ = mass flow rate; kg/s, lbm/s

If the problem does not mention about the elevation or height, it is safe to assume that the change in
potential energy is negligible. That is, Δ(𝑃𝐸) ≈ 0.

If the problem does not mention about velocity, it is safe to assume that the change in kinetic energy is
negligible. That is, Δ(𝐾𝐸) ≈ 0

NOTE:
Now that you are already acquainted with the first and second corollary, the first thing to establish in
solving problems about the first law of thermodynamics is whether you are dealing with a closed system
or an open system.

Notes in Thermodynamics – Vargas and Blones Page 3 of 6

Illustrative Example 2.4.1
Given the following information about a system, calculate the specific enthalpy in kJ/kg.
𝑚3 𝑘𝐽
𝑃 = 100 𝑘𝑃𝑎, 𝑣 = 1.6 , 𝑢 = 600
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔

Solution:
ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣

𝑘𝐽 𝑁 𝑚3 𝑁
ℎ = 600 + 100 𝑘 2 (1.6 ) 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: → 1 𝑃𝑎 = 1
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝑚2

𝑘𝐽 𝑁∙𝑚 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 600 + 160 𝑘 = 600 + 160
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔

𝒌𝑱
𝒉 = 𝟕𝟔𝟎 ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺.
𝒌𝒈

Illustrative Example 2.4.2

Given the following information about a system, calculate the specific internal energy in Btu/lbm.
𝑓𝑡 3 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑃 = 200 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎, 𝑣 = 2.8 , ℎ = 1000
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑙𝑏𝑚

Solution:
ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣

𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑓𝑡 3 144 𝑖𝑛2 𝑙𝑏𝑓

1000 = 𝑢 + 200 2 (2.8 )× → 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 1 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 = 1 (𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒)
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑏𝑚 1 𝑓𝑡 2 𝑖𝑛2

𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑓𝑡 ∙ 𝑙𝑏𝑓 1 𝐵𝑡𝑢

1000 = 𝑢 + 80,640 × → 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 1𝐵𝑡𝑢 = 778.17 𝑓𝑡 ∙ 𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑙𝑏𝑚 778.17 𝑓𝑡 ∙ 𝑙𝑏𝑓

𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝐵𝑡𝑢
1000 = 𝑢 + 103.6
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑙𝑏𝑚

𝑩𝒕𝒖
𝒖 = 𝟖𝟗𝟔. 𝟒 ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺.
𝒍𝒃𝒎

Remarks:
𝑙𝑏𝑓
“𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎” means “𝒑ounds per 𝒔quare 𝒊nch (𝑖𝑛2 ) absolute pressure.
The conversion of Btu to ft-lbf may be rounded to 1 𝐵𝑡𝑢 = 778 𝑓𝑡 ∙ 𝑙𝑏𝑓

Illustrative Example 2.4.3

A fluid enters a control volume with a steady flow of 3.7 kg/s, a pressure of 690 kPa, a density of 3.2
kg/m3, a velocity of 60 m/s, and an internal energy of 2000 kJ/kg. It leaves at a pressure of 172 kPa, a
density of 0.64 kg/m3, a velocity of 160 m/s, and an internal energy of 1950 kJ/kg. The heat loss is found
to be 18.6 kJ/kg. Find the power in kW.

Solution:

Notes in Thermodynamics – Vargas and Blones Page 4 of 6

 𝑚ሶ = 3.7 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑃1 = 690 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑃2 = 172 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝜌1 = 3.2 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3 1 2 𝜌2 = 0.64 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑣1 = 60 𝑚/𝑠 𝑣2 = 160 𝑚/𝑠
𝑢1 = 2000 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 𝑢2 = 1950 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

Type of system: open system

Therefore, use the 2nd corollary, that is, the law of conservation of energy for open system.
The law of conservation of mass should also be applied. That is, 𝑚ሶ1 = 𝑚ሶ2 = 𝑚ሶ.

𝑄 = Δ(𝑃𝐸) + Δ(𝐾𝐸) + Δ𝑈 + Δ(𝑃𝑉) + 𝑊

For simplicity of our solution, we will solve individually each of the energies involved in the formula.
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 𝑚ሶ(𝑞𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 ) = (3.7 ) (−18.6 ) = −68.82 𝑘𝑊
𝑠 𝑘𝑔

Δ(𝑃𝐸) = 0

1 1 𝑘𝑔 𝑚2 𝐽
Δ(𝐾𝐸) = 𝑚ሶ(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 ) = (3.7 ) (1602 − 602 ) 2 = 40,700 = 40.7 𝑘𝑊
2 2 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
Δ𝑈 = 𝑚ሶ(𝑢2 − 𝑢1 ) = 3.7 (1950 − 2000) = −185 𝑘𝑊
𝑠 𝑘𝑔

Δ(𝑃𝑉) = 𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑚 𝑚
But 𝜌 = and thereby 𝑉 = . Subsequently,
𝑉 𝜌

𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑚ሶ 𝑚ሶ 𝑁 3.7 𝑁 3.7 𝑠
Δ(𝑃𝑉) = 𝑃2 ( ) − 𝑃1 ( ) = 172 𝑘 2 ( 𝑠 ) − 690 𝑘 2 ( ) = 196.56 𝑘𝑊
𝜌2 𝜌1 𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑘𝑔
0.64 3 3.2 3
𝑚 𝑚

Going back to the open system equation,

𝑄 = Δ(𝑃𝐸) + Δ(𝐾𝐸) + Δ𝑈 + Δ(𝑃𝑉) + 𝑊

−68.82 𝑘𝑊 = 0 + 40.7 𝑘𝑊 − 185 𝑘𝑊 + 196.56 𝑘𝑊 + 𝑊

𝑾 = −𝟏𝟐𝟏. 𝟎𝟖 𝒌𝑾 ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺.

Remarks:
You might have observed that both the work and watt are represented by letter “𝑊”. It is quite
uncommon to change the symbols anymore because it has already been a practice among engineers. Just
always be mindful which of the two is being referred to by the letter “𝑊”.

The letter 𝑊 also represents power if the unit is kJ/s (or kW), Btu/h, or ft-lb/s. This is because, power is
work per unit time.

Notes in Thermodynamics – Vargas and Blones Page 5 of 6

Formative Assessment No. 2.4
Enthalpy and the Second Corollary of the First Law of Thermodynamics

*Hint: Some of the problems below might be solved by applying the concepts learned from previous
lesson modules.

1. A nozzle receives 0.5 kg/s of air at a pressure of 2700 kPa and a velocity of 30 m/s and with an
enthalpy of 923.0 kJ/kg, and the air leaves at a pressure of 700 kPa and with an enthalpy of 660 kJ/kg.
Determine the exit velocity from the nozzle for flow where the heat loss is 1.3 kJ/kg
[Answer: 724.1 m/s]

2. An air compressor handles 6.0 m3/min with a density of 1.25 kg/m3 and a pressure of 1 atm., and it
discharges at 435 kPa (gage) with a density of 4.80 kg/m3. The change in specific internal energy
across the compressor is 78 kJ/kg, and the heat loss by cooling is 25 kJ/kg. Neglecting changes in
kinetic and potential energies, find the power in kW.
[Answer: 16.71 kW]

3. A fluid at 700 kPa, with a specific volume of 0.25 m3/kg and a velocity of 170 m/s, enters a device.
Heat loss from the device by radiation is 23 kJ/kg. The work done by the fluid is 468 kJ/kg. The fluid
exits at 136 kPa, 0.94 m3/kg, and 335 m/s. Determine the change in internal energy.
[Answer: −485.5 kJ/kg]

4. A steam condenser receives 9.47 kg/s of steam with an enthalpy of 2570 kJ/kg. The steam condenses
to a liquid and leaves with an enthalpy of 160.5 kJ/kg. Find the total heat transferred from the steam.
[Answer: 22,818 kW]

5. Steam enters a turbine at 20 m/s and specific enthalpy of 3000 kJ/kg and leaves the turbine at 40 m/s
and specific enthalpy of 2500 kJ/kg. Heat lost to the surroundings is 25 kJ/kg of steam as the steam
passes through the turbine. If the steam flow rate is 360,000 kg/h, determine the output from the
turbine in MW.
[Answer: 47.44 MW]

Notes in Thermodynamics – Vargas and Blones Page 6 of 6