For Pre-PhD

Pre PhD Workshop

R
Research
h Methodology
M th d l

Kalyan Acharjya
Assistant Professor, Dept. of ECE
Jaipur National University, Jaipur
 With due respect, few contents within this presentation are
copied or prepared from the help of internet, book, article, class
notes etc without prior permission from original owner.
O l Original
Only O i i l Owner
O h full
has f ll rights
i h reserved d for
f used d
image stickers and used contents.

This PPT is only for fair academic use.

Kalyan Acharjya

2 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Outlines
y Whatt is
Wh i Research?
R h?
y Research Objective.
y Scope of Research.
y Research Process. Unit I
Unit-I
y Research Types.
y Research
esea c Limitations.
tat o s.

y Sampling Design Techniques.

y Data
D t Collection.
C ll ti
y Primary Data
Unit-II
y Secondary Data
y Designing
D i i Questionnaire.
Q i i
y Data Preparation.

3 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Unit-I

About Research !

4 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 What is Research?
y “The definition of research includes any gathering of data, information
and facts for the advancement of knowledge”- Martyn Shuttleworth

y "Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information

to increase our understanding of a topic or issue
issue”. -Creswell

y “A studious inquiry
q y or examination;; especially:
p y investigation
g or
experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts,
revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or
practical application of such new or revised theories or laws
laws”
- Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary.

5 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Research Objectives
y It should reflect the aspirations and expectations of the research
topic.
y To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights
into it.
y To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,
individual
situation or groups.
y Hypothesis testing for the casual relationship between variables.
y Emphasize how aims are to be accomplished and must be highly
focused and feasible.
y Obj ti
Objectives should
h ld be b address
dd th more immediate
the i di t project
j t
outcomes and make accurate use of concepts which to be sensible
and precisely described.

6 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Why People does Research?
y The motivation behind research may have following
reasons-
y Interested to face the challenge in solving the unsolved
problems.
y To get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.
y Desire to be service to society.
y
y Curiosity about new phenomenon or thing.
y Concerned about social thinking. g
y Desire to get a research degree along with its
consequential benefits etc.

7 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Scope
p of Research
y For Ph.D. students, the contribution expected at world level-
e.g.
g
y Background investigation on all past work.
y Make meaningful
g addition to world knowledge. g
y Expect new innovation and findings.

8 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Research Process
Literature
Review

Publish Problem
Findings Formulation

Interpret Research
Findings Design

Data
Collection

9 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Research Process..contd
y Initial idea or Concept.
y Background investigation and review related work.
y Refinement of idea.
y Core Work-
y Investigation and Development.
y Documentation.
y Prototype (if applicable).
applicable)
y Evaluation.
y Identification of Future Work.
Work
y Report, Publication and Presentation.

10 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Research Types
y Descriptive
D i ti vs. Analytical:
A l ti l In I Descriptive
D i ti research
h includes
i l d
surveys and fact findings enquiries of different kinds.
In Analytical Research, the researcher has to use or analyze facts or
information already available.

y Applied vs.
vs Fundamental: In Applied (Action) Research aims to
findings to a solution of immediate problem.
On the other hand in Fundamental (pure) Research mainly
concernedd about
b t formulation
f l ti off basics
b i facts.
f t

y Q
Quantitative vs. Q
Qualitative: Q
Quantitative Research is based on
the measurements of quantity or amount.
Quantitative Research is relate with quality or kind.

11 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research Strategy Qualitative Research Strategy
• Investigation
g aims to assess a ppre- •Investigation
Investigation aims to create a
stated theory (Deductive). novel theory (Inductive Reasoning)
• Often involves hypothesis testing.
•Ethnography:
Ethnography: Researcher becomes
• Attempts to minimise the an inherent part of the study.
influence of the researcher on the
outcome
outcome. •Qualitative data infers complex
• Quantitative data infers statistics. statements or opinions.

• Data
D collection
ll i requires
i closed
l d •Data
D t collection
ll ti therefore
th f permits
it
responses. open responses

12 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Research Types..contd
y Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual Research is related with
some idea or theory based on philosophy or thinking to develop new
concepts or reinterpret the existing one.
one
In Empirical Research based on experience and observation alone
without due regard for system and theory.

y Some Other Types of Research:

y One Time Research vs. longitudinal research.
y Field Setting vs. Laboratory Research
(Simulation
(Si l ti Research
R h is
i Laboratory
L b t R
Research)
h)
y Conclusion Oriented or Decision oriented.

13 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Dimensions of Research

Theories

Deductive
Concepts Reasoning

Research
Scientific
M h d
Method Inductive
Propositions
Reasoning

Hypotheses Empiricism

14 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Scientific Method in Research
y The characteristics of the scientific method may have
followingg characteristics elements:
• Empirical approach.
• Observations.
• Questions.
• Hypotheses.
yp
• Experiments.
• Analyses.
y
• Conclusions.
• Replication-
p Repeating
p g Same Work to re-check result.

15 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Research Limitations
y Data is sometimes not available or accessing data is very difficult.
y Some case difficult to understand context of a phenomenon, difficult to
analyze and don’t fit neatly in standard categories.
y Data may not be robust enough to explain complex issues.
y Fi di
Findings usually
ll cannott beb generalized
li d to
t the
th study
t d population
l ti or
observation categories.
y Some case shortageg of manpower
p and finance is also a major
j issue,, if
researcher project is not financial granted by some organization.
y In few case, the data collection is so rigorous and time consuming.

16 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Unit-II-Part-I

S
Sampling
li D Design
i TTechniques
h i

17 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 What is Sampling and Why?
y The process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in
such a way that the individuals represent the larger group from
which they were selected.
selected
y The process of obtaining information from a subset (sample) of a
larger
g ggroupp (p
(population).
p )
y To gather data about the population in order to make an
conclusion that can be generalized to the population.
y Sampling can save time and money.

18 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Population Vs. Sample
Population of Interest

Population Sample

Parameter Statistic

Sample
p

•We measure the sample p usingg statistics in order to draw

inferences about the population and its parameters.

19 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Sampling Terminologies
•Population: Data set of interest from the researcher needs to obtain
information. One unit from a population called Element.
•Sampling Frame: Listing of population from which a sample is chosen.
•Census and Survey:
y A ppollingg of the entire ppopulation,
p but surveyy
means a polling of the sample. Parameter:The variable of interest.
Statistics: The information obtained from the sample about the
•Statistics:
parameter.
i i l Assumption
•Critical i : The
h sample
l chosen
h is representative off the
h
population.

20 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Sampling Design Process
Define Population

Determine Sampling Frame

D t
Determine
i Sampling
S li Procedure
P d

Probability Sampling: Non-Probability Sampling

•Simple Random Sampling •Convenience Sampling
•Stratified Sampling •Judgmental Sampling
•Systematic Sampling •Snowball Sampling
•Cluster Sampling •Quota Sampling

Determine Appropriate Sample Size

Execute Sampling Design

21 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Goal of Sampling Process and Issues
y To be able to make inferences about the population
parameter from knowledge of the relevant statistic to draw
generall conclusions
l about
b theh entire population.
l

yT
Twoo Important factors during Sampling Design– Design
y Select the right data: Have to be selected scientifically so that
data representative of the entire population.
y Select the adequate number of the right data: To minimize
sampling errors that means choosing the wrong data by chance.

y Sampling Error: Frame Error + Chance Error + Response

Error.

22 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Sampling Procedure
• Probability
P b bili sampling
li : Equal
E l chance
h off being
b i included
i l d d in
i
the sample (random).
y Simple random sampling
y Systematic sampling
y Stratified sampling
p g
y Cluster sampling
• Non-probability sampling: Unequal chance of being
included in the sample (non-random).
y Convenience sampling
y Judgment
J d sampling
li
y Snowball sampling
y Quota sampling

23 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Simple Random Sampling
• An objective procedure in which the probability of selection is non zero
and is known in advance for each population unit.
• E
Ensures i f
information
i is i obtained
b i d from
f a representative
i sample.
l
• Population members are selected directly from the sampling frame.
• Equal probability of selection for every sample (sample/population size)
• Normally Use random number table or random number generator.

24 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Systematic Sampling
• Systematic sampling involves a random start and then proceeds
with the selection of every kth element from then onwards.
onwards
Here k=(population size/sample size).
• It is
i important
i t t that
th t the
th starting
t ti point
i t is
i nott automatically
t ti ll the
th first
fi t in
i
the list, but is instead randomly chosen from within the first to the kth
element in the list.
• Order all units in the sampling frame based on some variable and
number them from 1 to N

25 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Stratified Sampling
y The chosen sample is forced to contain units from each of the
segments or strata of the population. Its Equalizing "important"
variables.
i bl
y Population is divided into mutually exclusive and
exhaustive strata based on an appropriate pp p ppopulation
p
characteristic. (e.g. time, SNR, Frequencies etc.)
• Minimize the sampling error since a source of variation is eliminated.

26 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Cluster Sampling
y The
h chosen
h sample
l is
i forced
f d to contain
i units
i from
f eachh off the
h
segments or strata of the population. Its Equalizing "important"
variables.
y Population is divided into mutually exclusive and exhaustive
strata based on an appropriate population characteristic.
((e.g.
g ppower level,, SNR,, Frequencies
q etc.))

y Divide the cluster based on parameters, whose information sought

for.
for
27 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015
 Sampling Design..choose smart way for best result and minimize cost.
• When to use Stratified Sampling-
y If p
primaryy research objective
j is to compare
p of various
groups.
y Using stratified sampling may reduce sampling errors.

• When to use Cluster Sampling-

y If there are substantial fixed costs associated with each
data collection.
y When there is a list of clusters but not of individual
population members.

28 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Non-Probability Sampling
• Subjective procedure in which the probability of selection for some
population units are zero or unknown before drawing the sample.
• I f
Information
ti isi obtained
bt i d from
f a non-representative
t ti samplel off the
th
population.
• Sampling g error can not be computed.
• Survey results cannot be projected to the population.
• Advantages:
• Cheaper and faster than h probability.
b bl
• Reasonably representative if collection in proper way.

29 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Types of Non-Probability Sampling
y Convenience Sampling: The process of including whoever happens
to be available at the time, also called “accidental” or “haphazard”
sampling.

y Judgment Sampling: A researcher exerts some effort in selecting a

sample
p that seems to be most appropriate
pp p for the study.
y

y Snowball Sampling: Selection of additional respondents is based on

p
referrals from the initial respondents and used to sample
p from low
incidence or rare populations.

y Quota Sampling: The population is divided into cells on the basis of

relevant control characteristics.
y A quota of sample units is established for each cell.
y A convenience
i sample
l is
i drawn
d f eachh cellll until
for til the
th quota
t is
i met.
t
30 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015
 Probability Vs. Non-Probability Sampling
y Non-probability sampling is less time consuming and less
expensive.

y The probability of selecting one element over another is not

known and therefore the estimates cannot be projected to the
population with any specified level of confidence.
Quantitative generalizations about population can
only
l be
b done
d under
d probability
b bili sampling.
li

y However,
H marketing
k ti researchers
h also
l apply
l statistics
t ti ti tot study
t d
non-probability samples.

31 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Sampling Errors
• R
Random
d E
Error : The
Th sample
l selected
l d is i not representative
i off the
h
population due to chance.
• The level of it is controlled by sample size.
size
• A larger sample size leads to a smaller sampling error.
Non Sampling Errors
Non-Sampling
• A response or data error is any systematic bias that occurs during data
collection or in data analysis or interpretation is considered a non sampling
error. e.g.
• Respondent error.
• Interviewer
I t i bi
bias.
• Recording errors.
• Poorly designed questionnaires.
questionnaires
32 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015
 Unit-II-Part-II

Data Collection !

33 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Data For Research
y Data Collection begins after the Research Problem Defined and
Research Design g carried out.
y There are two types of Data-
y Primary Data: Original Data which are taken for the first time.
y Secondary Data: Those are already been collected by someone else
and which have already been passed through the statistical process.
y The procedure for data collection for primary
primar and secondary
secondar data are
different.
y Type
yp Research as pper Data Collection-Experimental
p Research-
performing experiment for data collection and Descriptive Type
Research doing surveys and others.

34 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Primary Data Collection
y There are several methods for collection the primary data-(For Surveys
and descriptive research)
y Observation Method:
y Specially used for studies relating to behavioral sciences.
y Advantage is subject bias is eliminated.
y This method is independent
p of Respondents.
p
y Limitation: It is very expensive and some times unforeseen factors may interfere with
the observation leads to error.
y Interview Method:
y Collection of data involves presentation of oral verbal responses.
y Personal Interview: Personal interview is usually carried out in a structured way.
y There should be clear formulation for ppre-requisites
q and basic tenets of
interviewing.
y Telephonic Interview: More Flexible
y This method also have some demerits.

35 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Primary Data Collection..contd
y Through Questionnaire:
y A questionnaire consists of numbers of question printed or typed on a forms.
y Also collection the data by mailing the questionnaire to respondents.
y There
h is lowl cost to implement
l the
h process andd easily
l sendd to any respondents
d across
the globe.
y Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
y Limitation: Slow pprocess,, low rate of return of dulyy filled of qquestionnaires and it is
only used if respondents are educated and co-operating.
y Through Schedules:
y Similar as Collection of data in questionnaire, but the differences is schedules
b i filled
being fill d by
b enumerators whoh are specially
i ll appointed
i d forf this
hi purpose.
y Schedules are Performa containing a set of questionnaire.
y Enumerators should be intelligent and must posses the capacity of cross
examination in order to find the truth.
y Useful for extensive enquiries and fairly reliable results.
y Population census over the world is conducted through this method.

36 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Secondary Data Collection
y Secondary data means data are already available.
y Those data which have already been collected and analyzed.
y Various Publication across the globe
y Technical Journals
y Books, magazine and News papers
y Reports of various association and organization
y Theses and dissertation for scholars
y Public records and statistics.

37 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Secondary Data Collection
y Researcher must careful before using secondary data.
y Researcher must make a scrutiny because it is possible that the secondary
ddata may unsuitable
i bl or inadequate
i d i the
in h context related
l d which
hi h theh
researcher wants to study.
y According to Dr. A.L Bowley it is never safe to take published statistics at
their face value without knowing the meaning and limitations.
y Before using the Secondary Data, it must posses the following
characteristics
characteristics-
y Reliability of Data:Tested by findings out such things about the said data.
y Suitability of Data: The object, scope and nature of the original enquiry must be
studied before using those secondary data.
data
y Data Adequacy : Is the level of accuracy is consider for the present findings.

38 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 The Appropriate Methods for Data Collection
y Based on following factors-
y Nature, scope and Enquiry: The method will be such that it suits for
requirements of researcher.
researcher
y Availability of Funds: It determine to how large extents the method
to be used for the data collection. For those developing countries
the finance is big constraint and researcher has to act within its
limitations.
y Timing Factor: The time requirements and availability also
determine the specific data selection.
y Precision Required: Precision is yet another important factor to be
considered before selection the method of data collection.

39 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Designing Questionnaire
y Researcher must clear about the various aspects of his/her research
problem to be dealt.
y Th pattern
The tt off Questionnaire
Q ti i depends
d d on the
th nature
t off information
i f ti
sought.
y The type of question should be closed or open up, decided based on
result expected for.
y Questions should be simple and must be constructed with a view to
their formingg a logical
g part of a well thought
p g out tabulations pplan.
y Before finalizing the questions, rough draft should be prepared.
y Pilot study should be undertaken for pre-testing the questionnaire.
y Questionnaire must contain simple but straight forward directions
for the respondents.

40 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Unit-II-Part-II

Data Preparations

41 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Data Preparation
y Data Preparation involves checking or logging the data in;
checking the data for accuracy; entering or tabulation the data into
the computer; transforming the data; and developing and
documenting a database structure that integrates the various measures.

y Why Data Preparations-

y Adequacy Check.
y Are
A the
h responses legible/readable?
l ibl / d bl ?
y Are all important questions answered?
y Are the responses
p complete
p and acceptable?
p
y Is all relevant contextual information included to my intended findings?

42 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Process of Data Preparations
Step-1
Editing

Step-2
Coding

Step-3
p
Tabulation

43 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Editing
y The
Th process off checking
h ki andd adjusting
dj ti responses in
i the
th completed
l t d
questionnaires or observation for omissions, legibility, and consistency
and readying them for coding and storage.
y Purpose:
y For consistency among responses or observation.
y For completeness
p in responses
p to reduce effects of non-response
p items.
y To order the observation or answered and facilitate the coding process.
y Types:
y Field
Fi ld Editing:
Edi i P li i
Preliminary editing
di i byb a field
fi ld supervisor
i on the
h same
day, check legibility of handwriting, and clarify responses that are
logically or conceptually inconsistent.
y In-house Editing: Editing performed by a head office; often dome
more rigorously than field editing

44 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Coding
y The process of identifying and classifying each answered or observation
with a numerical score or other character symbol.
y The
Th numerical
i l score or symbol
b l is
i called
ll d a code,
d andd serves as a rule
l
for interpreting, classifying, and recording data
y Identifying
Id tif i responses with
ith codes
d isi necessary if data
d t is
i to
t be
b
processed by computer.
y Coded data is often stored electronically in the form of a data matrix - a
rectangular arrangement of the data into rows (representing cases) and
columns (representing variables)
y Field: A collection of characters that represents a single type of data.
y Record: A collection of related fields i.e., fields related to the same case.
y File: A collection of related records,
records i.e.
i e records related to the same sample.
sample
45 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015
 Tabulation
y Tabulation is the final step of Data Preparation.
y It normallyy countingg the number of observation and responses
p in
various data categories.
y For small size, manual tabulation certainly be the best.
y Cross tabulation also a important process for finalizing tabulation
process.
y Data
D Transformation
T f i may beb the
h part off tabulation.
b l i
y Data Transformation: Converting some of the data from the format in
w c tthey
which ey we
weree eentered
te e to a format
o at most
ost su
suitable
ta e for
o pa
particular
t cu a
statistical analysis.

46 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Conclusions:
y Research is a scientific method to used to collect and analyze
information to increase our understanding or solve issue on
particular field.
y Research should reflect the aspirations and expectations of the
research topic
y It has been understood that Sampling Design and Data
Collection are important part of research design.
y The last part of presentation covered up Data Preparation for
research, it consists three steps-editing, coding and tabulation.

y After conducting the study or gathering the data,

data the next step involves
Analyzing the Data, which generally calls for the use of statistical
techniques.
y The type of statistical techniques used by a researcher depends on the
R
Researchh Design
D i andd Type
T off data
d being
b i gathered.
h d
47 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015
 Home Assignment-I..Go through it and Submit.
y Sampling Distribution of Mean.
y Sampling Distribution
y Proportion.
Proportion
y Students t distribution.
y F distribution.
y Chi-square Distribution.
y Hypothesis Testing (Null Hypothesis) and Central Limit theorem.
y Scalingg Techniques.
q
y You must have understand and able to calculate the following
terms-
y Mean and Mode
y Median
y Variance
y S d d Error
Standard E andd Standard
S d dD Deviation.
i i
48 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015
 Home Assignment-II….Submit.
1) Suppose the admission cell of Jaipur National University conducting the survey
among 500 HS students for their interest to take B.Tech admission in four
departments
p ((EC,CS,EE,FT).The
, , , ) admission cell also pprepared
p the expected
p
admission in these departments as based on last year status, EC-35 %, EE-30 %, CS-
20 % and FT-15 % .And survey results are as below;

Sl. No Department No. of Student

1 EC 150
2 EE 140
3 CS 120
4 FT 90

Based on Chi-square test whether you reject the null hypothesis or not?
(Consider level of significance 0.05)

49 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 References
1. Text-Book: C.R. Kothari, “Research Methodology Methods and
Techniques”, New Age International Publisher, Second Edition, ISBN-978-
224 1522 3
224-1522-3
2. Text-Book: Creswell, J. W. , Research design : Qualitative and Quantitative
Approaches. Thousand Oaks, Calif.; London : Sage Publications, ISBN
0803952546, 1994
3. Data Preparation, Zikmud Book, Chapter 19. Notes of Dr. Alhassan G. Abdul
Muhmin, Department of Management and Marketing, King Fahd University
of Petroleum & Minerals.
Minerals
4. Case Study Notes from Deikin University.
5. Research Design article from Queen University, Belfast
6. Lecture notes of Dr. G. Singaravelu, Associate Professor, UGC-ASC,
Bharathiar University Coimbatore

50 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Anyy Questions?

51 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015

 Thank You
kalyan.acharjya@gmail.com

52 © Kalyan Acharjya, Jaipur National University, India 12/9/2015