Global warming is raising more public concerns and as a result the automotive industry is facing

unprecedented pressure and tighter regulations on CO2 emissions. Various technologies, have been
developed in order to meet the future targets for fleet emission.

In the short and medium term, the hybrid electric powertrain is considered to be the most promising
technology. In recent years, many different hybrid electric powertrains have been developed for
passenger cars, commercial vehicles, military vehicles, etc. According to functionality they can be
classified into three general categories – full hybrid, mild hybrid and micro hybrid.

In Europe a micro hybrid powertrain is attractive due to a low cost advantage which complements
internal combustion engine powertrain.

The P0 configuration:
The P0 configuration of an hybrid vehicle is a parallel hybrid drive train in which the engine supplies
its power mechanically to the wheels like in a conventional ICE-powered vehicle. It is assisted by an
electric motor that is mechanically coupled to the transmission. The powers of the engine and
electric motor are coupled together by mechanical coupling.

The torque coupling adds the torques of the engine and the electric motor together or splits the
engine torque into two parts: propelling and battery charging. The torque coupling adds the torques
of the engine and the electric motor together or splits the engine torque into two parts: propelling
and battery charging.

The mechanical torque coupling, has two inputs. One is

from the engine and one is from the electric motor.

The mechanical torque coupling outputs to the

mechanical transmission.
If loss is ignored, the output torque and speed can be described by:

T out =K 1 T ¿ 1+ K 2 T ¿2

And

ω¿ 1 ω ¿2
ω out = =
K1 K2
where k 1 and k 2 are the constants determined by the parameters of torque coupling.

 Configuration of a parallel
hybrid electric drive train

The P0 configuration exploits two-shaft configuration, in which two transmissions are used: one is
placed between the engine and the torque coupling and other is placed between the motor and
torque coupling. Both transmissions may be single or multi-gear. The performance and overall
efficiency of the drive train may be superior to other designs, because two multi-gear transmissions
provide more opportunities for both the engine and electric traction system (electric machine and
batteries) to operate in their optimum region. This design also provides great flexibility in the design
of the engine and electric motor characteristics. the single-gear transmission 1 and the multigear
transmission 2 may be used. In actual hybrid drive train design, the maximum tractive effort with this
transmission arrangement may be sufficient for the hill-climbing performance of the vehicle; greater
tractive effort would not be necessary due to the limitation of the tire–ground contact adhesion. The
use of a single-gear transmission takes inherent advantage of the high torque characteristic of
electric machines at low speeds. The multi-gear transmission 2 is used to overcome the
disadvantages of the IC engine speed–torque characteristics (flat torque output along speed). The
multispeed transmission 2 also tends to improve the efficiency of the engine and reduces the speed
range of the vehicle. The limitation to the application of this drive train is the maximum tractive
effort of the drive train. When power of the engine, electric motor, batteries, and transmission
parameters are properly designed, this drive train would serve the vehicle with satisfactory
performance and efficiency.
 A) SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

The hybrid system is implemented based on a internal combustion engine for light duty commercial
vehicle applications. It consists of:

• Belt-driven integrated starter generator including a bi-directional belt tensioning system

• Frequency inverter

• DC/DC voltage converter

• Ultracapacitor package

• 12V lead/acid battery with a battery monitoring sensor (BMS)

 1) BELT-DRIVEN INTEGRATED STARTER GENERATOR - The belt-driven integrated starter
generator links the electrical and mechanical systems as both the starting and generating
device. the belt-driven integrated starter generator machine is coupled to the front of the
engine via the Front End Accessory Drive (FEAD). The belt-driven integrated starter generator
replaces the conventional alternator, making it easier to integrate into the current
powertrain design. Due to the compact design, the overall machine weight is less than 8kg.
There is also a damping device allowing the machine housing to pivot, which can provide a
reaction torque to increase belt tension during cranking, plus increase the low level belt
tension during generating. Since the engine has a special dual mass flywheel it also requires a
crankshaft vibration isolator in the FEAD, which is modified to improve robustness and NVH
performance during engine start.

The reasons to combine starter and alternator in a single machine of increased power rating are:

 A desire to eliminate the starter which is only a passive component during engine operation.
 A need to replace the present belt and pulley coupling between the alternator and the
crankshaft.
 A need to provide fast control of generator voltage during load dumps in order to improve
the distributed power quality.
 A desire to eliminate the slip rings and the brushes in some present wound rotor alternators.
The BISG has three important functions: start-stop, electricity generation and power assistance. The
BISG allows the ICE to turn off and conserve energy (and to save fuel) at stops and instantly restart
upon pressing of the gas pedal. Thus instead of continuing to use fuel at idling speed, for instance
when waiting at a traffic light, the engine of a car with BISG switches off completely when the car is
no longer in motion. When the traffic light turns green and the driver presses the accelerator to
move off, the BISG car starts up almost instantly. In this "engine cranking" mode the BISG can provide
sufficient rotation using battery power to drive the ICE to the maximum starting speed. Once that
speed is exceeded, the BISG drive power is turned off. The vehicle driver, however, will not notice
any difference because the BISG system will restart the ICE independently. The BISG can generate
electric energy to be stored in the battery taking mechanical energy from the spinning crankshaft of
the vehicle (running power generation mode). In addition the BISG can also act as a retarding force
for the crankshaft and to regenerate and feed back into the battery free electric energy when braking
the car (recuperative braking), both when releasing the accelerator and when pressing the brake
pedal (braking power generation mode). In the boost-mode the BISG can be used to support the ICE
by supplying additional power for fast acceleration. BISG remains active throughout the driving
process, for example during overtaking or at other times when extra power is needed.

The BISG has a lot of advantages:

 As the ICE is combined with an electric motor system and the BISG system augment power of
existing engines by providing electric "motor assist", or enabling a "start-stop" feature a
smaller ICE can be used without reducing performance.
 Its start-stop and the recuperative braking capability, respectively its higher voltage and
increased size makes the ISG more efficient than a conventional generator, resulting in up to
20% reduced overall fuel consumption.
 Because using BISG no fuel enrichment is necessary to start the ICE lower start emissions can
be achieved, especially during the cold start period.
 With the BISG the engine shuts off instead of idling. For the user who drives a lot in urban
traffic, there is clear evidence this environmental benefit. The ICE simply is not used when
the car is not moving.
 It can achieve noise and vibration reduced operation improving comfort.
 The components of the BISG system are not subject to wear and tear and are maintenance-
free because of the system’s brushless design.
 The ISG has the ability to perform torque smoothing of the driveline. By applying an
adequate damping control algorithm also powertrain oscillations and noises can be
neutralized.
 BISG can be integrated with most of actual car models, therefore is no need to develop a
new car model or significantly modify an existing car. Thus it is very cost-efficient system.
 As the cold starting requirements have a great influence on the design of any BISG it can start
the ICE also under extremely low temperature conditions.
 2) FREQUENCY INVERTER - The frequency inverter controls the operation mode of The
belt-driven integrated starter generator machine. During cranking mode it coverts the DC
power from the ultracapacitor pack into 3-phase AC power in order to drive the
electrical machine; and during generating mode it converts the AC power the belt-driven
integrated starter generator machine into DC power in order to charge the ultracapacitor
pack and to support the vehicle electrical load. An air-cooled heat sink provides cooling
and a thermal diagnostic and protection circuit is implemented in order to protect the
device.

The EMs found in EVs today are most commonly of the AC permanent magnet (PM) or AC induction
machine (IM) type. To drive them, a traction inverter is required to convert the direct current
available from the battery pack to variable frequency alternating current. In addition to the motoring
mode, the machines can also operate as generators, requiring the inverter to act as a rectifier and
return energy to the battery.

The battery pack can be either directly connected to the inverter DC input, or a DC/DC boost
converter can be used to step up the battery voltage and supply the inverter with a controlled DC
voltage. In both circuits, a large DC-link capacitor C dc smooths the ripple current and voltage
generated by the switching action of the active devices. This ensures a nearly constant DC-link
voltage and reduces the high frequency current harmonics. The boost converter is commonly
implemented with two switching devices such that it is bidirectional and can return energy to the
battery during regenerative braking. The topology can be scaled to higher power levels by paralleling
multiple converter phases, which has the benefit of reducing ripple if interleaving control is used.
3) DC/DC VOLTAGE CONVERTER - Practical electronic converters use switching techniques.
Switched-mode DC-to-DC converters convert one DC voltage level to another, which may be
higher or lower, by storing the input energy temporarily and then releasing that energy to
the output at a different voltage. The storage may be in either magnetic field storage
components (inductors, transformers) or electric field storage components (capacitors). This
conversion method can increase or decrease voltage. Switching conversion is often more
power-efficient (typical efficiency is 75% to 98%) than linear voltage regulation, which
dissipates unwanted power as heat. Fast semiconductor device rise and fall times are
required for efficiency; however, these fast transitions combine with layout parasitic effects
to make circuit design challenging. The higher efficiency of a switched-mode converter
reduces the heatsinking needed, and increases battery endurance of portable equipment.
Efficiency has improved since the late 1980s due to the use of power FETs, which are able to
switch more efficiently with lower switching losses at higher frequencies than power bipolar
transistors, and use less complex drive circuitry. Another important improvement in DC-DC
converters is replacing the flywheel diode by synchronous rectification using a power FET,
whose "on resistance" is much lower, reducing switching losses. Before the wide availability
of power semiconductors, low-power DC-to-DC synchronous converters consisted of an
electro-mechanical vibrator followed by a voltage step-up transformer feeding a vacuum
tube or semiconductor rectifier, or synchronous rectifier contacts on the vibrator.

The DC/DC voltage converter links the high and low voltage power networks on the vehicle. It
has two operation modes. In forward mode it provides energy from the high voltage side to the
low voltage side to charge the 12V battery and support the vehicle electrical load. In reverse
mode it provides energy from the low voltage side to the high voltage side, using the 12V battery
to charge the ultracapacitor pack when the voltage is initially too low to crank the engine. This
can happen after the vehicle has been parked for a long time since the ultracapacitor self-
discharge rate is higher than that of the battery. The output capacity of the DC/DC voltage
converter is 1.5kW in both directions. An air-cooled heat sink provides the necessary heat
dissipation.
 4) ULTRACAPACITOR PACKAGE – Ultracapacitors are used to provide energy for cranking as
well as storing the energy during regenerative braking. The pack contains ten individual
2000F cells connected in series. Compared with conventional lead acid batteries,
ultracapacitors have a significantly greater shallow-cycle life since there is no electrochemical
reaction associated with the charge/discharge cycle. The high charge acceptance is
attractive to effectively recuperate braking energy during the short period of normal braking
events. The high discharge rate provides a high power output, although only for a
short period due to a low energy density. The maximum voltage for the package is
28V limited by the ultracapacitor design. The overall package weighs approximately 10kg.
To prevent any unbalance between individual cells, balancing circuits are implemented
between adjacent cells. To protect the cells from excessive internal pressure build up in
case of extreme high temperature, over voltage or crash, each individual cell has a
pressure relief mechanism.

The general electrochemical reaction that takes place in the modern Li-polymer battery pack is

LixC + Li1-xMyOz ↔ C + LiMyOz . (1)

The performance of an ultracapacitor

may be represented by terminal volt-

ages during discharge and charge

with different current rates.
There are three parameters in a
capacitor: the capacitance itself (its
electric potential Vc ), the series
resistance Rs , and the dielectric
leakage resistance, RL.

An electrical double layer works as an insulator only below the decomposing voltage. The stored
energy, E cap , is expressed as

1
Ecap = C V 2 (2)
2

The terminal voltage of the ultracapacitor during discharge can be expressed as

V t =V C −i R S (3)

The electric potential of a capacitor can be expressed by

dVc i+i L
dt
=−
C( ) (4)
where C is the capacitance of the ultracapacitor.

On the other hand, the leak-age current i L can be expressed as

−V C
iL= (5)
RL .

Substituting (2) into (1), one can obtain

 dV c VC i
= − (6)
dt C RL C
The analytical solution of (6) is
t t t

[ 0
i
V C = V C 0∫ e CR dt e CR
C
L

] L
(7)

That represent the terminal voltage of the ultracapacitor cell, where i is the discharge current, which
is a function of time in real operation.

The operation efficiency in discharging and charging can be expressed as:

Discharging:

V t I t ( V C −I t Rs )
ηd = =
V C I C V C ( I t + I L)

Charging:

V C IC ( I t−I L )
ηd = =
V t I t I t ( V C + I t Rs )

where Vt is the terminal voltage and It is the current input to or output from the terminal.

In actual operation, the leakage current IL is usually very small(few mA) and can be ignored. Thus
we can rewrite as:

Discharging:

V t V C −I t R s
ηd = =
VC VC

Charging:

VC VC
ηd = =
V t V C + I t Rs

The equations indicate that the energy loss in an ultracapacitor is caused by the presence of series
resistance. The efficiency decreases at a high current rate and low cell voltage.

In actual operation, the ultracapacitor should be maintained at its high voltage region, for more than
60% of its rated voltage. The energy stored in an ultracapacitor can be obtained through the energy
needed to charge it to a certain voltage level, that is:
 t v
1
EC =∫ V C I C dt =∫ CV C d V C = CV 2C
0 0 2

where V C is the cell voltage in volts. In real operation, it is impossible to utilize the stored energy
completely because of the low power in the low SOC (low voltage). Thus, an ultracapacitor is usu-
ally given a bottom voltage, V Cb , below which the ultracapacitor will stopdelivering energy.
Consequently, the available or useful energy for use isless than its fully charged energy, which can be
expressed as

1
Eu = C ( V 2CR −V 2CB )
2
where VCR is the rated voltage of the ultracapacitor. At its bottom voltage, the state of charge (SOC)
can be written as:

0.5 CV 2Cb
SOC= 2
0.5 CV CR

For example, when the cell voltage drops from rated voltage to 60% of the rated voltage, 64% of
the total energy is available for use.

5) 12V LEAD ACID BATTERY WITH BATTERY MONITORING SENSOR (BMS) – A 12V lead
acid battery is used to support the vehicle electrical load during engine stop, to store the
energy which cannot be stored by the ultracapacitor package during regenerative braking,
 and to recharge the ultracapacitor package when voltage is initially too low. A BMS device
is installed at the negative pole of the battery. It provides information on battery operation
and status, such as voltage, current, state of charge (SOC), state of health (SOH) and state of
function (SOF). This information is then used to optimise the energy management of the 12V
network.

Lead-acid batteries are very effective at powering many different applications. They are easy to
obtain, relatively inexpensive, and provide a lot of power to whatever they are hooked up to. These
batteries are also used in multiple designs because of their versatility and high power output.
Unfortunately, if there is nothing monitoring the charge, the battery will eventually run out of power.
Lead-acid batteries are not designed to be fully discharged, so if a battery is run dry, it will be
damaged. In order to determine the charge of a battery, the current voltage of the battery is needed.
A 12V battery is not exactly 12V when fully charged; at full charge, it is closer to 12.7V. Depending on
the output voltage of the battery, the approximate charge of the battery can be estimated. In Figure
1, the relationship between charge percentage and output voltage is shown. The value of 10.5V is
chosen for zero percent charge because a lead-acid battery will be damaged if it is discharged below
10.5 volts.

A microcontroller is a small computer located on a single integrated circuit (IC) containing a

processor, memory, and input/output options. Figure 3 shows a basic block diagram of a
microcontroller, outlining the different components of a microcontroller. This microcontroller has
flash memory as well as random access memory (RAM) that is used for program execution, four
input/output (I/O) ports, and a central processing unit (CPU). Many microcontrollers have an analog
to digital converter (ADC) used to translate an analog voltage signal into a series of bits that the
microcontroller can then process. For a battery monitor, the output voltage of the battery can be
used as an ADC input, and the current charge of the battery can be determined.