CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE

Contemporary architecture is, in broad terms, the architecture of the present day. The

term contemporary architecture is applied to a range of styles of recently built structures
and space which are optimized for current use. Contemporary architecture is the
architecture of the 21st century. No single style is dominant; contemporary architects are
working in a dozen different styles, from postmodernism and high-tech architecture to
highly conceptual and expressive styles, resembling sculpture on an enormous scale. The
different styles and approaches have in common the use of very advanced technology and
modern building materials, such as Tube structure which allows construction of the
buildings that are taller, lighter and stronger than those in the 20th century, and the use of
new techniques of computer-aided design, which allow buildings to be designed and
modeled on computers in three dimensions, and constructed with more precision and
speed.
Contemporary buildings are designed to be noticed and to astonish. Some feature
concrete structures wrapped in glass or aluminum screens, very asymmetric facades, and
cantilevered sections which hang over the street. Skyscrapers twist, or break into crystal-
like facets. Facades are designed to shimmer or change color at different times of day
Characteristics of contemporary architecture
• Attempt to push the boundaries of material and technology and especially
geometry
• Changes to accepted tradition
• Use of new materials in an innovative way

Topics in contemporary architecture

 Blobitecture  Modern architecture

 Critical Regionalism
 Computer aided design
 Conceptual architecture
 Digital architecture
 Digital morphogenesis
 Deconstructivism
 Futurist architecture
 High-tech architecture
 Industrial chic
 Neomodern architecture
 Neo-Futurism
 Neo-Historism
 New Classical Architecture
 New Urbanism
 Novelty architecture
 Postmodern architecture
 Sustainable architecture
Computer-aided design
Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer systems (or workstations)
to aid in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design. CAD
software is used to increase the productivity of the designer, improve the quality of
design, improve communications through documentation, and to create a database
for manufacturing. CAD output is often in the form of electronic files for print,
machining, or other manufacturing operations. The term CADD (for Computer
Aided Design and Drafting) is also used.
Its use in designing electronic systems is known as electronic design automation,
or EDA. In mechanical design it is known as mechanical design
automation (MDA) or computer-aided drafting (CAD), which includes the
process of creating a technical drawing with the use of computer software.[4]
CAD software for mechanical design uses either vector-based graphics to depict
the objects of traditional drafting, or may also produce raster graphics showing the
overall appearance of designed objects. However, it involves more than just
shapes. As in the manual drafting of technical and engineering drawings, the
output of CAD must convey information, such as materials, processes, dimensions,
and tolerances, according to application-specific conventions.
CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space; or
curves, surfaces, and solids in three-dimensional (3D) space.[5]
CAD is an important industrial art extensively used in many applications,
including automotive, shipbuilding, and aerospace industries, industrial
and architectural design, prosthetics, and many more. CAD is also widely used to
produce computer animation for special effects in movies, advertising and
technical manuals, often called DCC digital content creation. The modern ubiquity
and power of computers means that even perfume bottles and shampoo dispensers
are designed using techniques unheard of by engineers of the 1960s. Because of its
enormous economic importance, CAD has been a major driving force for research
in computational geometry, computer graphics (both hardware and software),
and discrete differential geometry.[6]
The design of geometric models for object shapes, in particular, is occasionally
called computer-aided geometric design (CAGD).
Blobitecture

'Blobitecture', also known as 'blobism', is a term given to a post-modern architectural

style characterised by curved and rounded building shapes, or 'blob
architecture'. Blobitecture buildings appear to have an organic form that is soft and free-
flowing, yet comes together to produce a complex whole.
The design of buildings has historically been limited by the performance
of materials found in nature or easily manufactured from available materials. With the
modern capability of technology to supply entirely 'artificial' complex substances, with
unique performance characteristics the range of possible design forms has grown
considerably.
Architecture radicals, such as Archigram in the 1960s, Buckminster Fuller and the
deconstructivists, began to design unusual, inflatable and 'plastic' buildings that exploited
this potential, and sometimes were even beyond the structural possibilities of the time.
However, it was in the 1990s, with the wide-spread adoption of computer-aided design
(CAD) that buildings adopting unconventional geometric shapes, free of right-angles,
became practical. The architect Greg Lynn coined the term 'blobitecture', which he based
on the software feature that created Binary Large Objects.
The term 'blob architecture' was coined by architect Greg Lynn in 1995 in his
experiments in digital design with metaball graphical software. Soon a range of architects
and furniture designers began to experiment with this "blobby" software to create new
and unusual forms. Despite its seeming organicism, blob architecture is unthinkable
without this and other similar computer-aided design programs

Some of the most prominent examples of blobitecture include:

• The water pavilion from 1997 by NOX/Lars Spuybroek in the Netherlands.
• The Sage Gateshead building by Norman Foster,
 • The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, along the Nervión River in
downtown Bilbao by Frank Gehry, 
• Peter Cook and Colin Fournier's Kunsthaus in Graz, Austriax
• Eden Project by Nicholas Grimshaw, Cornwall, United Kingdom
• The Blob by Massimiliano Fuksas, Eindhoven, Netherlands.

Modern architecture
Modern architecture or modernist architecture is a term applied to a group of styles
of architecture which emerged in the first half of the 20th century and became dominant
after World War II. It was based upon new technologies of construction, particularly the
use of glass, steel and reinforced concrete; and upon a rejection of the
traditional neoclassical architecture and Beaux-Arts styles that were popular in the 19th
century. 
Modern architecture emerged at the end of the 19th century from revolutions in
technology, engineering and building materials, and from a desire to break away from
historical architectural styles and to invent something that was purely functional and new.
The revolution in materials came first, with the use of cast iron, plate glass,
and reinforced concrete, to build structures that were stronger, lighter and taller. The cast
plate glass process was invented in 1848, allowing the manufacture of very large
windows. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an
early example of iron and plate glass construction, followed in 1864 by the first glass and
metal curtain wall. These developments together led to the first steel-framed skyscraper,
the ten-story Home Insurance Building in Chicago, built in 1884 by William Le Baron
Jenney. The iron frame construction of the Eiffel Tower, then the tallest structure in the
world,captured the imagination of millions of visitors to the 1889 Paris Universal
Exposition.
Architects also began to experiment with new materials and techniques, which gave them
greater freedom to create new forms. In 1903-1904 in Paris Auguste Perret and Henri
Sauvage began to use reinforced concrete, previously only used for industrial structures,
to build apartment buildings.[8] Reinforced concrete, which could be molded into any
shape, and which could create enormous spaces without the need of supporting pillars,
replaced stone and brick as the primary material for modernist architects. The first
concrete apartment buildings by Perret and Sauvage were covered with ceramic tiles, but
in 1905 Perret built the first concrete parking garage on 51 rue de Ponthieu in Paris; here
the concrete was left bare, and the space between the concrete was filled with glass
windows. Henri Sauvage added another construction innovation in an apartment building
on Rue Vavin in Paris (1912-1914); the reinforced concrete building was in steps, with
each floor set back from the floor below, creating a series of terraces. Between 1910 and
1913, Auguste Perret built the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, a masterpiece of reinforced
concrete construction, with Art Deco sculptural bas-reliefs on he facade by Antoine
Bourdelle. Because of the concrete construction, no columns blocked the spectator's view
of the stage. [9]
Notable architects important to the history and development of the modernist movement
include Frank Lloyd Wright, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier, Walter
Gropius, Konstantin Melnikov, Erich Mendelsohn, Joseph Eichler, Richard Neutra, Louis
Sullivan, Gerrit Rietveld, Bruno Taut, Gunnar Asplund, Arne Jacobsen, Oscar
Niemeyer and Alvar Aalto.

Building of a disaster
By Shahnawaz Khan

Srinagar, July 3, 2014:

The valley of Kashmir falls in Seismic zone IV and V, with many experts of the view that a major earthquake is in
store for the region.

In 2005 an earthquake of 7.4 magnitude on Richter scale with its epicenter near Muzaffarabad in Pakistan
controlled Kashmir caused large scale devastation in Pakistan and Kashmir.

On the Indian side of Kashmir damage was limited to frontier areas of Uri, Karnah and Baramulla.

Distance from the epicenter helped major cities like Srinagar escape the throes of destruction in 2005, but the
dynamics of the active seismic zone demand earthquake sensitivity and preparedness.

Experts, however, say the region has never been as vulnerable to destruction in the event of a major quake as it
is now – thanks to changes in its building architecture over the last six decades.

“Ninety percent of the (new) structures which have come up in Kashmir will face the same fate that Muzaffarbad
structures faced in the event of God Forbid an earthquake,” says Saleem Beg, head J&K Chapter of INTACH
referring to the new residential houses that have come up in the last five decades.
Read this Interview with Saleem Beg

Concrete as a choice of construction has almost totally replaced Kashmir’s unique traditional architectures that
employed heavy use of timber in its structure along with bricks, mud mortar and stones.

Beg says that while Reinforced Concrete was a modern technology used in super structures worldwide, most
structures coming up in Kashmir use sub standard specifications.

“People who are happy with using slabs (RCC ceilings) are at a greater risk of loss in event of an earthquake.
Only those people who do it by standard specification would perhaps be secure. And how many people are doing
it,” said Beg.

Beg’s views are echoed by many others in Kashmir.

“We have moved from a very efficient system to a very bad system,” says Iftikhar Ahmad Hakim, Chief Town
Planner Kashmir.

Hakim says the traditional architecture like Taq and Dhajji Diwari constructions followed standardized
specifications, and styles.

“Everything was standard, the window styles, the walls patterns. Nowadays it is wanton,” says Hakim.

As town planner Hakim is also annoyed that Srinagar has lost its unique identity the traditional houses gave the
city.

“The face of the city is changing. There is no pattern. Everything is random,” says Hakim.

Moreover, the requirements or essentials that led to the evolution of the systems in Kashmir were totally sidelined
with the introduction of new systems, says Beg.

Traditionally Kashmir’s houses could be divided between two major architectural systems, the Taq system and
Dhajji Diwari. Both make use of wood as an important structural element.

The efficiency of Kashmiri traditional architectural practices have been duly recognized by experts at national and
international level.

In the wake of Kashmir earthquake 2005, UNESCO in conjunction with UNDP, UN Habitat and other some other
organizations commissioned Prof Randoplh Langenbach of Conservationtech Consulting (US) to compile a report
on heritage value of Kashmiri architecture and construction techniques.

The report, ‘Don’t tear it down! Preserving the earthquake resisitant vernacular architecture of Kashmir’ was
published in 2009 and serves as a valuable resource on the richness of Kashmiri traditional architecture.

According to UNESCO the publication was meant to offset the common belief that these systems were obsolete
and inadequate for modern day life, and encourage conservation of Kashmir’s vernacular architecture through
increased understanding of its scientific and cultural attributes and its earthquake resistant features.

Langenbach uses his 25 years of experiences in earthquake zone areas including Kashmir to illustrate the
benefits of traditional Kashmir constructions over the contemporary concrete ones.

He writes, “Concrete construction requires more than just good craftsmanship: it demands an understanding of
the science of the material itself. The problem is that builders are often inadequately trained and thus do no fully
understand the seismic implications of construction faults. As a result potential disaster lies hidden beneath the
plaster….

Traditional buildings, even the ones that have survived earthquakes that felled nearby reinforced concrete
buildings, were not engineered. No calculations were made, and no plan for them were ever inspected, because
none were ever drawn. They were constructed by local masons with little or no formal training and without the
input of professionally trained engineers or building designers. They were built with a minimum of tools, with
locally acquired materials using a minimum of costly resources and they were held together with mimimum of
nails and fasteners...

Unlike traditional timber and masonry, reinforced concrete requires a high level of knowledge and skill even to
meet the basic level of capacity and ductility to ensure against collapse… From its inception, reinforced concrete
has captivated engineers and architects alike because of its capabilities yet in earthquakes its record has been
disappointing largely because of the pervasive quality control problems endemic to the material.”

Yet earthquake resistance has been only one advantage the traditional houses had over the concrete ones.

Thick walls raised in mud mortar and covered with a mud plaster, along with wooden ceilings, would also insulate
the residents from Kashmir’s harsh winters.

But as Town Planner Hakim says, “We have lost what we had, we lost focus somewhere.”

 A UNESCO 2007 poster hailing the traditional architecture of Kashmir

What are Taq and Dhajji Diwari construtions

The traditional architecture of Srinagar and Kashmir, writes Prof Langenbach, has generated out of distinctive use
of materials and ways of building, which are adapted to local climate, culture and natural environment, principally
the soft soils and the earthquake risk in the region.

The danger of earthquakes and the soft building ground have had a great influence on the way people
traditionally built their houses. This combination of soft soils with earthquakes required buildings that can undergo
a certain amount inelastic deformation without losing their vertical load carrying capacity.

Historically Kashmir’s architecture shows preference for a ‘give’ or flexibility over strength and rigidity.

Taq

Taq construction is a bearing wall masonry construction with horizontal timber lacing embedded into the masonry
to keep it from spreading and cracking. It is usually configured with a modular layout of masonry piers and window
bays tied together with ladder like constructions of horizontal timbers embedded in the masonry walls at each floor
and lintel level. The masonry piers are thick enough to carry the vertical loads, and the bays may either contain a
window or a thinner masonry wall. The ladder-like sets of timber beams laid into the exterior and interior faces of
the walls are connected together through the wall either by floor beams, and joists or short connector pieces.

These horizontal ladder bands are located at the base of the structure above the foundation (das) and at each
floor and lintel level.

Taq construction gets its name from the modular layout of piers and window bays which are referred to as taq. A
building with a five sets of piers and bays, will be recognized as a five taq house, alternatively a measurement
system for such houses, with the masonry piers (Around 2 ft) and window bays (3-4 ft) almost always of standard
size.
An important factor in the structural integrity of taq is that the full weight of the masonry is allowed to bear on the
timbers, thus holding them in place, while the timbers in turn keep the masonry from spreading.

Reference: Langenbach, Don’t tear it down, 2009,

The masonry piers are around two feet thick and would usually have fired small bricks on the façade, and unfired
mud bricks in the interiors. The piers stood at a distance of three to four feet joined or separated from each other
by a window bay. The window bay would have a door, or a thinner wall, when a widow was not required at the
place. The whole elements were held together by the horizontal timber beams, helping the structure to act as one
unit, and at the same time keep it flexible enough to limit the damage.

An unusual element is the taq system is the existence of a deliberately unbounded butt joint between the masonry
piers and the wall and window panels.

The Taq system exploits the combination of a weak mortar, bricks and timber in a manner that the apparent
weakness of the structure becomes its strength. The structures hold good on soft soils as well as perform well in
earthquakes. Even if some part of the house give into stronger forces of natures, the architecture ensures that the
damage is not transmitted to the whole structure.

Dhajji Diwari

Dhajji Diwari is a wooden frame based structure, a variation of mixed timber and masonry construction type found
around the world in one form or another. The term dhajji diwari comes from Persian and literally means patchwork
quilt wall.

It consists of a complete timber frame that is integral with the masonry, which fills in openings in the frames to
form walls. The wall is commonly one half brick in thickness so that the timber and masonry are flush on both
sides.

The Dhajji frames usually platform frames meaning that each story is framed separately on the one below. The
floor joists are sandwiched between the plates.

Reference: Langenbach, Don’t tear it down, 2009,

Traditional is modern
While the presence of soft soils and the recurrence of earthquakes may have led to the evolution of Kashmir’s
unique architectural systems, there are many more reasons to have a closer look at them and encourage its
preservation and incorporation of the techniques in modern day constructions. While it may not be possible to
revert to traditional architectural systems altogether, given the gap in transfer of technology, and adaptation of
new systems with modern lifestyles, there is still need to incorporate modern needs and technologies into the
traditional knowledge system. There are enough reasons to encourage use of timber and mud mortar and
traditional architecture systems over reinforced and unreinforced concrete.

Earthquake Resistance: Taq and Dhajji Diwari construction systems have proven efficient is surviving
earthquakes, by the virtue of their flexibility or ductility. Damages, if any, are localized and not quickly transmitted
to whole structure. Survival rates of trapped persons in case of an eventual collapse are fairly high than in case of
a concrete building.

Energy Efficiency: The use of mud mortar, mud plaster, wooden ceilings (floor levelts), unfired bricks on the
inside, all these elements gave a Kashmiri traditional house a high degree of insulation from external
temperatures. It was essential to the survival in Kashmir’s harch winters with very low resilience on energy for
internal heating. Kashmir's modern cement and concrete houses are out of sync with its cold climate.
Health Issues: The cold and numb concrete houses have lead to an increase in people complaining of
orthopedic problems. Many blame this squarely on the new houses.

Sustainability and recyclability: The recyclability of material in wood and mud based houses is so much so that
one can even virtually think of dismantling a house brick by brick, and re-building it at another site brick by brick
from the same material. This is incomprehensible in a concrete structure. In fact a concrete house once razed is
nothing but debris that needs to be disposed off. While materials salvaged from damaged or even gutted
traditional houses can be put to use wherever required.

Environment Pollution: Cement production in itself puts strain on natural resources and creates a lot of
environmental pollutions. A number of cement plants have come up in Kashmir in the last few decades, most of
them are located in the vicinity Saffron rich Pampore town. Decline in Saffron production the area has been
attributed to dust emanating from cement plants. The state has been encouraging less use of timber in a bid to
save forests, but has not thought in terms of wood farming. In recent years it has encouraged import of timber.
TAQ OR TIMBER-LACED MASONRY BEARING
WALL CONSTRUCTION
Taq construction is a bearing wall masonry construction with horizontal timber lacing
embedded into the masonry to keep it from spreading and cracking. It is usually
configured with a modular layout of masonry piers and window bays tied together with
ladder like constructions of horizontal timbers embedded in the masonry walls at each
floor and lintel level. The masonry piers are thick enough to carry the vertical loads, and
the bays may either contain a window or a thinner masonry wall. The ladder-like sets of
timber beams laid into the exterior and interior faces of the walls are connected together
through the wall either by floor beams, and joists or short connector pieces.

These horizontal ladder bands are located at the base of the structure above the
foundation (das) and at each floor and lintel level.

Taq construction gets its name from the modular layout of piers and window bays which
are referred to as taq. A building with a five sets of piers and bays, will be recognized as
a five taq house, alternatively a measurement system for such houses, with the masonry
piers (Around 2 ft) and window bays (3-4 ft) almost always of standard size.

An important factor in the structural integrity of taq is that the full weight of the masonry
is allowed to bear on the timbers, thus holding them in place, while the timbers in turn
keep the masonry from spreading.

The masonry piers are around two feet thick and would usually have fired small bricks on
the façade, and unfired mud bricks in the interiors. The piers stood at a distance of three
to four feet joined or separated from each other by a window bay. The window bay would
have a door, or a thinner wall, when a widow was not required at the place. The whole
elements were held together by the horizontal timber beams, helping the structure to act
as one unit, and at the same time keep it flexible enough to limit the damage.

An unusual element is the taq system is the existence of a deliberately unbounded butt
joint between the masonry piers and the wall and window panels.
The Taq system exploits the combination of a weak mortar, bricks and timber in a
manner that the apparent weakness of the structure becomes its strength. The structures
hold good on soft soils as well as perform well in earthquakes. Even if some part of the
house give into stronger forces of natures, the architecture ensures that the damage is not
transmitted to the whole structure.

Taq construction is a composite system of building construction with a modular layout of

load-bearing masonry piers and window bays tied together with ladder-like constructions
of horizontal timbers embedded in the masonry walls at each floor level and window
lintel level. These horizontal timbers tie the masonry in the walls together, thus confining
the brick mud or rubble stone of the wall by resisting the propagation of cracks. The
masonry piers are almost always 1 to 2 feet square and the window bay/alcove (taqshe) 3
to 4 feet in width. The taq modular layout defines the Kashmiri house size measurements,
i.e. a house can be 3 taq (window bays) to 13 taq in width. In Pakistan, timber-laced
masonry is known by the Pashto word bhatar.

DHAJJI DIWARI OR TIMBER FRAME WITH INFILL

MASONRY CONSTRUCTION
Dhajji dewari is a timber frame into which one layer of masonry is tightly packed to form
a wall, resulting in a continuous wall membrane of wood and masonry. The term is
derived from a Persian word meaning “patchwork quilt wall”. The frames of each wall
consist not only of vertical studs, but also often of cross-members that subdivide the
masonry infill into smaller panels, impart strength and prevent the masonry from
collapsing out of the frame. Dhajji Diwari is a wooden frame based structure, a variation
of mixed timber and masonry construction type found around the world in one form or
another. The term dhajji diwari comes from Persian and literally means patchwork quilt
wall.
It consists of a complete timber frame that is integral with the masonry, which fills in
openings in the frames to form walls. The wall is commonly one half brick in thickness
so that the timber and masonry are flush on both sides.
The Dhajji frames usually platform frames meaning that each story is framed separately
on the one below. The floor joists are sandwiched between the plates. Dhajji-Dewari
buildingsconstructed with unfired mud bricks also were common, especially in the
villages.
 Dhajji dewari construction is not unique to Kashmir alone but was also found in Lisbon
as Gaiola frame after the 1755 earthquakes also known as Half timber in Britain and Fach
work in Germany. Dhajji gets its name from quilting which is produced from reused
scrap and small pieces of cloth, thereby making it sustainable and vernacular. The ability
of disparate materials each of relatively low strength to work together as a single system.
Dhajji diwari is a variation of timber and masonry construction.

GENERAL ADVANTAGES OF TAQ AND DHAJJI

DIWARI
While the presence of soft soils and the recurrence of earthquakes may have led to the
evolution of Kashmir’s unique architectural systems, there are many more reasons to
have a closer look at them and encourage its preservation and incorporation of the
techniques in modern day constructions. While it may not be possible to revert to
traditional architectural systems altogether, given the gap in transfer of technology, and
adaptation of new systems with modern lifestyles, there is still need to incorporate
modern needs and technologies into the traditional knowledge system. There are enough
reasons to encourage use of timber and mud mortar and traditional architecture systems
over reinforced and unreinforced concrete.
Earthquake Resistance: Taq and Dhajji Diwari construction systems have proven
efficient is surviving earthquakes, by the virtue of their flexibility or ductility. Damages,
if any, are localized and not quickly transmitted to whole structure. Survival rates of
trapped persons in case of an eventual collapse are fairly high than in case of a concrete
building.
Energy Efficiency: The use of mud mortar, mud plaster, wooden ceilings (floor levelts),
unfired bricks on the inside, all these elements gave a Kashmiri traditional house a high
degree of insulation from external temperatures. It was essential to the survival in
Kashmir’s harch winters with very low resilience on energy for internal heating.
Kashmir's modern cement and concrete houses are out of sync with its cold climate.
Health Issues: The cold and numb concrete houses have lead to an increase in people
complaining of orthopedic problems. Many blame this squarely on the new houses.
Sustainability and recyclability: The recyclability of material in wood and mud based
houses is so much so that one can even virtually think of dismantling a house brick by
brick, and re-building it at another site brick by brick from the same material. This is
incomprehensible in a concrete structure. In fact, a concrete house once razed is nothing
but debris that needs to be disposed off. While materials salvaged from damaged or even
gutted traditional houses can be put to use wherever required.
Environment Pollution: Cement production in itself puts strain on natural resources and
creates a lot of environmental pollutions. A number of cement plants have come up in
Kashmir in the last few decades, most of them are located in the vicinity Saffron rich
Pampore town. Decline in Saffron production the area has been attributed to dust
emanating from cement plants. The state has been encouraging less use of timber in a bid
to save forests, but has not thought in terms of wood farming. In recent years it has
encouraged import of timber.

THE EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT MUD AND BRICK

ARCHITECTURE OF KASHMIR

Earthquakes have occurred regularly over centuries in Kashmir and people have learnt to
live with it. Two old construction systems known as taq and dhajji-dewari exist here side-
by-side and both have tested quake-resistant features. The recorded cultural history of
Kashmir dates back 3,000 years. The oldest known remains of monumental buildings are
the earthquake-damaged ruins of early Hindu and Buddhist temples built of large blocks
of stone. Later medieval structures, some of them religious buildings constructed by the
Muslim community, were made of a more economical and lightweight combination of
mud, stone and brick, well tied together with timber. This construction system with its
use of masonry laced together with timber, which is mentioned in texts from the 12th
century, was the beginning of the urban architecture in the Vale of Kashmir as we know
it today. In our time, Srinagar and other cities and villages in Kashmir are distinguished
not only by their great monuments, but first and foremost by their vernacular residential
architecture. It is an architecture generated out of a distinctive use of materials and way
of building which are adapted to the local climate, culture and natural environment,
principally the soft soils and the earthquake risk in the region. At the beginning of the
19th century the systems evolved to become the two main traditional construction
systems: taq (timber-laced masonry) and dhajji dewari (timber frame with masonry
infill). In Pakistan, timber-laced masonry is known by the Pashto word bhatar.. Its
inherent qualities and great architectural expression, together with its unique
construction, are insufficiently recognized or considered important by the citizenry today.

Taq construction is a bearing wall masonry construction with horizontal timber lacing
embedded into the masonry to keep it from spreading and cracking. It is usually
configured with a modular layout of masonry piers and window bays tied together with
ladder like constructions of horizontal timbers embedded in the masonry walls at each
floor and lintel level. The masonry piers are thick enough to carry the vertical loads, and
the bays may either contain a window or a thinner masonry wall. The ladder-like sets of
timber beams laid into the exterior and interior faces of the walls are connected together
through the wall either by floor beams, and joists or short connector pieces.

These horizontal ladder bands are located at the base of the structure above the
foundation (das) and at each floor and lintel level.

Taq construction gets its name from the modular layout of piers and window bays which
are referred to as taq. A building with a five sets of piers and bays, will be recognized as
a five taq house, alternatively a measurement system for such houses, with the masonry
piers (Around 2 ft) and window bays (3-4 ft) almost always of standard size.

In older construction, form of timber-laced masonry, known as Taq has been practised. In
this construction large pieces of wood are used as horizontal runners embedded in the
heavy masonry walls, adding to the lateral load-resisting ability of the structure. Masonry
laced with timber performed satisfactorily as expected, as it arrests destructive cracking,
evenly distributes the deformation which adds to the energy dissipation capacity of the
system, without jeopardizing its structural integrity and vertical load-carrying capacity
The timber runners tie the short wall to the long wall and also bind the pier and the infill
to some extent. Perhaps the greatest advantage gained from such runners is that they
impart ductility to an otherwise very brittle structure. An increase in ductility augments
the energy absorbing capacity of the structure, thereby increasing its chances of survival
during the course of an earthquake shock
what makes timber-laced masonry work well in earthquakes is its ductile-like behaviour
as a system. This behaviour results from the energy dissipation because of the friction
between the masonry and the timbers and between the masonry units themselves.
Another important feature with timber-laced masonry is to understand that the mortar is
not designed to hold the bricks together, but rather to hold them apart. It is the timbers
that tie them all together. The benefits of energy dissipation are gained from the non
destructive friction and cracking that can take place in a masonry wall that is surrounded
and thus confined by the timber bands
Dhajji dewari is a timber frame into which one layer of masonry is tightly packed to
form a wall, resulting in a continuous wall membrane of wood and masonry. The term is
derived from a Persian word meaning “patchwork quilt wall”. The frames of each wall
consist not only of vertical studs, but also often of cross-members that subdivide the
masonry infill into smaller panels, impart strength and prevent the masonry from
collapsing out of the frame. Dhajji Diwari is a wooden frame based structure, a variation
of mixed timber and masonry construction type found around the world in one form or
another. The term dhajji diwari comes from Persian and literally means patchwork quilt
wall.
“In Kashmir traditional timber-brick masonry construction consists of burnt clay bricks
filling in a framework of timber to create a patchwork of masonry, which is confined in
small panels by the surrounding timber elements. This timber lacing of masonry, which is
locally referred as dhajji-dewari has excellent earthquake resistant features. The resulting
masonry is quite different from typical brick masonry and its performance in this
earthquake has once again been shown to be superior with no or very little damage. No
collapse was observed for such masonry even in the areas of higher shaking”. They go on
to explain the reason for this good behaviour: The presence of timber studs, which
subdivides the infill, arrests the loss of the portion or all of several masonry panels and
resists progressive destruction of the rest of the wall. Moreover, the closely spaced studs
prevent propagation of diagonal shear cracks within any single panel, and reduce the
possibility of out-of-plane failure of masonry of thin half-brick walls even in the higher
storeys and the gable portion of the walls. Dhajji dewari is timber frame construction
rather than masonry bearing wall construction. Thus the vertical loads are transferred to
the ground primarily, but not exclusively, through the frame. However, the masonry does
form an integral part of the structural system, sharing the vertical load path with the
timber frame.
Building constraints in residential and public
building

Introduction
A constraint is a condition, agency or force that impedes progress towards an objective or
goal.
Constraints should be identified, and described in as much detail as possible during the
early stages of a project, so that awareness of them and their potential impact can be
managed. This includes understanding the dynamics of the project, and how
different constraints interrelate.
There are a number of different types of constraint that can affect construction projects.
Design constraints
Design constraints are factors that limit the range of potential design solutions. In the
early stage of a project only some of these constraints may be known, while others
become apparent as the design progresses.
These could include (among many others):
 Available technology, plant, materials, labour and so on.
 The budget.
 Specific performance requirements.
 Site form, boundaries and conditions.
 Neighbouring properties.
 Access.
 Planning and building regulations restrictions.
 Completion date.
It is often argued that design constraints are helpful in the development of a design, as
they limit the number of feasible options and point towards an obvious solution. In the
absence of an constraints at all, it can be difficult to know where to start, or to justify
developing one particular solution in preference to any others.
Technical constraints
Technical constraints generally refer to the processes involved in completing construction
activities, and are often based on the practicality of building methods and standards. For
example, in constructing a foundation, the site must be leveled before excavation can take
place; then formwork can be placed as well as rebar before concrete is poured. Each task
must be completed before the next can begin; therefore each task acts as a constraint on
the next task.
Other technical constrains may relate to construction tolerances, space required
for builders work, available storage or handling areas, site access routes, co-ordination of
services and so on.
Economic constraints
Economic constraints relate to the project budget and the allocation of resources. If
the budget is inadequate, or is allocated inappropriately, then it can have a negative
impact on the success of the project in terms of quality, safety, functionality and
performance.
Construction projects are generally a balance between time, cost and quality. A change in
one will impact on the other two.
Economic constraints relate not just to the overall budget, but also to the cash
flow through the supply chain. Clients must have available funds to pay for works as they
proceed, and prompt payments must be made through the contractual chain. Cash flow is
one of the main causes of bankruptcy in the construction industry, and having to find
new contractors, subcontractors or suppliers part way through a project can cause very
significant delays and additional costs.
Management constraints
These can include particular shift patterns, overtime requirements, resource allocation,
safety procedures, working practices, and so on.
Legal constraints
Legal constraints refer to the many regulations that the activities and practices on a
construction project must conform to. These most commonly relate to employment law,
safety requirements, planning and building regulations requirements, environmental
requirements, and so on.
Failure to conform to legal constraints can have a considerable negative impact on a
project, both in terms of delay, financial penalties and possible criminal proceedings.
See Construction industry legislation and standards for more information.
Time constraints
These include key dates on the project schedule or project milestones. Conforming to
these date constraints is often very important in terms of the overall project completion.
Constraints can specify the earliest date on which a task should be completed (‘no earlier
than’); the date by which a task should be completed (‘no later than’); and the exact date
on which a task must be completed (‘on this date’).
Phased projects may include multiple start and completion dates, with penalties if dates
are missed.

Environmental constraints
Environmental constraints include limiting factors concerning geographical location,
geological features, hazardous materials, air pollution, excavation, noise, vibration,
traffic, tree and wildlife preservation, and so on. These can often overlap with
legal constraints.
Social constraints
Social constraints include factors that may arise as a result of wider interest in or
opposition to a project. Public concern and media pressure can often impose greater
scrutiny and tighter constraints on a project, and can sometimes result in major alterations
to the original plans.
These kinds of constraints on the part of the public are often labelled as ‘not in my
backyard’, or ‘nimbyism’.
Projects funded using public money are often subject to social constraints, as there tends
to be greater interest in cost escalations, delays and so on, such as in the case of high
speed 2 (HS2), or London’s Garden Bridge proposal which have caused much
controversy.
See stakeholders and consultation process for more information.
Third parties
Not every aspect of a project is within the direct control of the client or their project team.
Every project is dependent to some extent on third parties. It is important that these third
party dependencies are identified and that their potential impacts are understood,
quantified and managed.
Third party dependencies may include; central and local government, dependent projects,
unions, statutory authorities, statutory undertakers, archaeological or other surveyors, the
supply market and so on.

SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE
Nowadays, due to a growing understanding of human interaction with nature, it is widely
accepted by the scientific community that consuming energy from non-renewable sources
has caused serious environmental damage. Among human activities, the construction
industry stands out as one of the sectors that consume more raw materials and energy,
this way, no society can achieve a sustainable development unless the construction sector,
which gives it support, goes through deep transformations. The production chain of this
sector has significant environmental impacts at all stages of its process… Any society
seriously concerned about this issue should put the improvement of the construction
sector as a priority [1]. Facing these circumstances, the actors in the construction sector
are trying to make their activities more sustainable, adopting the principles of bioclimatic
design, and looking for solutions in building materials that are less harmful to the
environment. Most environmentalists believe nowadays, , that is possible to reach a
balance between economic growth, social justice and environmental preservation, this
makes more sense than ever, since it promotes an economy based on a type of growth
that provides a sensible distribution of benefits and a more respectful use of natural
resources.
Sustainable architecture is architecture that seeks to minimize the negative environmental
impact of buildings by efficiency and moderation in the use of materials, energy, and
development space and the ecosystem at large. Sustainable architecture uses a conscious
approach to energy and ecological conservation in the design of the built environment.
The idea of sustainability, or ecological design, is to ensure that our actions and decisions
today do not inhibit the opportunities of future generations.
Sustainable architecture can be achieved by
1. Sustainable energy use
2. Sustainable building materials
3. Waste management

Sustainable energy use

Energy efficiency over the entire life cycle of a building is the most important goal of
sustainable architecture. Architects use many different passive and active techniques to
reduce the energy needs of buildings and increase their ability to capture or generate their
own energy.[3]One of the keys to exploit local environmental resources and influence
energy-related factors such as daylight, solar heat gains and ventilation is the use of site
analysis.
  Heating, ventilation and cooling system efficiency
Numerous passive architectural strategies have been developed over time. Examples of
such strategies include the arrangement of rooms or the sizing and orientation of
windows in a building,] and the orientation of facades and streets or the ratio between
building heights and street widths for urban planning.
An important and cost-effective element of an efficient heating, ventilating, and air
conditioning (HVAC) system is a well-insulated building. A more efficient building
requires less heat generating or dissipating power, but may require more ventilation
capacity to expel polluted indoor air.
Significant amounts of energy are flushed out of buildings in the water, air
and compost streams. Off the shelf, on-site energy recycling technologies can effectively
recapture energy from waste hot water and stale air and transfer that energy into
incoming fresh cold water or fresh air. Recapture of energy for uses other than gardening
from compost leaving buildings requires centralized anaerobic digesters.
HVAC systems are powered by motors. Copper, versus other metal conductors, helps to
improve the electrical energy efficiencies of motors, thereby enhancing the sustainability
of electrical building components

 Renewable energy generation

1. Solar panels
Active solar devices such as photovoltaic solar panels help to provide sustainable
electricity for any use. Electrical output of a solar panel is dependent on orientation,
efficiency, latitude, and climate—solar gain varies even at the same latitude. Typical
efficiencies for commercially available PV panels range from 4% to 28%. The low
efficiency of certain photovoltaic panels can significantly affect the payback period of
their installation.[5] This low efficiency does not mean that solar panels are not a viable
energy alternative. In Germany for example, Solar Panels are commonly installed in
residential home construction

2. Wind turbines
The use of undersized wind turbines in energy production in sustainable structures
requires the consideration of many factors. In considering costs, small wind systems are
generally more expensive than larger wind turbines relative to the amount of energy they
produce. For small wind turbines, maintenance costs can be a deciding factor at sites with
marginal wind-harnessing capabilities. At low-wind sites, maintenance can consume
much of a small wind turbine's revenue.[7] Wind turbines begin operating when winds
reach 8 mph, achieve energy production capacity at speeds of 32-37 mph, and shut off to
avoid damage at speeds exceeding 55 mph.[7] The energy potential of a wind turbine is
proportional to the square of the length of its blades and to the cube of the speed at which
its blades spin. Though wind turbines are available that can supplement power for a
single building, because of these factors, the efficiency of the wind turbine depends much
upon the wind conditions at the building site. For these reasons, for wind turbines to be at
all efficient, they must be installed at locations that are known to receive a constant
amount of wind (with average wind speeds of more than 15 mph), rather than locations
that receive wind sporadically.
3. Solar water heating
Solar water heaters, also called solar domestic hot water systems, can be a cost-effective
way to generate hot water for a home. They can be used in any climate, and the fuel they
use—sunshine—is free.
There are two types of solar water systems- active and passive. An active solar collector
system can produce about 80 to 100 gallons of hot water per day. A passive system will
have a lower capacity.

Sustainable building materials

Some examples of sustainable building materials include recycled denim or blown-in
fiber glass insulation, sustainably harvested wood, Trass, Linoleum,[15] sheep
wool, concrete (high and ultra high performance[16] roman self-healing concrete[17]),
panels made from paper flakes, baked earth, rammed earth, clay, vermiculite, flax linnen,
sisal, seegrass, expanded clay grains, coconut, wood fibre plates, calcium sand stone,
locally obtained stone and rock, and bamboo, which is one of the strongest and fastest
growing woody plants, and non-toxic low-VOC glues and paints.Vegitative cover or
sheild over building envelopes also helps in the same.Paper which is fabricated or
manufactured out of forest wood is supposedly hundred percent recyclable .thus it
regenrates and saves almost all the forest wood that it takes during its manufacturing
process.
  Recycled materials
Sustainable architecture often incorporates the use of recycled or second hand materials,
such as reclaimed lumber and recycled copper. The reduction in use of new materials
creates a corresponding reduction in embodied energy (energy used in the production of
materials). Often sustainable architects attempt to retrofit old structures to serve new
needs in order to avoid unnecessary development. Architectural salvage and reclaimed
materials are used when appropriate. When older buildings are demolished, frequently
any good wood is reclaimed, renewed, and sold as flooring
 Lower volatile organic compounds
Low-impact building materials are used wherever feasible: for example, insulation may
be made from low VOC (volatile organic compound)-emitting materials such as recycled
denim or cellulose insulation, rather than the building insulation materials that may
contain carcinogenic or toxic materials such as formaldehyde. To discourage insect
damage, these alternate insulation materials may be treated with boric acid. Organic or
milk-based paints may be used.[18] However, a common fallacy is that "green" materials
are always better for the health of occupants or the environment. 

WASTE MANAGEMENT
Waste takes the form of spent or useless materials generated from households and
businesses, construction and demolition processes, and manufacturing and agricultural
industries. These materials are loosely categorized as municipal solid waste, construction
and demolition (C&D) debris, and industrial or agricultural by-products.[22] Sustainable
architecture focuses on the on-site use of waste management, incorporating things such
as grey water systems for use on garden beds, and composting toilets to reduce sewage.
These methods, when combined with on-site food waste composting and off-site
recycling, can reduce a house's waste to a small amount of packaging waste.This is the
new techniques of sustainable architecture .
Green building
Green building (also known as green construction or sustainable building) refers to
both a structure and the using of processes that are environmentally
responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building's life-cycle: from siting to
design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and demolition. In other words,
green building design involves finding the balance between homebuilding and the
sustainable environment. This requires close cooperation of the design team, the
architects, the engineers, and the client at all project stages. The Green Building practice
expands and complements the classical building design concerns of economy, utility,
durability, and comfort.
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) is a set of rating systems for the
design, construction, operation, and maintenance of green buildings which was
Developed by the U.S. Green Building Council. Other certificates system that confirms
the sustainability of buildings is the British BREEAM (Building Research Establishment
Environmental Assessment Method) for buildings and large scale developments.
Currently, World Green Building Council is conducting research on the effects of green
buildings on the health and productivity of their users and is working with World Bank to
promote Green Buildings in Emerging Markets through EDGE Excellence in Design for
Greater Efficiencies Market Transformation Program and certification.[4]
Although new technologies are constantly being developed to complement current
practices in creating greener structures, the common objective of green buildings is to
reduce the overall impact of the built environment on human health and the natural
environment by:
 Efficiently using energy, water, and other resources
 Protecting occupant health and improving employee productivity
 Reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradation
Energy efficiency in architecture: An overview of design concepts
and architectural interventions
Buildings, as they are designed and used today, contribute to serious environmental
problems because of excessive consumption of energy and other natural resources. The
close connection between energy use in buildings and environmental damage arises
because energy intensive solutions sought to construct a building & meet its demands for
heating, cooling, ventilation & lighting cause severe depletion of invaluable
environmental resources.
However, buildings can be designed to meet occupant’s need for thermal and visual
comfort at reduced levels energy & resources consumption. Energy resource efficiency in
new constructions can be effected by adopting an integrated approach to building design.
The primary steps in this approach would be to:
 Incorporate solar passive techniques in a building design to minimize load on
conventional systems (heating, cooling, ventilation and lighting)
Passive systems provide thermal and visual comfort by using natural energy sources
and sinks e.g. solar radiation, outside air, sky, wet surfaces, vegetation, internal gains
etc. Energy flows in these systems are by natural means such as by radiation,
conduction, convection with minimal or no use of mechanical means. The solar
passive systems thus, vary from one climate to the other e.g. in a cold climate an
architects’ aim would be design a building in such a way that solar gains are
maximized, but in a hot climate his primary aim would be to reduce solar gains,
maximize natural ventilation and so on.
  Design energy-efficient lighting and HVAC systems (heating, ventilation and
air-conditioning)
Once the passive solar architectural concepts are applied to a design, the load on
conventional systems (HVAC and lighting) is reduced. Further, energy conservation is
possible by judicious design of the artificial lighting and HVAC system using energy
efficient equipments , controls and operation strategies.
 Use renewable energy systems (solar photovoltaic systems/ solar water heating
systems) to meet a part of building load
The pressure on the earth’s nonrenewable resources can be alleviated by judicious use of
earth’s renewable resources i.e. solar energy. Use solar energy for meeting electrical
needs for a building can further reduce consumption of conventional forms of energy.

 Use low energy materials and methods of construction and reduce

transportation
energy
An architect also should aim at efficient structural design, reduction of use of high energy
building material (glass, steel etc.) and transportation
energy and use of low energy buildings materials.

Building science
Building science is the collection of scientific knowledge and experience that focuses on
the analysis and control of the physical phenomena affecting buildings and architecture.
It traditionally includes areas such as building materials, building envelope, heating,
ventilation and air conditioning systems, natural and electrical lighting, acoustic, indoor
air quality, passive strategies, fire protection, and renewable energies in buildings. In
Europe, building physics and applied physics are terms used for the knowledge domain
that overlaps with building science. The practical purpose of building science is to
provide predictive capability to optimize the building performance of new and existing
buildings, understand or prevent building failures, and guide the design of new
techniques and technologies
Building science is the architecture-engineering-construction technology discipline
that concerns itself with the 'mainly detail-design' of buildings in response to naturally
occurring physical phenomenon such as:

 the weather (sun, wind, rain, temperature, humidity), and related issues: e.g.
freeze/thaw cycles, dew point/frost point, snow load & drift prediction, lightning
patterns etc.
 subterranean conditions including (potential for seismic or other soil + ground-
water activity, frost penetration etc.).
under the constraints of

 characteristics of materials,(e.g.response to UV, freeze-thaw, rot, mold, Galvanic

corrosion between dissimilar metals, and properties such as permeability of materials
to water and water vapor, swelling, shrinkage, compatibility, etc.).
 physics, chemistry and biology such as capillary-action, absorption, condensation
("will condensation occur at a good or bad place within the wall?"), gravity, thermal
migration/transfer (conductivity, radiation and convection), vapor pressure dynamics,
chemical reactions (incl. combustion process), adhesion/cohesion, friction, ductility,
elasticity, and also the physiology of fungus/mold.
 human physiology (comfort, sensory reaction e.g.radiance perception, sweat
function, chemical sensitivity etc.).
 energy consumption, environmental control-ability, building maintenance
considerations, longevity/sustainability, and occupant (physical) comfort/health.

Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ)

Indoor environmental quality (IEQ) refers to the quality of a building’s environment in
relation to the health and wellbeing of those who occupy space within it. IEQ is
determined by many factors, including lighting, air quality, and damp conditions.
Workers are often concerned that they have symptoms or health conditions from
exposures to contaminants in the buildings where they work. One reason for this concern
is that their symptoms often get better when they are not in the building. While research
has shown that some respiratory symptoms and illnesses can be associated with damp
buildings, it is still unclear what measurements of indoor contaminants show that workers
are at risk for disease. In most instances where a worker and his or her physician suspect
that the building environment is causing a specific health condition, the information
available from medical tests and tests of the environment is not sufficient to establish
which contaminants are responsible. Despite uncertainty about what to measure and how
to interpret what is measured, research shows that building-related symptoms are
associated with building characteristics, including dampness, cleanliness, and ventilation
characteristics. Indoor environments are highly complex and building occupants may be
exposed to a variety of contaminants (in the form of gases and particles) from office
machines, cleaning products, construction activities, carpets and furnishings, perfumes,
cigarette smoke, water-damaged building materials, microbial growth (fungal, mold, and
bacterial), insects, and outdoor pollutants. Other factors such as indoor temperatures,
relative humidity, and ventilation levels can also affect how individuals respond to the
indoor environment. Understanding the sources of indoor environmental contaminants
and controlling them can often help prevent or resolve building-related worker
symptoms. Practical guidance for improving and maintaining the indoor environment is
available.
Building indoor environment covers the environmental aspects in the design, analysis,
and operation of energy-efficient, healthy, and comfortable buildings. Fields of
specialization include architecture, HVAC design, thermal comfort, indoor air
quality (IAQ), lighting, acoustics, and control systems.
HVAC Systems
The mechanical systems, usually a sub-set of the broader Building Services, used to
control the temperature, humidity, pressure and other select aspects of the indoor
environment are often described as the Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning
(HVAC) systems. These systems have grown in complexity and importance (often
consuming around 20% of the total budget in commercial buildings) as occupants
demand tighter control of conditions, buildings become larger, and enclosures and
passive measures became less important as a means of providing comfort
Building envelope

A building envelope is the physical separator between the conditioned and

unconditioned environment of a building including the resistance to air, water, heat,
[1]
 light, and noise[2] transfer.
The building envelope is all of the elements of the outer shell that maintain a dry, heated,
or cooled indoor environment and facilitate its climate control. Building envelope design
is a specialized area of architectural and engineering practice that draws from all areas
of building science and indoor climate control.[2]
The many functions of the building envelope can be separated into three categories:[3]
 Support (to resist and transfer structural and dynamic loads)
 Control (the flow of matter and energy of all types)
 Finish (to meet desired esthetics on the inside and outside)
The control function is at the core of good performance, and in practice focuses, in order
of importance, on rain control, air control, heat control, and vapor control.[3]
Functional efficiency of a building

Functional efficiency of a building can be measured by ratio between

available CARPET AREA in functionally usable spaces and total PLINTH AREA
(Or floor area on each floor).
HIGHER THE RATIO MORE IS THE EFFICIENCY!!
FUNCTIONAL EFFICIENCY OF BUILDINGS
EFFICIENCY: its defined as the quality of sth to do sth well without wastage
of time, money and efforts…..
The term `Carpet Area' refers to the total usable area within the four walls of
an apartment or a commercial space, as the case may be. In other words, it
refers to the area for which a carpet can be laid if required by the owners. 
The term `Plinth Area' refers to the entire carpet area along with the
thickness of the external walls of the apartment. It obviously includes the
thickness of the internal walls and the columns, if any, lying within the four
walls of an apartment. The commercial space is not taken into account in
calculating the plinth area. 

Plinth Area = Carpet Area + Wall thickness

The functional efficiency of an UTILITY BUILDING is based on their

CIRCULATION AREA.
LOWER the percentage of the CIRCULATION AREA, HIGHER will be the
EFFCIENCY of the building

Circulation area is the square footage in a building which provides people

with access to the all of the spaces within the building. In many regions of
the world, there are specific regulations about circulation area which are
designed to make sure that this space meets accessibility and safety
requirements for building users. The percentage of total square footage
occupied by this area depends on a number of factors including building
layout and size of the building.
MOVEMENT TYPE: a movement type of building is that type of building in
which movement about the building is its main function. E.g shopping malls,
govt buildings etc…….. Movement area is defined as the area inside any
building which is particularly for the movement about the building…..
Movement area of a building is generally measured as the per sq ft of sq m
/person in the peak hour and the same during the zero hour. Generally it is
taken as 4sqm/person during the peak hour and 1-2 sqm/person during the
zero hour.
USABLE AREA: usable area is generally that area of an building which is used
for a specific purpose based upon the functionality of the building
. For institutional buildings : Availability of optimum usable space and linkage
based on the interlink between them decides the efficiency. Draw the
interrelation diagram. Lesser the crossing between the lines of interrelation
more is the efficiency. In physical plan measure the total length of the lines
interlinking various activity spaces. Lesser the total length more is the
efficiency.