Landlocked country

A landlocked country or landlocked state is a sovereign state that does not have territory
connected to an ocean or whose coastlines lie on endorheic basins. There are currently 44
landlocked countries and 5 partially recognized landlocked states.[note 1][1]. Kazakhstan is
the world's largest landlocked country.[2]

Landlocked countries: 42 landlocked (green), 2 doubly landlocked

(purple)

In 1990, there were only 30 landlocked countries in the world. The breakup of Yugoslavia,
the dissolutions of the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia, and the independence
referendums of Eritrea and South Sudan have created 15 new landlocked countries and 4
partially recognized landlocked states while the former landlocked country of
Czechoslovakia ceased to exist on 1 January 1993.

Generally, being landlocked creates some political and economic handicaps that having
access to international waters would avoid. For this reason, nations large and small
throughout history have sought to gain access to open waters, even at great expense in
wealth, bloodshed, and political capital.

The economic disadvantages of being landlocked can be alleviated or aggravated

depending on degree of development, surrounding trade routes and freedom of trade,
language barriers, and other considerations. Some landlocked countries are quite affluent,
such as Andorra, Austria, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, San Marino, Switzerland, and Vatican
City, all of which, excluding Luxembourg, which is a founding member of NATO, frequently
employ neutrality in global political issues. The majority, however, are classified as
Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs).[3] Nine of the twelve countries with the lowest
Human Development Indices (HDI) are landlocked.[4] There are however international
initiatives aimed at reducing inequalities resulting from issues such as these. For example,
the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 10 which aims to reduce inequality
substantially by 2030.[5]

Significance

Tap to display image.

Bolivia's loss of its coastline in the

War of the Pacific (1879–1884)
remains a major political issue

Historically, being landlocked has been disadvantageous to a country's development. It cuts

a nation off from important sea resources such as fishing, and impedes or prevents direct
access to maritime trade, a crucial component of economic and social advance. As such,
coastal regions, or inland regions that have access to the World Ocean, tended to be
wealthier and more heavily populated than inland regions that have no access to the World
Ocean. Paul Collier in his book The Bottom Billion argues that being landlocked in a poor
geographic neighborhood is one of four major development "traps" by which a country can
be held back. In general, he found that when a neighboring country experiences better
growth, it tends to spill over into favorable development for the country itself. For
landlocked countries, the effect is particularly strong, as they are limited in their trading
activity with the rest of the world. He states, "If you are coastal, you serve the world; if you
are landlocked, you serve your neighbors."[6] Others have argued that being landlocked has
an advantage as it creates a "natural tariff barrier" which protects the country from cheap
imports. In some instances, this has led to more robust local food systems.[7][8]

Landlocked developing countries have significantly higher costs of international cargo

transportation compared to coastal developing countries (in Asia the ratio is 3g1).[9]

Efforts to avoid being landlocked

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Countries thus have made particular efforts to avoid being landlocked, by acquiring land
that reaches the sea:

As a result of a 2005 territorial exchange with Ukraine, Moldova received a 600 m-long
bank of the Danube River (which is an international waterway),[10] subsequently building
its Port of Giurgiulești there.

The International Congo Society, which owned the territory now constituting the
Democratic Republic of the Congo, was awarded a narrow piece of land cutting through
Angola to connect it to the sea by the Conference of Berlin in 1885.

The Republic of Ragusa once gave the town of Neum to the Ottoman Empire because it
did not want to have a land border with the Republic of Venice; this small municipality was
inherited by Bosnia and Herzegovina and now provides limited sea access, splitting the
Croatian part of the Adriatic coast in two. Since Bosnia and Herzegovina is a new country,
railways and ports have not been built for its need. There is no freight port along its short
coastline at Neum, making it effectively landlocked, although there are plans to change
this. Instead the port of Ploče in Croatia is used.

After World War I, in the Treaty of Versailles, a part of Germany designated "the Polish
corridor" was given to the new Second Polish Republic, for access to the Baltic Sea. This
gave Poland a short coastline, but without a large harbour. This was also the pretext for
making Danzig (now Gdańsk) with its harbour the Free City of Danzig, to which Poland
was given free access. However, the Germans placed obstacles to this free access,
especially when it came to military material. In response, the small fishing harbour of
Gdynia was soon greatly enlarged.

Until the dissolution of Austria–Hungary in 1918 at the end of World War I, Austrians,
Hungarians and that empire's other nationalities had served in that country's navy, but
since then, Austria and Hungary have both been landlocked countries.

Trade agreements
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Countries can make agreements on getting free transport of goods through neighbor
countries:

The Treaty of Versailles required Germany to offer Czechoslovakia a lease for 99 years of
parts of the ports in Hamburg and Stettin, allowing Czechoslovakia sea trade via the Elbe
and Oder rivers. Stettin was annexed[11] by Poland after World War II, but Hamburg
continued the contract so that part of the port (now called Moldauhafen) may still be
 used for sea trade by a successor of Czechoslovakia, the Czech Republic.

The Danube is an international waterway, and thus landlocked Austria, Hungary, Moldova,
Serbia, and Slovakia have secure access to the Black Sea (the same access is given to
inland parts of Germany and Croatia, though Germany and Croatia are not landlocked).
However, oceangoing ships cannot use the Danube, so cargo must be transloaded
anyway, and many overseas imports into Austria and Hungary use land transport from
Atlantic and Mediterranean ports. A similar situation exists for the Rhine river where
Switzerland has boat access, but not oceangoing ships. Luxembourg has such through
the Moselle, but Liechtenstein has no boat access, even though it is located along the
Rhine, as the Rhine is not navigable that far upstream.

The Mekong is an international waterway so that landlocked Laos has access to the South
China Sea (since Laos became independent from French Indochina). However, it is not
navigable above the Khone Phapheng Falls.

Free ports allow transshipment to short-distance ships or river vessels.

The TIR Treaty allows sealed road transport without customs checks and charges, mostly
in Europe.

Political repercussions
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Losing access to the sea is generally a great blow to a nation, politically, militarily, and
economically. The following are examples of countries becoming landlocked.

The independence of Eritrea, brought about by successful separatist movements,[12] has

caused Ethiopia to become landlocked.

Montenegro's decision to abandon the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro caused the
federal unit of Serbia to become a landlocked current independent state.

Bolivia lost its coastline to Chile in the War of the Pacific and accepted it in treaties signed
in 1884 and 1904. The last treaty gives port storage facilities and special treatment for
the transit of goods from and to Bolivia through Chilean ports and territory. Peru and
Argentina have also given special treatment for the transit of goods. A fluvial Bolivian
Navy, which did not exist at the time of the War of the Pacific, was created later and both
trains and operates in Lake Titicaca and rivers. The Bolivian people annually celebrate a
patriotic "Dia del Mar" (Day of the Sea) to remember its territorial loss, which included
both the coastal city of Antofagasta and what has proven to be one of the most
 significant and lucrative copper deposits in the world. Early in the 21st century, the
selection of the route of gas pipes from Bolivia to the sea fueled popular uprisings, as
people were against the option of laying the pipes through Chilean territory.

Austria and Hungary also lost their access to the sea as a consequence of the Treaty of
Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) and the Treaty of Trianon (1920) respectively. Previously,
although Croatia had a limited constitutional autonomy within the Kingdom of Hungary,
the City of Fiume/Rijeka on the Croatian coast was governed directly from Budapest by an
appointed governor as a corpus separatum, to provide Hungary with its only international
port in the periods 1779–1813, 1822–1848 and 1868–1918.

By 1801, the Nizam's dominion of Hyderabad State assumed the shape it is now
remembered for: that of a landlocked princely state with territories in central Deccan,
bounded on all sides by British India, whereas 150 years earlier it had had a considerable
coastline on the Bay of Bengal which was annexed by the British.[13]

It is possible that one of the causes of the Paraguayan War was Paraguay's lack of direct
ocean access (although this is disputed; see the linked article).

When the Entente Powers divided the former Ottoman Empire under the Treaty of Sèvres
at the close of World War I, Armenia was promised part of the Trebizond vilayet (roughly
corresponding to the modern Trabzon and Rize provinces in Turkey). This would have
given Armenia access to the Black Sea. However, the Sèvres treaty collapsed with the
Turkish War of Independence and was superseded by the Treaty of Lausanne (1923),
which firmly established Turkish rule over the area.

In 2011, South Sudan broke off from Sudan, causing the former to become landlocked.
There still remains conflict over the oil fields in South Sudan between the two countries.

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea now gives a landlocked country a
right of access to and from the sea without taxation of traffic through transit states. The
United Nations has a programme of action to assist landlocked developing countries,[14]
and the current responsible Undersecretary-General is Anwarul Karim Chowdhury.

Some countries have a long coastline, but much of it may not be readily usable for trade and
commerce. For instance, in its early history, Russia's only ports were on the Arctic Ocean
and frozen shut for much of the year. The wish to gain control of a warm-water port was a
major motivator of Russian expansion towards the Baltic Sea, Black Sea and Pacific Ocean.
On the other hand, some landlocked countries can have access to the ocean along wide
navigable rivers. For instance, Paraguay (and Bolivia to a lesser extent) have access to the
ocean through the Paraguay and Paraná rivers.
Several countries have coastlines on landlocked bodies of water, such as the Caspian Sea
and the Dead Sea. Since these seas are in effect lakes without access to wider seaborne
trade, countries such as Kazakhstan are still considered landlocked. Although the Caspian
Sea is connected to the Black Sea via the man-made Volga–Don Canal, large oceangoing
ships are unable to traverse it.

By degree

Landlocked countries may be bordered by a single country having direct access to the high
seas, two or more such countries, or be surrounded by other landlocked countries, making
a country doubly landlocked.

Landlocked by a single country

…
Three countries are landlocked by a single country (enclaved countries):

Lesotho, a state surrounded by South Africa.

San Marino, a state surrounded by Italy.

Vatican City, a state surrounded by Rome, and thus surrounded by Italy.

Landlocked by two countries

…
Seven landlocked countries are surrounded by only two mutually bordering neighbours
(semi-enclaved countries):

Andorra (between France and Spain)

Bhutan (between China and India)

Eswatini (between Mozambique and South Africa)

Liechtenstein (one of the "doubly landlocked" countries, between Austria and

Switzerland)

Moldova (between Romania and Ukraine)

Mongolia (between China and Russia)

Nepal (between China and India)

To this group could be added three landlocked territories which are de facto states with no
or limited international recognition:[note 1]
 South Ossetia (between Georgia and Russia)

Transnistria (between Moldova and Ukraine)

West Bank (between Israel and Jordan)[15][16][17][18]

Doubly landlocked
…
A country is "doubly landlocked" or "double-landlocked" when it is surrounded only by
landlocked countries (requiring the crossing of at least two national borders to reach a
coastline).[19][20] There are two such countries:

Liechtenstein in Western Europe, surrounded by Austria and Switzerland.[21]

Uzbekistan in Central Asia, surrounded by Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,

Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan.[22]

After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Württemberg became a
doubly landlocked state, bordering only Bavaria, Baden, and Switzerland. There were no
doubly landlocked countries from the unification of Germany in 1871 until the end of World
War I. Liechtenstein bordered the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which had an Adriatic
coastline, and Uzbekistan was then part of the Russian Empire, which had both ocean and
sea access.

With the dissolution of Austria-Hungary in 1918 and creation of an independent, landlocked

Austria, Liechtenstein became the sole doubly landlocked country until 1938. In the
Anschluss that year, Austria was absorbed into Nazi Germany, which possessed a border on
the Baltic Sea and the North Sea. After World War II, Austria regained its independence and
Liechtenstein once again became doubly landlocked.

Uzbekistan, which had been part of the Russian Empire and then the Soviet Union, gained
its independence with the dissolution of the latter in 1991 and became the second doubly
landlocked country.

However, Uzbekistan's doubly landlocked status depends on the Caspian Sea's status
dispute: some countries, especially Iran and Turkmenistan, claim that the Caspian Sea
should be considered as a real sea (mainly because this way they would have larger oil and
gas fields), which would make Uzbekistan only a simple landlocked country since its
neighbours Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan have access to the Caspian Sea.

List of landlocked countries and partially recognized

landlocked states
 Area Surrounding
Country Population Continent Subregion Count
(km2) countries

Landlocked countries

China, Iran,
Pakistan,
Southern
Afghanistan 652,230 33,369,945 Asia Tajikistan, 6
Asia
Tap Turkmenistan,
to
dis
and Uzbekistan
pla
Southern France and
y Andorra 468 84,082 Europe 2
ima Europe Spain
Tap
ge.
to Azerbaijan,
dis Western 4 or
pla
Armenia 29,743 3,254,300 Asia Georgia, Iran,
Asia 5[c]
Tap
y and Turkey
to
ima
dis
ge. Czech Republic,
pla Germany,
y
ima
Hungary, Italy,
Central
ge. Austria 83,871 8,823,054 Europe Liechtenstein, 8
Europe
Tap Slovakia,
to
Slovenia, and
dis
pla Switzerland
y
ima Armenia,
ge. Western Georgia, Iran, 5 or
86,600 8,997,401 Asia
Azerbaijan[a]
Tap Asia Russia, and 6[c]
to
Turkey
dis
pla Latvia,
y
ima
Eastern Lithuania,
Belarus 207,600 9,484,300 Europe 5
ge. Europe Poland, Russia,
Tap
to and Ukraine
dis
pla
y
Southern
ima 38,394 691,141 Asia China and India 2
ge. Asia
 Bhutan
Tap
to
Argentina,
dis South Brazil, Chile,
pla
Bolivia 1,098,581 10,907,778 Americas 5
America Paraguay, and
Tap
y
to
ima Peru
dis
ge.
pla
Namibia, South
Southern
y Botswana 582,000 1,990,876 Africa Africa, Zambia, 4
ima Africa
Tap and Zimbabwe
ge.
to
dis Benin, Côte
pla Burkina Western d'Ivoire, Ghana,
y 274,222 15,746,232 Africa 6
Tap
Faso Africa Mali, Niger, and
ima
to
ge.
dis
Togo
pla
Democratic
y
ima Eastern Republic of the
Burundi 27,834 10,557,259 Africa 3
ge. Africa Congo, Rwanda,
Tap
to and Tanzania
dis
pla
Cameroon,
y Chad, Congo,
ima
Central the Democratic
ge. Middle
Tap
African 622,984 4,422,000 Africa Republic of the 6
to Africa
Republic Congo, South
dis
pla Sudan, and
y Sudan
ima
ge. Cameroon, the
Central African
Middle
Chad 1,284,000 13,670,084 Africa Republic, Libya, 6
Africa
Tap Niger, Nigeria,
to
and Sudan
dis
pla Czech
y
Tap
Republic
ima
Austria,
to
ge. Central Germany,
dis 78,867 10,674,947 Europe 4
pla Europe Poland, and
y Slovakia
ima
ge.

Southern Mozambique
 Eswatini 17,364 1,185,000 Africa Africa and South Africa 2
Tap
to Djibouti, Eritrea,
dis
pla
Eastern Kenya, Somalia,
Ethiopia 1,104,300 101,853,268 Africa 6
y Africa South Sudan,
Tap
ima
to and Sudan
ge.
dis
Austria, Croatia,
pla
y Romania, Serbia,
ima
Central
Hungary 93,028 9,797,561 Europe Slovakia, 7
ge. Europe
Tap Slovenia, and
to
Ukraine
dis
pla China,
y
ima
Kyrgyzstan,
Central
ge. 2,724,900 16,372,000 Asia Russia, 5
Kazakhstan[a]
Tap Asia
to Turkmenistan,
dis and Uzbekistan
pla
y China,
ima Central Kazakhstan,
ge. Kyrgyzstan 199,951 5,482,000 Asia 4
Asia Tajikistan, and
Tap
to Uzbekistan
dis
pla
Cambodia,
South-
y China, Myanmar,
ima
Laos 236,800 7,123,205 Asia eastern 5
Thailand, and
Tap
ge. Asia
to Vietnam
dis
pla
Southern
Lesotho[d] 30,355 2,067,000 Africa South Africa 1
y Africa
Tap
ima
to
ge.
dis
Liechtenstein
Tap
pla
to
y Central Austria and
dis
ima
160 35,789 Europe 2
pla Europe Switzerland
ge.
y
ima
ge.
Central Belgium, France,
2,586 502,202 Europe 3
Europe and Germany
Luxembourg
Tap
to
dis Mozambique,
pla
Eastern
Malawi 118,484 15,028,757 Africa Tanzania, and 3
y Africa
Tap Zambia
ima
to
ge.
dis Algeria, Burkina
pla
Faso, Côte
y
ima Western d'Ivoire, Guinea,
Mali 1,240,192 14,517,176 Africa 7
ge. Africa Mauritania,
Tap
to Niger, and
dis Senegal
pla
y Romania,
ima Eastern 2 or
Moldova 33,846 3,559,500 Europe Transnistria[c],
ge. Europe 3[c]
Tap and Ukraine
to
dis Eastern China and
Mongolia 1,566,500 2,892,876 Asia 2
pla Asia Russia
Tap
y
to
ima Southern
dis
ge. Nepal 147,181 26,494,504 Asia China and India 2
Ta
Asia
pla
py
Algeria, Benin,
to
ima
di
ge. Western Burkina Faso,
Niger 1,267,000 15,306,252 Africa 7
sp Africa Chad, Libya,
Ta
lay
p Mali, and Nigeria
im
to
ag Albania,
dis
e.
pla Bulgaria,
y North Southern 4 or
25,713 2,114,550 Europe Greece,
Macedonia
Tap
im Europe 5[c]
to
ag Kosovo[c], and
dis
e. Serbia
pla
y Paraguay
ima
Tap
ge.
to
Argentina,
dis South
pla 406,752 6,349,000 Americas Bolivia, and 3
y
America
Brazil
ima
ge.

Burundi, the
 Democratic
Eastern Republic of the
Rwanda 26,338 10,746,311 Africa 4
Africa Congo,
Tap
to Tanzania, and
dis Uganda
pla
y San Southern
ima [d]
61 31,716 Europe Italy 1
Ta
Marino Europe
ge.
p
to Albania (via
dis
Kosovo and
pla
y Metohija),
im Bosnia and
ag
Herzegovina,
e.
Bulgaria,
Southern
Serbia 88,361 7,306,677 Europe Croatia, 8
Europe
Tap Hungary,
to
Kosovo[c],
dis
pla Montenegro,
y North
ima
ge. Macedonia, and
Romania

Austria, the
Czech Republic,
Central
Slovakia 49,035 5,429,763 Europe Hungary, 5
Europe
Tap Poland, and
to
dis
Ukraine
pla
South
y Central African
Sudan
Tap
ima
to
Republic, the
ge.
dis Democratic
pla Eastern
619,745 8,260,490 Africa Republic of the 6
y Africa
ima Congo, Ethiopia,
ge. Kenya, Sudan,
and Uganda

Austria, France,
Central Germany, Italy,
41,284 8,401,120 Europe 5
Europe and
 Switzerland Liechtenstein
Ta
p
to
di
Afghanistan,
sp Central China,
lay Tajikistan 143,100 7,349,145 Asia 4
Asia Kyrgyzstan, and
Tap
im
to
ag Uzbekistan
dis
e.
Afghanistan,
pla
y Central Iran,
488,100 5,110,000 Asia 4
Turkmenistan[a]
ima
Tap Asia Kazakhstan, and
ge.
to
Uzbekistan
dis
pla
Democratic
y
ima Republic of the
ge. Eastern Congo, Kenya,
Uganda 241,038 40,322,768 Africa 5
Africa Rwanda, South
Tap
to Sudan, and
dis Tanzania
pla
y Afghanistan,
ima
Kazakhstan,
ge. Central
Uzbekistan 449,100 32,606,007 Asia Kyrgyzstan, 5
Asia
Tap Tajikistan, and
to
Turkmenistan
dis
pla Vatican
y
Ta [d]
City
ima
p
ge.
to
di
sp
Southern
lay 0.44 826 Europe Italy 1
im Europe
ag
e.

Angola,
Botswana, the
Democratic
Republic of the
 Zambia 752,612 12,935,000 Africa Eastern Congo, Malawi, 8
Tap Africa Mozambique,
to
dis
Namibia,
pla Tanzania, and
y
Zimbabwe
ima
ge.
Botswana,
Eastern Mozambique,
Zimbabwe 390,757 12,521,000 Africa 4
Africa South Africa,
Tap
to and Zambia
dis
Partially recognized landlocked states
pla
y Armenia,
ima Western
ge.
Artsakh[c] 11,458 146,600 Asia Azerbaijan, and 3
Asia
Tap Iran
to
dis Albania,
pla Montenegro,
y Southern
ima
Kosovo[c] 10,908 1,804,838 Europe North 4
Europe
Tap
ge. Macedonia, and
to
dis
Serbia
pla
South Western Georgia and
y
[c]
3,900 72,000 Asia 2
Ossetia
Tap
ima Asia Russia
to
ge.
dis Eastern Moldova and
4,163 505,153 Europe 2
Transnistria[c]
pla
Tap Europe Ukraine
y
to
ima
dis West
ge.
Bank[b][e]
pla
Tap
y
to
ima
dis
ge.
pla Western Israel and
y 5,655 2,862,485 Asia 2
Asia Jordan
ima
ge.

Total 14,776,228 475,818,737

Percentage of N/A
11.4% 6.9%
the World
 a Has a coastline on the saltwater Caspian Sea
b Has a coastline on the saltwater Dead Sea
c Not fully recognized
d Landlocked by just one country
e A part of the partially recognized State of Palestine

They can be grouped in contiguous groups as follows:[23]

Eastern, Middle and Western African cluster (10): Burkina Faso, Burundi, the Central
African Republic, Chad, Ethiopia, Mali, Niger, Rwanda, South Sudan, and Uganda

Eastern, Southern and Western European cluster (9): Austria, the Czech Republic,
Hungary, Kosovo (partially recognized), Liechtenstein, North Macedonia, Serbia, Slovakia,
and Switzerland

Southern Asian cluster (6): Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan,

Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan

Eastern and Southern African group (4): Botswana, Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe

Western Asian group (3): Armenia and Azerbaijan

South American group (2): Bolivia and Paraguay

Note:

t. If Transnistria (unrecognized) is included, then Moldova and Transnistria form their own
Eastern European group, listed in parentheses in the table.

u. If it were not for the 40 km (25 mi) of coastline at Muanda, the Democratic Republic of
the Congo would join the two African groups into one, making them the biggest
contiguous group in the world.

v. The Southern Asian cluster and the Western Asian group can be considered
contiguous, joined by the landlocked Caspian Sea. Mongolia is almost part of this
cluster too, being separated from Kazakhstan by only 30 km (19 mi), across Chinese or
Russian territory.

There are the following 14 "single" landlocked countries (each of them borders no other
landlocked country):

Europe (6): Andorra, Belarus, Luxembourg, Moldova, San Marino, and Vatican City

Asia (6): Bhutan, Laos, Mongolia, Nepal, South Ossetia (partially recognized), and the
West Bank (a part of the partially recognized State of Palestine)
 Africa (2): Eswatini and Lesotho

Notes:

t. If Transnistria (unrecognized) is included, then Moldova won't be considered a single

landlocked country.

u. If the West Bank (a part of the partially recognized State of Palestine) is included as a
separate political entity, then Asia would have 6 single landlocked countries.

Landlocked countries by continent

If Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and South Ossetia are counted as part of Europe, then Europe
has the most landlocked countries, at 19, including three partially recognized landlocked
states. If these three transcontinental countries are included in Asia, then both Africa and
Europe have the most, at 16. Depending on the status of the West Bank and the three
transcontinental countries, Asia has between 11 and 15, including the unrecognized
landlocked state of Artsakh. South America only has 2 landlocked countries. North America
and Australia are the only continents with no landlocked countries (excluding Antarctica,
which has no countries). Oceania (which is usually not considered a continent but a
geographic region) also has no landlocked countries. Other than Papua New Guinea, which
shares a land border with Indonesia (a transcontinental country), all the other countries in
Oceania are island countries without a land border.

Except Bolivia and Paraguay, all the other landlocked countries are located in Afro-Eurasia.
Very few island countries share a land border with another country, no island countries are
landlocked.

Notes

t. Including the West Bank, which is claimed and partially administered as a part of the
partially recognized State of Palestine.

See also

Convention on Transit Trade of Land-locked States

Declaration recognising the Right to a Flag of States having no Sea-coast

Enclave and exclave

Island country
 List of island countries

List of countries and territories by land and maritime borders

List of countries that border only one other country

Navies of landlocked countries

References

t. 44 Landlocked Countries Without Direct Ocean Access

u. "Largest LLC" . United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.

v. Paudel, R. C. (2012). "Landlockedness and Economic Growth: New Evidence" (PDF).

Growth and Export Performance of Developing Countries: Is Landlockedness Destiny?.
Canberra, Australia: Australian National University. pp. 13–72.

w. Faye, M. L.; McArthur, J. W.; Sachs, J. D.; Snow, T. (2004). "The Challenges Facing
Landlocked Developing Countries". Journal of Human Development. 5 (1): 31–68 [pp.
31–32]. doi:10.1080/14649880310001660201 .

x. "Goal 10 targets" . UNDP. Retrieved 2020-09-23.

y. Collier, Paul (2007). The Bottom Billion . New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 56 ,
57. ISBN 978-0-19-537338-7.

z. Moseley, W. G.; Carney, J.; Becker, L. (2010). "Neoliberal Policy, Rural Livelihoods and
Urban Food Security in West Africa: A Comparative Study of The Gambia, Côte d'Ivoire
and Mali" . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 107 (13): 5774–5779.
Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.5774M . doi:10.1073/pnas.0905717107 . PMC 2851933 .
PMID 20339079 .

{. Moseley, W. G. (2011). "Lessons from the 2008 Global Food Crisis: Agro-Food
Dynamics in Mali". Development in Practice. 21 (4–5): 604–612.

|. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (2010). Review of

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