Experiment No.

1: Types of polyhouses and shade net houses

Introduction
In open field conditions, there is no control over the environmental factors like
temperature, light and relative humidity.
The advent of modern greenhouse technology opened up the avenues to precisely
control the environmental parameters favourable for the cultivation of a particular crop.
Growing the horticultural crops in protected environment (greenhouse/polyhouse)
ensures the best microclimate around the plant so that the plant can exhibit its full potential.
Definition of Polyhouse
Polyhouse farming is a new and widely accepted method of farming in present
days. The Polyhouse is a tunnel used with polyethylene in semi-circular shape. Polyethylene
sheets stabilize the ultraviolet rays and helps in proper photosynthesis in crops. We can make
it in other shapes also but the semi-circular shape is most commonly adopted shape in
Polyhouse.
Difference between Polyhouse and Greenhouse
Polyhouse is one of the types of Greenhouse in which polyethylene is used as main
material for construction. The durability of the polyhouse is more compared to other types of
Greenhouse. The Polyhouse is more advanced in view of the technology. 
Types of Polyhouse
Depending on the control system using Polyhouse can be
1. With semi-automatic control system or
2. with fully automatic control system.
Description
In semi-automatic control system, manual adjustments are needed to maintain the
Polyhouse in good condition whereas in automatic system, pre-settings are enough for the
maintenance of Polyhouse. Proper alertness and technical skills should be needed while
managing semi-automaticPolyhouse. Any deviation from this may result in damage of crop
and may lead to loss. In an automatic system of Polyhouse less attention is enough for
maintenance, but it is very costlier compared to semi-automatic type.
Shade net houses
A Shade house is a structure enclosed by agro nets or any other woven material to allow
required sunlight, moisture and air to pass through the gaps. It creates an appropriate micro
climate conducive to the plant growth. It is also referred as shade net house or net house.

Uses of shade house

 Helps in cultivation of flower plants, foliage plants, medicinal plants, vegetables and
spices.
 Used for fruit and vegetable nurseries as well as for raising of forest species etc.
 Helps in quality drying of various agro products.

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 Used to protect against pest attack.
 Protects from natural weather disturbances such as wind, rain, hail and frost.
 Used in production of graft saplings and reducing its mortality during hot summer
days.
 Used for hardening tissue culture plantlets

Planning for a shade house

The shade house structure should be planned taking into consideration the type of
crop to be grown, locally available materials and local climatic conditions. The provision for
future expansion should be there.

Site selection
A shade house should be located in such a way that it is well connected with market
for input supplies and sale of its produces. This structure should be constructed away from
buildings and trees, so also away from industrial or vehicular pollutants. The site should be
free from drainage problem. There should be provision of electricity and good quality water.
However, wind breakers may be located 30m away from the structure.

Orientation
There are mainly two criteria for shade house orientation. They are the uniformity of
light intensity in the shade house and wind direction. Single span structure may be oriented
either in east-west or north-south direction but multispan structure should be oriented in
north-south direction to ensure uniform light intensity.

Structural materials
A shade house structure composed of two basic components i.e. frame and cladding
material. The shade house frame provides support for cladding material and designed to
protect against wind, rain and crop load. The shade house mild steel (ms) angle frame lasts up
to 20 to 25 years, if anti rust treatment is done at regular interval, whereas bamboo structure
can last up to 3 years. The agro shade net lasts for 3 to 5 years depending on the climatic
condition. Shade nets are available in different colours with wide range of shade percentages
viz. 25%, 30%, 35%, 50%, 60%, 75% and 90%.
The design of shade house frames depend on the need and engineering skill.
Structural frames of quonset, gable or gothic arch shape or with minor modification suitable
to local condition are recommended in high rainfall areas like Orissa.

Design and Construction of shade house

Two types of shade house designs have been developed at Precision Farming
Development Centre, Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar. The
principal advantage of these shade houses is that these structures do not require any welding
at the site. Another advantage is that foundation posts have been chosen to protect these
structures against termite attack.

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Fig. 1.1:- Draw the sketches of different types of poly house and
Shade net house

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Experiment No.2: Intercultural operations

Weeding
Removal of weeds is known as weeding. Weed is a plant grown where it is not
desired
Objectives
i.To reduce the competition of weeds to crop plants for light, space, water and nutrients.
ii.To get expected output (yield) from crop cultivation.
iii. Weeding in dry condition fulfills the objective of natural mulching.
Mulching
Mulching is a method of conserving soil moisture. It is a very important intercultural
operation for rabi and rainfed crops. It is done by making a covering on the soil surface which
actually reduces the evaporation of soil water. Mulches are the materials used for mulching.
Objectives
i. To conserve soil moisture.
ii. To reduce excess evaporation loss of soil moisture.
iii. To ensure economic use of irrigation water.
Advantages
i. It keeps the soil moist during the dry season.
ii. It suppresses weed growth and population.
iii. Keeps the soil cool during dry and hot season.
iv. Use of mulches like water hyacinth or straw adds significant amount of organic matter to
the soil after decomposition.
v. Natural mulching aerates the soil which helps better respiration of plant roots.
vi. Mulching becomes essential for some crops to prevent contact of product with soil as for
example fruits of straw berry plants if come in direct contact with the soil then the fruits will
rot. So, mulching becomes essential for strawberry.
Types of mulch
i. Natural mulch (water hyacinth, straw, leaves etc.)
ii. Artificial mulch (polythene, paper etc.)
Types of mulching
i. Natural mulching

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ii.Artificial mulching
Natural mulching
 It is a method of breaking the surface of dry soil and generally done by stirring the
soil surface with the help of some implements like niri, khurpi etc. Weeding in dry condition
with the help of niri or khurpi results in natural mulching. When the soil becomes drier, water
vapour moves upward towards the soil surface through capillary tubes and escapes into the
atmosphere. Natural mulching breaks the soil crust and thereby, opening of capillary tubes
gets broken and blocked which results in prevention of upward movement of water vapour.
Hence, upward movement of capillary water is restricted and soil moisture is conserved.
Artificial mulching
 This includes application of plant leaves, straw, water hyacinth, polythene, sawdust
etc. so as to provide a covering on the surface soil which can check the evaporation of soil
moisture. Mulch crops may also be grown to conserve soil moisture in bare ground by their
thick and multilayered foliage, trailing habit and sometimes, self-seeding nature, for instance
cow pea, Alylosia.
Earthing up
Earthing up consists of lifting up or shifting the soil from the central portion of the
space between rows towards the base of plants so as to cover the plant base or certain plant
organs grown from below or at the soil surface. Earthing up may be done both under wet and
dry conditions of soil.
Objectives
i. To make better root anchorage.
ii. To prevent lodging.
iii. To cover stolons and rhizomes in some crops.
Advantages
i. Earthing up creates ridges and furrows in the crop field which later on serves the purpose of
irrigation channel.
ii. Earthing up reduces weed growth and population.
iii.Earthing up closes the spreading tillers in sugarcane which makes the tying of canes easier.
iv. Earthing up increasing the number of tubers in potato and prevents solarization of
developing tubers.
v. The initiation of new (late) tillers in rice and sugarcane or rhizomes in taro, turmeric and
ginger are restricted. vi. The pegs of groundnut, the stolons and the tubers of potato and the
stilt roots of maize are covered with earth.
Thinning
Removal of excess plants after germination from the crop field or seed bed is called
thinning. Excess plants in a crop field reduce crop yield due to intra crop competition. As a
result there occurs shortage of space, nutrients, light, air and moisture for individual crop

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plant which ultimately reduce yield. So, if required, excess seedlings are removed leaving the
strongest ones.
Gap filling
Several frugivorous and granivorous animals and birds feed on many seeds after they
are sown in the field. Moreover, after transplanting many seedlings fail to establish them in
the new environment and dies. Then. Gap filling with seeds staggers the period of
germination and emergence. As a result, ripening periods extend over time and affect the
harvesting which is scheduled once for most crops; and this seriously impairs the quality of
produce.
Objectives of thinning and gap filling
The ultimate goal is to ensure the optimum plant population in the crop field. Plant
population more than optimum creates competitive condition whereas that less than optimum
results in misuse of space, irrigation water and other inputs.
Advantages
Both thinning and gap filling ensures ideal plant population and optimum utilization
of sunlight, space, nutrients, moisture and other inputs which ultimately increases yield.

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Fig. 2.1:- Draw the sketches of different steps of intercultural
operations

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Experiment No.3: Identification of tools and equipment and their
applications

Contribution of horticultural and total agricultural production in the country is quite

significant due to highly favourable and varied agro-ecological diversities.Major field
operations for horticultural crops include nursery/seedling preparation, post hole digging for
planting, interculture, aeration, earthing, irrigation, plant protection, harvesting, handling,
packaging transport. For these purpose there are different tools and equipment are required,
some of which are mentioned bellow:
1. Axe
Features
The axe is a simple hand tool, which consists of cutting edge and an eye for fixing of
a handle. It is forged to shape from a single piece. Axes are available in various sizes and
shapes. The common types are hand felling, felling estate pattern and felling trade pattern.
For operation, the operator holds the handle with both hands at convenient position and the
tool is raised to suitable position and struck with force against the work. The penetration is
caused through impact action, which shears the slice of wood. The axes are made from high
carbon steel and the cutting edge is hardened to 550-650 HB.
Uses
Axe is multipurpose cutting tool used for felling and delimbing of trees, splitting of
logs for firewood and dressing of logs for timber conversion. Small axes are also used for
clearing of bushes.
2. Sickle
Features
The sickle is a simple manually operated hand tool, which consists of a cutting blade
and tang made in single piece by forging. The cross-section of the cutting blade is tapered
towards cutting edge, similar to knife. The tang is inserted into the wooden handle and
fastened by riveting. For operation, the dah is held from the handle with one hand, raised and
struck against the work. The cutting is through impact and shearing & action It is made from
highcarbon steel, tool steel, manganese steel or alloy steel and forged to shape. The cutting
edge ishardened to 400-475 HB.
Uses
The dah is used for cutting of small trees, shrubs and clearance of jungle growth.
3. Tea pruning sickle
Features
It is a long blade-cutting knife with a curved tip. The dao blade is made from leaf
spring or mild steel flat section by forging operation. The blade made from spring steel is

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hardened and tempered. A wooden handle is joined to other end of the blade by riveting. It is
a popular tool among tea growers for pruning. It is operated by a pulling action. The curved
tip helps in easy pulling and cutting of tea branches.
Uses
Pruning of tea branches
4. Billhook
Features
The billhook is a manually operated hand tool, which consists of a curved blade in
hook shape and a tang to which a wooden or plastic handle is attached. The billhooks are
available with single or double cutting edges. The cross section of the blade tapers down
towards cutting edges. For operation, the tool is held in one hand and struck against the work.
The cutting is accomplished through impact and shearing action. The blade and the tang are
made from high carbon steel, manganese steel, tool steel or alloy steel and forged to shape.
The cutting edges are hardened to 400-475 HB.
Uses
The billhook is used for lopping of branches, cutting of shrubs and other hard vegetative
material.
5. Budding knife
Features
The budding knife is an important hand tool of a gardener, which consists of a folding
blade and a handle. The blade has two edges. One of the edges is sharpened all along its
length; where as the blunt or the other edge is sharpened on the tip and is slightly curved.
This sharpened curved portion is used to create a 'T' opening or slot on the bark of the mother
branch or twig for the insertion of the bud. The edge sharpened all along its length is used for
cutting of scion stick or defoliation of leaves from the scion and slashing of bud from the
stick: Some budding knives have a short and round plastic blade at the end of handle called
budder, which is used for raising of the bark of the slot for insertion of the bud. The blade
when not in use is folded into the handle. The blade is made from high carbon steel, tool steel
or alloy steel and hardened to 460-510 HB. The outer part of thehandle quality wood is made
and the from internal the horn, fittings plastic from brass or fine quality wood and the internal
fittings from brass or aluminium alloy and a spring steel strip is provided to lock the blade in
operating position. For operation the sharp edge of the blade is held against the scion stick
and force is applied at an angle, which causes cutting of the stick.
Uses
The budding knife is used for the budding operation, cutting of scion stick, defoliation of
leaves and removing or cutting of unwanted thin twigs of the plants.
6. Grafting knife
Features
The grafting knife is another important plant propagation hand tool, which resembles
a household knife. The principal parts of the knife are blade and the handle. The cutting edge

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of the blade is sharpened all along its length and the other edge is blunt. The blade of the
knife can be folded into the handle While not in use. A nail mark is provided in the blade to
pull the blade from the handle. The blade is made from high carbon steel, tool steel of alloy
steel and hardened to 460-510 HB. The operation of the knife is similar to that of budding
knife and it is mainly used to cut the scion sticks for veneer grafting, cleft and stone grafting
and inarching. Defoliation of the leaves of the scion stick, making 'V' groove for grafting and
making of chisel point of the scion for insertion in the 'V' groove are the functions performed
with the grafting knife. The outer portion of the handle is made from horn, plastic or good
quality wood and the inner portion is fitted with aluminium or brass strips and a spring steel
strip for locking of the blade in working position.
Uses
For cutting and defoliation of scion stick, making of chisel point and 'V' grooves for grafting
and slashing of thin twigs and for general-purpose cutting.
7. Budding and grafting knife
Features
The budding and grafting knife is a multipurpose knife to accomplish both the budding and
grafting jobs. It consists two blades each for budding and grafting, which are either joined to
a common hinge or are fixed to the ends of the handle. A plastic budder is provided to the
other end of the knife in which both the blades are joined to a common hinge or end of the
handle. When not in use, both the blades can be folded into the handle. The blades are made
from high carbon steel, tool steel or alloy steel and hardened to 460-510 HB. With both the
blades it is a versatile knife of the gardener and is extensively used in orchards, vegetable
gardens and plantations for budding and grafting purposes in order to evolve new varieties.
The handle of the knife is thicker to accommodate two blades. The outer portion of the blade
is made from horn, plastic or good quality wood and the inner part has brass or aluminium
strips with spring steel strips for locking of the blade in working position.
Uses
For budding and grafting in vegetables, nurseries and fruit gardens. The knife is also
used for cutting of thin unwanted twigs, defoliation of leaves and general cutting works in
nurseries and orchards.
8. Pruning and slashing knives
Features
Pruning is a process of removing unwanted branches or twigs of a plant or tree for
providing aeration, lighting and frame work which help in obtaining higher yields. Pruning
and slashing knives are hand tools, which consists of a blade and tang joined rigidly to the
handle. The tip of the blade is either hooked or curved in order to cut or slash the small
branches or twigs of plant or tree by pulling action. The tang of the knife is inserted in the
handle and joined rigidly by riveting. The blade and tang are made from the single piece. The
blade is made from high carbon steel, tool steel or alloy steel and hardened to 45-55 I HRC.
The handle is made from good quality wood or plastic. For operation the blade is engaged
with the thin branch or twigs and pulled towards the operator to accomplish cutting. The
blade is forged to shape and cutting edge is sharpened

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Uses
For cutting and slashing of thin branches and twigs of plantation crops and orchards.
9. Medium chopping knife

Features
Medium chopping knife is an important tool of bamboo craftsmen, fish/meat
shopkeepers and farmers. The tool is used for agricultural and domestic purposes. The cutting
blade is made from old leaf spring steel or mild steel flat and angle sections by forging
operation. The cutting edge is drawn from the back to form a sharp edge. The tool made from
the spring steel is hardened and tempered to a suitable hardness. Its tang end is inserted in the
handle and secured by a steel ring. It is operated by striking the cutting edge against the
material to be cut or chopped.
Uses
It is used for cutting wood, bamboo, fish and meat. It is also used for clearing of
jungle growth and forest vegetation
10. Pruning secateurs
Features
Pruning secateurs also known as pruning shears resembles a multipurpose
combination pliersused in a workshop. The need of secateur arose to cut the branches or
twigs, which are difficult to cut by pruning knives. Being handy and easy to operate, it is
considered to be an essential tool of the gardener in plant propagation. Various types of
pruning secateurs are fabricated for removing or cutting of unwanted branches or twigs,
cutting of scion sticks, defoliation of leaves from the sticks and topping of small trees. These
are single cut, double cut, parrot nose cut, roll cut, bes cut, supa cut, replaceable blade type,
easy cut, kiln cut etc. The pruning secateur consist of two cutting blades or one cutting blade
and an anvil, handle, volute spring to keep the blade and handle in open position and a
locking device for keeping the secateur in closed position. The blade is important part of the
tool and is, made from high carbon steel, tool steel or alloy steel. The blades are forged to
shape, ground sharp at the cutting edge and hardened to 460-510 HB. Handles are made from
aluminium or mild steel and in some cases a cover of plastic is provided on the arms of the
handle. Usually the arms of the handle follow a fixed path during cutting operation but in
some secateurs one of the arm of the handle is made rotating type for easy operation. For
operation the branch or the twig is held in between the blades and handles pressed together
which produces shearing action and cutting of the material. The secateur is selected according
to the operation and size of the twig or branch.
Uses
For cutting of the unwanted branches or twigs of the orchard tree, vines, scion sticks,
defoliation etc.

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11. Pneumatic secateurs
Features
The pneumatic secateurs, also known as pneumatic pruning shears, are used for
pruning vines using pneumatic power. Gripping blade of the shear is stationary and shearing
action is imparted by the other blade through the movement of piston. at the end of which it is
fixed, with high-pressure air carried in a portable cylinder. The device offers effortless,
accurate and swift cutting, at the same time ensuring the quality of vines. The double acting
piston facilitates easy pruning of even large branches. The extension member helps access to
branches inside canopy. The cutting head of the shear can be adjusted as needed across 360°.
Uses
For pruning or cutting of unwanted thick branches of orchard trees which are not
possible by pruning knife of secateur or tree pruner.
12. Chain saw

Features
It is also called power saw and is a light and portable machine normally and operated
by one person. Cutting is done by an endless chain fitted with cutters, which runs around a
flat piece called the bar. The drive link of the chain runs in a groove, machined in the edge of
the bar and are pulled along by the teeth of a sprocket, which engage them. The sprocket in
turn is driven at full speed either by small two- stroke petrol engine or electric motor. The
power to the chain is transmitted through a centrifugal clutch mounted on crankshaft of the
engine. The chain is of roller type and has left and right hand cutters spaced alternately along
its length. In front of each of the cutters is a small projection called a depth gauge whose
purpose is to control the depth of cut made by the cutter.
Uses
The chain saw is used to trim dead or diseased wood from trees, to remove
inconvenientlyplaced branches or fell trees.
13. Hedge shear
Features
The hedge shear is manually operated hand tool for pruning, trimming and cutting of
hedges and shrubs. The tool essentially consists of two blades with tangs. The tangs are
inserted in the wooden handle and secured by ferrule. The cutting action takes place between
two blades, which are pivoted, and the material t\} be cut is sheared between these blades.
The blades are forged to shape and edges are ground to obtain a bevel angle just less than 90
degrees. It is important to maintain the desired cutting while sharpening these blades to
obtain clean cut. The blade and tang are made in single piece from high carbon steel, tool
steel or alloy steel and hardened to 420-470 HB. The handles are made from high quality
wood. For operation the handles are pulled apart to open the blades. The material or hedge
twigs to be cut are brought in between these blades and moving the handles inward shears the
twigs. This action is repeated fast for trimming of the hedges and shrubs. Some of the models
are provided with pruning notch near the pivot of blades for cutting of thick twigs.
Uses

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The hedge shear is used for pruning and trimming of hedge and giving it desired shape. It is
also used for cutting of shrubs and removing of haphazard growth in gardens and lawns.
14. Hedge trimmer
Features
Hedge trimmer consists of a cutter bar having two sets of reciprocating blades. The
teeth along the top blade are diamond round and double edged to stay sharp for long. It can
cut even branches of up to 16 mm in diameter. The cutter bar is driven either by engine or
motor. The unit can be moved in various 375directions- to the left, right, upwards or
downwards. A baffle guard is provided to protect the user from flying leaves, stems or
branches. The motor power unit is provided with flexible chord, which permits the movement
of the trimmer to all places in the garden. An extra trigger switch is integrated in the handle
for quick, error free operation.
Uses
Hedge trimmer is used for trimming hedges, shrubs and brambles. It is also used for
contouring plants in desired shapes and sizes for enhancing the aesthetics of the garden.
15. String trimmer
Features
This is a two handed string trimmer with an in built intelligent reflex line feed system
for automatic sensing of the feed besides providing convenience and saving time of
operation. The unit has motor, which rotates the string for cutting the grass. The unit is
provided with a wire spool having flexible chord protector. The unit has a vertical symmetry
for gripping by both the hands and the cutting head can approach corners of the garden where
standard lawn mowers find it difficult to reach.
Uses
The trimmer is used to trim tall and tough grasses. It is especially suitable for the areas where
lawn mower cannot reach. It can trim around trees; bushes and posts right up to walls and
fence and even along the edges of the footpath.
16. Lopping shear
Features
The lopping shear is manually operated hand tool with long handles for pruning of
orchard trees in standing position. It is used for pruning and cutting of the twigs, which are
beyond the reach of human hands and cannot be cut with pruning secateurs. The shape of the
lopping shear is similar to pruning secateur or hedge shear depending upon the
manufacturers. The shear consists of two shearing blades joined to the sockets to which
wooden handles are inserted. The blades are fabricated from high carbon steel, tool steel or
alloy steel, forged to shape and the cutting edges are hardened to 425-450 HB. The sockets
are made from mild steel. Both the blades are pivoted at the common point, which allows
them to open or close. For operation the handles are pulled apart which open the blades and
the branch or twig to be cut is brought in between the blades. The blades are closed to put
cutting pressure on the branch, which thus get sheared. Due to long handle thick branches can
also be cut with the lopping shear.

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Uses
The lopping shear is used for pruning and cutting of branches and twig~ of the orchard trees
in standing position, which are beyond the reach, and capacity of pruning secateur.
16. Forester shear
Features
The forester shear is similar to the lopping shear for cutting the branches, twigs or
bushes in standing position. The tool is provided with long handle, which allow the blades to
exert more cutting pressure on the stock. The forester shear consists of a cutting blade and an
anvil joined to the sockets. Long wooden handles are inserted in the sockets, which help in
cutting the branches or twigs beyond I the reach of human hand. The blade and anvil which
are important parts of the shear are made from high carbon steel, tool steel or alloy steel,
forged to shape and the cutting edges hardened to 420-425 HB. For operation the branch or
twig is held between the blade and the blade and anvil are moved inward, which causes the
blade to penetrate in the branch or twig where the anvil of the shear provide the support.
Uses
The forester shear is used for pruning or cutting the unwanted thickbranches or twigs
up to 60 mm thick in orchard or forest. It is also usedfor cutting the shrubs or bushes and
clearance of unwanted growth.
17. Grass shear
Features
The grass shear is simple hand tool used in maintenance of lawns. Various types of
grass shears are available. The important parts are the cutting blades made frorI' high carbon
steel or alloy steel and hardened to 425-450 HB. The blades are sharpened at the cutting
edges. These are joined to a 'V' shape spring steel handle, which keeps the shearing 11 blades
always in open position. In some models the blades are pivoted at a point and a link is
provided to actuate the one blade by pressing the handles. For cutting the blades are
repeatedly actuated. Cutting takes place due to shearing action of the blades.
Uses
The grass shear is used for trimming of the grass in the lawn. It is also used for side
dressing of the lawn and cutting of the soft vegetative material. The shear with 'U' spring steel
handle having sharp edges can also be used for shearing of sheep wool.
18. Garden sword
Features
The garden sword is a simple manually operated hand tool used in sitting or squatting
position. The sword consists of a metal strip or blade with one of the edges sharpened for
cutting the grass. The blade has a tang, which is inserted in the wooden handle and joined to
it by riveting. The blade is made from medium or high carbon steel forged to shape and
thesharpened edges hardened to 370-450HB. For operation the garden sword isheld in one
hand and swung in sittingor squatting position over the grass orsoft vegetative matter. The
impactaction of the sharp edge accomplishes the cutting of the matter. Some of the garden

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swordsare made from spring steel and bent to a shape, which thus can be operated in
standingposition. The cutting edges are sharpened and hardened.
Uses
The garden sword is used for cutting of the grass in the lawns and in the field. It is
also used to clear haphazard growth pf unwanted plants in the field. It can be used for cutting
or clearing the bushes with thin and soft stems.
19. Flower scissors
Features
The flower scissors is a very simple hand tool, which resembles a surgical scissors. It
consists of two short blades with handles. The handles have a grip to accommodate the
fingers for actuating the blades. The blades are joined together with a rivet and performing
the cutting operation. The scissors are made from castironand stainless steel. Hard chrome
plating is done on the scissors made from cast
iron and steel. For Operation the tool is held in one hand and thematerial to be cut is brought
inbetween the blades. The movement of the fingers closes the blades for performing
cuttingoperation.
Uses
For cutting flowers with stems and other soft vegetative materials.
20. Rotating disc mower
Features
In a rotating disc mower, a knife-edge moving at a high speed cuts the grass through
impact. In the cutting unit, a circular disc in horizontal plane has two to four triangular or
rectangular blades. The blades are replaceable type. The disc rotates at about 3000 rev/min.
The blades are made from high carbon steel and they have to be maintained sharp, otherwise
uprooting of grass will take place instead of cutting. In some designs, the blades are swinging
type and move out of the way when they hit an obstruction. The surface finish obtained with
a rotating disc mower is rough as compared to that obtained with a cylinder mower.
Therefore, this is normally used for rough areas such as orchards where the finish is not
critical. Rotating disc mowers are available with electrical motors or driven by engine.
Uses
The mower is used for cutting grass in lawns and fields.
21. LAWN MOWER (Cylindrical)
Features
It consists of cylindrical reel on the surface of which cutting bladesare mounted in
spiral fashion, anvilstationery blade, handle, drive wheel, drivepawl, grass gatherer (bucket)
and rollerassembly. The cutting blades are made ofcarbon steel and fastened to
flangesmounted on a centre shaft. The cuttingblades rotate, and because of their
spiralmounting, cause progressive cutting actionacross the anvil blade. The anvil blade is
aflat blade sharpened at the edges and can beadjusted. The grass is trapped between the

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rotating and anvil bladesand cutting takes place due to shearing action. The machine has also
front roller foradjustment of height of cut and a grass box at the rear to collect the cutgrass
while themachine is in operation.
Uses
The mower is used for cutting grass in lawns and fields.
22. Crow bar
Features
The crowbar is a hand tool fabricated from an octagonal bar. One of the ends is
pointed and the other is spoon or chiselled shaped. The spoon or chiselled shape end is either
forged from the bar or separately made and welded to the end of crow bar. The crow bar is
made either from the structural steel or from medium carbon steel. The crow bar ends are
forged to shape and hardened to 350-400 HB. For its operation, the tool is held in both hands
in vertical position and driven into the soil by impact.
Uses
For digging holes or pits for planting and fencing.
23. Power tiller opera ted auger digger
Features
Power tiller operated auger digger consists of a small frame with the provision to
lower and raise the soil-working element. Drive is provided to the unit with the help of a set
of bevel gears and belt pulleys. Lowering and raising is accomplished by means of a rack and
pinion arrangement which is operated by a hand wheel. It has two depth adjustment wheels,
which support the weight of the implement, and provides stability. Pits can be dug up to a
depth of 45 to 60 cm and the diameter of the posthole is 30 cm. For operation the auger is
mounted on a power tiller and is lowered with the help of a steering. The auger is lifted when
the desired depth of the hole is achieved.
Uses
Suitable for digging circular pits for planting saplings. It is also suitable for use in
orchards and forests due to its manoeuvrability.
24. Posthole digger

Features
Posthole digger is an attachment to the [ three-point linkage of tractor. It consists of
an auger, which is driven through bevel gears. The auger gets drive from the tractor through a
propeller shaft and bevel gear I box. The perpendicularly of digging auger is maintained with
four-bar linkage formed by hitching system the tie rod provided at the top, The tip of the
auger is either diamond shaped or pointed with wings to suit to different soil conditions. The
diameter and depth of hole can be changed by changing the auger assembly.
Uses
To dig holes for planting tree saplings.

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Fig. 3.1:- Draw the sketches of different types of tools and
implements

ROSE CANE

USES OF GARDENING TOOLS: ROSE CANE / WATER CANE: Using for watering : fine
spray of water should be used for watering all pots, bags & greens ...
hAND hOE
A hoe is an ancient and versatile agricultural and horticultural hand tool used to shape soil,
remove weeds, clear soil, and harvest root crops. Shaping the soil includes piling soil around
the base of plants (hilling), digging narrow furrows (drills) and shallow trenches for planting
seeds or bulbs.
SPADE /SHOVEL
Shovel is a tool used to dig as well as to move loose, granular materials (like dirt, gravel,
grain, or snow) from one spot to another. Spade is a tool used for digging straight-edged
holes or trenches, slicing and lifting sod, and edging flower beds or lawns.

HEDGE CUTTER
hedge trimmer, shrub cutter or bush trimmer is a gardening tool or machine used for
trimming (cutting, pruning) hedges or solitary shrubs (bushes). Different designs as well as
manual and powered versions of hedge trimmers exist.
PRUNING CUTTER
Pruning shears, also called hand pruners (in American English), or secateurs (in British
English), are a type of scissors for use on plants. They are strong enough to prune hard
branches of trees and shrubs, sometimes up to two centimetres thick.
GRAFTING AND BuBBDING KNiFE
The grafting knife (a) has a straight edge. The budding knife (b) has a curved edge and a
blunt end for opening the bark and inserting the bud. A double bladed budding knife (c) is
used for patch-budding. Sharpening stone: There are stones for oil and stones for water.
SECEATEUR

Pruning shears, also called hand pruners (in American English), or secateurs (in British
English), are a type of scissors for use on plants. They are strong enough to prune hard
branches of trees and shrubs, sometimes up to two centimetres thick.

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18 | P a g e
 Experiment No 4: Micro propagation

Plants can be propagated by sexual (through generation of seeds) or asexual (through

multiplication of vegetative parts) means.
Clonal propagation refers to the process of asexual reproduction by multiplication of
genetically identical copies of individual plants. The term clone is used to represent a plant
population derived from a single individual by asexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction through multiplication of vegetative parts is the only method for
the in vivo propagation of certain plants, as they do not produce viable seeds e.g. banana,
grape, fig, and chrysanthemum. Clonal propagation has been successfully applied for the
propagation of apple, potato, tuberous and several ornamental plants.
Advantages of Vegetative Propagation:
Asexual (vegetative) propagation of plants has certain advantages over sexual
propagation.
i. Faster multiplication — large number of plants can be produced from a single individual in
a short period.
ii. Possible to produce genetically identical plants.
iii. Sexually — derived sterile hybrids can be propagated.
iv. Seed — raised plants pass through an undesirable juvenile phase which is avoided in
asexual propagation.
v. Gene banks can be more easily established by clonally propagated plants.
In Vitro Clonal Propagation:
The in vivo clonal propagation of plants is tedious, expensive and frequently
unsuccessful. In vitro clonal propagation through tissue culture is referred to as micro
propagation. Use of tissue culture technique for micro propagation was first started by Morel
(1960) for propagation of orchids, and is now applied to several plants. Micro propagation is
a handy technique for rapid multiplication of plants.
Technique of Micro propagation:
Micro propagation is a complicated process and mainly involves 3 stages (I, II and
III). Some authors add two more stages (stage 0 and IV) for more comprehensive
representation of micro- propagation. All these stages are represented in Fig. 47.1, and briefly
described hereunder.
Stages Involved in Micropropagation
Stage 0:
This is the initial step in micro- propagation, and involves the selection and growth of
stock plants for about 3 months under controlled conditions.

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Stage I:
In this stage, the initiation and establishment of culture in a suitable medium is
achieved. Selection of appropriate explants is important. The most commonly used explants
are organs, shoot tips and axillary buds. The chosen explant is surface sterilized and washed
before use.
Stage II:
It is in this stage, the major activity of micro propagation occurs in a defined culture
medium. Stage II mainly involves multiplication of shoots or rapid embryo formation from
the explant.
Stage III:
This stage involves the transfer of shoots to a medium for rapid development into
shoots. Sometimes, the shoots are directly planted in soil to develop roots. In vitro rooting of
shoots is preferred while simultaneously handling a large number of species.
Stage IV:
This stage involves the establishment of plantlets in soil. This is done by transferring
the plantlets of stage III from the laboratory to the environment of greenhouse. For some
plant species, stage III is skipped, and un-rooted stage II shoots are planted in pots or in
suitable compost mixture.
The different stages described above for micro propagation are particularly useful for
comparison between two or more plant systems, besides better understanding. It may
however, be noted that not all plant species need to be propagated in vitro through all the five
stages referred above.
Micro propagation mostly involves in vitro clonal propagation by two approaches:
1. Multiplication by axillary buds/apical shoots.
2. Multiplication by adventitious shoots.
Besides the above two approaches, the plant regeneration processes namely organogenesis
and somatic embryogenesis may also be treated as micro propagation.
3. Organogenesis: The formation of individual organs such as shoots, roots, directly from an
explant (lacking preformed meristem) or from the callus and cell culture induced from the
explant.
4. Somatic embryogenesis: The regeneration of embryos from somatic cells, tissues or
organs.

Fig. 4.1:- Draw the sketches of different stages of

Micro-propagation

20 | P a g e
1. Multiplication by Axillary Buds and Apical Shoots:
Quiescent or actively dividing meristems are present at the axillary and apical shoots
(shoot tips). The axillary buds located in the axils of leaves are capable of developing into
shoots. In the in vivo state, however only a limited number of axillary meristems can form
shoots. By means of induced in vitro multiplication in micro propagation, it is possible to
develop plants from meristem and shoot tip cultures and from bud cultures.

Meristem and Shoot Tip Cultures:

Apical meristem is a dome of tissue located at the extreme tip of a shoot. The apical
meristem along with the young leaf primordia constitutes the shoot apex. For the
development of disease-free plants, meristem tips should be cultured.
Meristem or shoot tip is isolated from a stem by a V-shaped cut. The size (frequently
0.2 to 0.5 mm) of the tip is critical for culture. In general, the larger the explant (shoot tip),
the better are the chances for culture survival. For good results of micro propagation, explants
should be taken from the actively growing shoot tips, and the ideal timing is at the end of the
plants dormancy period.
The most widely used media for meristem culture are MS medium and White’s
medium. A diagrammatic representation of shoot tip (or meristem) culture in micro
propagation is given in Fig 47.2, and briefly described hereunder.
Shoot Tip Culture in Micropropagation
In stage I, the culture of meristem is established. Addition of growth regulators
namely cytokinins (kinetin, BA) and auxins (NAA or IBA) will support the growth and
development.
In stage II, shoot development along with axillary shoot proliferation occurs. High
levels of cytokinins are required for this purpose.

21 | P a g e
 Stage III is associated with rooting of shoots and further growth of plantlet. The root
formation is facilitated by low cytokinin and high auxin concentration. This is opposite to
shoot formation since high level of cytokinins is required (in stage II). Consequently, stage II
medium and stage III medium should be different in composition. The optimal temperature
for culture is in the range of 20-28°C (for majority 24-26°C). Lower light intensity is more
appropriate for good micro propagation.
Bud Cultures:
The plant buds possess quiescent or active meristems depending on the physiological
state of the plant. Two types of bud cultures are used— single node culture and axillary bud
culture.
Single node culture:
This is a natural method for vegetative propagation of plants both in vivo and in vitro
conditions. The bud found in the axil of leaf is comparable to the stem tip, for its ability in
micro propagation. A bud along with a piece of stem is isolated and cultured to develop into a
plantlet. Closed buds are used to reduce the chances of infections.
A diagrammatic representation of single node culture is depicted in Fig 47.3. In single
node culture, no cytokinin is added.
Micropropagation by Single Node Technique
Axillary bud culture:
In this method, a shoot tip along with axillary bud is isolated. The cultures are carried
out with high cytokinin concentration. As a result of this, apical dominance stops and axillary
buds develop. A schematic representation of axillary bud culture for a rosette plant and an
elongate plant is given in Fig 47.4.
Micropropagation of Plants byaxiliary Bud Method
For a good axillary bud culture, the cytokinin/ auxin ratio is around 10:1. This is
however, variable and depends on the nature of the plant species and the developmental stage
of the explant used. In general, juvenile explants require less cytokinin compared to adult
explants. Sometimes, the presence of apical meristem may interfere with axillary shoot
development. In such a case, it has to be removed.
2. Multiplication by Adventitious Shoots:
The stem and leaf structures that are naturally formed on plant tissues located in sites
other than the normal leaf axil regions are regarded as adventitious shoots. There are many
adventitious shoots which include stems, bulbs, tubers and rhizomes. The adventitious shoots
are useful for in vivo and in vitro clonal propagation. The meristematic regions of
adventitious shoots can be induced in a suitable medium to regenerate to plants.
3. Organogenesis:
Organogenesis is the process of morphogenesis involving the formation of plant
organs i.e. shoots, roots, flowers, buds from explant or cultured plant tissues. It is of two
types — direct organogenesis and indirect organogenesis.
Direct Organogenesis:

22 | P a g e
 Tissues from leaves, stems, roots and inflorescences can be directly cultured to
produce plant organs. In direct organogenesis, the tissue undergoes morphogenesis without
going through a callus or suspension cell culture stage. The term direct adventitious organ
formation is also used for direct organogenesis.
Induction of adventitious shoot formation directly on roots, leaves and various other
organs of intact plants is a widely used method for plant propagation. This approach is
particularly useful for herbaceous species. For appropriate organogenesis in culture system,
exogenous addition of growth regulators—auxin and cytokinin is required. The concentration
of the growth promoting substance depends on the age and nature of the explant, besides the
growth conditions.
Indirect Organogenesis:
When the organogenesis occurs through callus or suspension cell culture formation, it
is regarded as indirect organogenesis (Fig 47.5 B and C). Callus growth can be established
from many explants (leaves, roots, cotyledons, stems, flower petals etc.) for subsequent
organogenesis.
The explants for good organogenesis should be mitotically active immature tissues. In
general, the bigger the explant the better the chances for obtaining viable callus/cell
suspension cultures. It is advantageous to select meristematic tissues (shoot tip, leaf, and
petiole) for efficient indirect organogenesis. This is because their growth rate and survival
rate are much better.

For indirect organogenesis, the cultures may be grown in liquid medium or solid medium.
Many culture media (MS, B5 White’s etc.) can be used in organogenesis. The concentration
of growth regulators in the medium is critical for organogenesis.
By varying the concentrations of auxins and cytokinins, in vitro organogenesis can be
manipulated:
i. Low auxin and low cytokinin concentration will induce callus formation.
ii. Low auxin and high cytokinin concentration will promote shoot organogenesis from callus.
iii. High auxin and low cytokinin concentration will induce root formation.
4. Somatic Embryogenesis:
The process of regeneration of embryos from somatic cells, tissues or organs is
regarded as somatic (or asexual) embryogenesis. Somatic embryogenesis may result in non-
zygotic embryos or somatic embryos (directly formed from somatic organs), parthogenetic
embryos (formed from unfertilized egg) and androgenic embryos (formed from male
gametophyte).
In a general usage, when the term somatic embryo is used it implies that it is formed
from somatic tissues under in vitro conditions. Somatic embryos are structurally similar to
zygotic (sexually formed) embryos, and they can be excised from the parent tissues and
induced to germinate in tissue culture media.
Development of somatic embryos can be done in plant cultures using somatic cells,
particularly epidermis, parenchymatous cells of petioles or secondary root phloem. Somatic
embryos arise from single cells located within the clusters of meristematic cells in the callus

23 | P a g e
or cell suspension. First a pro-embryo is formed which then develops into an embryo, and
finally a plant.
Two routes of somatic embryogenesis are known — direct and indirect (Fig 47.6).
Direct Somatic Embryogenesis:
When the somatic embryos develop directly on the excised plant (explant) without
undergoing callus formation, it is referred to as direct somatic embryogenesis (Fig 47.6A).
This is possible due to the presence of pre-embryonic determined cells (PEDQ found in
certain tissues of plants. The characteristic features of direct somatic embryogenesis is
avoiding the possibility of introducing somaclonal variations in the propagated plants.
Indirect Somatic Embryogenesis:
In indirect embryogenesis, the cells from explant (excised plant tissues) are made to
proliferate and form callus, from which cell suspension cultures can be raised. Certain cells
referred to as induced embryo genic determined cells (IEDC) from the cell suspension can
form somatic embryos. Embryogenesis is made possible by the presence of growth regulators
(in appropriate concentration) and under suitable environmental conditions.
Somatic embryogenesis (direct or indirect) can be carried on a wide range of media
(e.g. MS, White’s). The addition of the amino acid L-glutamine promotes embryogenesis.
The presence of auxin such as 2, 4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid is essential for embryo
initiation. On a low auxin or no auxin medium, the embryo genic clumps develop into mature
embryos.
Indirect somatic embryogenesis is commercially very attractive since a large number
of embryos can be generated in a small volume of culture medium. The somatic embryos so
formed are synchronous and with good regeneration capability.
Artificial Seeds from Somatic Embryos:
Artificial seeds can be made by encapsulation of somatic embryos. The embryos,
coated with sodium alginate and nutrient solution, are dipped in calcium chloride solution.
The calcium ions induce rapid cross-linking of sodium alginate to produce small gel beads,
each containing an encapsulated embryo. These artificial seeds (encapsulated embryos) can
be maintained in a viable state till they are planted.
Factors Affecting Micro propagation:
For a successful in vitro clonal propagation (micro propagation), optimization of
several factors is needed.
Some of these factors are briefly described:
1. Genotype of the plant:
Selection of the right genotype of the plant species (by screening) is necessary for
improved micro propagation. In general, plants with vigorous germination and branching
capacity are more suitable for micro- propagation.
2. Physiological status of the explants:
Explants (plant materials) from more recently produced parts of plants are more
effective than those from older regions. Good knowledge of donor plants’ natural propagation

24 | P a g e
process with special reference to growth stage and seasonal influence will be useful in
selecting explants.
3. Culture media:
The standard plant tissue culture media are suitable for micro propagation during
stage I and stage II. However, for stage III, certain modifications are required. Addition of
growth regulators (auxins and cytokinins) and alterations in mineral composition are
required. This is largely dependent on the type of culture (meristem, bud etc.).
4. Culture environment:
Light:
Photosynthetic pigment in cultured tissues does absorb light and thus influence micro-
propagation. The quality of light is also known to influence in vitro growth of shoots, e.g blue
light induced bud formation in tobacco shoots. Variations in diurnal illumination also
influence micro propagation. In general, an illumination of 16 hours day and 8 hours night is
satisfactory for shoot proliferation.
Temperature:
Majority of the culture for micro propagation requires an optimal temperature around
25°C. There are however, some exceptions e.g. Begonia X Cheimantha hybrid tissue grows at
a low temperature (around 18°C).

Composition of gas phase:

The constitution of the gas phase in the culture vessels also influences micro
propagation. Unorganized growth of cells is generally promoted by ethylene, O2, CO2
ethanol and acetaldehyde.
Factors Affecting in Vitro Rooting:
A general description of the factors affecting micro propagation, particularly in
relation to shoot multiplication is given above. For efficient in vitro rooting during micro-
propagation, low concentration of salts (reduction to half to one quarter from the original) is
advantageous. Induction of roots is also promoted by the presence of suitable auxin (NAA or
IBA).
Applications of Micro propagation:
Micro propagation has become a suitable alternative to conventional methods of
vegetative propagation of plants. There are several advantages of micro propagation.
High Rate of Plant Propagation:
Through micro propagation, a large number of plants can be grown from a piece of
plant tissue within a short period. Another advantage is that micro propagation can be carried
out throughout the year, irrespective of the seasonal variations. Further, for many plants that
are highly resistant to conventional propagation, micro propagation is the suitable alternative.
The small sized propagules obtained in micro propagation can be easily stored for many years
(germplasm storage), and transported across international boundaries.

25 | P a g e
Production of Disease-free Plants:
It is possible to produce disease-free plants through micro propagation. Meristem tip
cultures are generally employed to develop pathogen-free plants. In fact, micro propagation is
successfully used for the production of virus-free plants of sweet potato (Ipomeabatatus),
cassava (Manihotesculenta) and yam (Discorearotundata).
Production of Seeds in Some Crops:
Micro propagation, through axillary bud proliferation method, is suitable for seed
production in some plants. This is required in certain plants where the limitation for’ seed
production is high degree of genetic conservation e.g. cauliflower, onion.
Cost-effective Process:
Micro propagation requires minimum growing space. Thus, millions of plant species
can be maintained inside culture vials in a small room in a nursery. The production cost is
relatively low particularly in developing countries (like India) where the manpower and
labour charges are low.
Automated Micro propagation:
It has now become possible to automate micro propagation at various stages. In fact,
bio- reactors have been set up for large scale multiplication of shoots and bulbs. Some
workers employ robots (in place of labourers) for micro- propagation, and this further reduces
production cost of plants.
Disadvantages of Micro propagation:
Contamination of Cultures:
During the course of micro propagation, several slow-growing microorganisms (e.g.
Eswiniasp, Bacillus sp) contaminate and grow in cultures. The microbial infection can be
controlled by addition of antibiotics or fungicides. However, this will adversely influence
propagation of plants.
Brewing of Medium:
Micro propagation of certain plants (e.g. woody perennials) is often associated with
accumulation of growth inhibitory substances in the medium. Chemically, these substances
are phenolic compounds, which can turn the medium into dark colour. Phenolic compounds
are toxic and can inhibit the growth of tissues. Brewing of the medium can be prevented by
the addition of ascorbic acid or citric acid or polyvinyl pyrrolidone to the medium.
Genetic Variability:
When micro propagation is carried out through shoot tip cultures, genetic variability
is very low. However, use of adventitious shoots is often associated with pronounced genetic
variability.
Vitrification:
During the course of repeated in vitro shoot multiplication, the cultures exhibit water
soaked or almost translucent leaves. Such shoots cannot grow and even may die. This
phenomenon is referred to as vitrification. Vitrification may be prevented by increasing the

26 | P a g e
agar concentration (from 0.6 to 1%) in the medium. However, increased agar concentration
reduces the growth rate of tissues.
Cost Factor:
For some micro propagation techniques, expensive equipment, sophisticated facilities
and trained manpower are needed. This limits its use.
Production of Disease-Free Plants:
Many plant species are infected with pathogens — viruses, bacteria, fungi,
mycoplasma and nematodes that cause systemic diseases. Although these diseases do not
always result in the death of plants, they reduce the quality and yield of plants. The plants
infected with bacteria and fungi frequently respond to chemical treatment by bactericides and
fungicides.
However, it is very difficult to cure the virus-infected plants. Further, viral disease are
easily transferred in seed- propagated as well as vegetatively propagated plant species. Plant
breeders are always interested to develop disease-free plants, particularly viral disease-free
plants. This have become a reality through tissue cultures.
Apical Meristems with Low Concentration of Viruses:
In general, the apical meristems of the pathogen infected and disease harbouring
plants are either free or carry a low concentration of viruses, for the following reasons:
i. Absence of vascular tissue in the meristems through which viruses readily move in the
plant body.
ii. Rapidly dividing meristematic cells with high metabolic activity do not allow viruses to
multiply.
iii. Virus replication is inhibited by a high concentration of endogenous auxin in shoot apices.
Tissue culture techniques employing meristem-tips are successfully used for the production
of disease-free plants, caused by several pathogens — viruses, bacteria, fungi, mycoplasmas.
Methods to Eliminate Viruses in Plants:
In general, plants are infected with many viruses; the nature of some of them may be
unknown. The usage virus-free plant implies that the given plant is free from all the viruses,
although this may not be always true. The commonly used methods for virus elimination in
plants are listed below, and briefly described next.
i. Heat treatment of plant
ii. Meristem-tip culture
iii. Chemical treatment of media
iv. Other in vitro methods
Heat Treatment (Thermotherapy) of Plants:
In the early days, before the advent of meristem cultures, in vivo eradication of
viruses from plants was achieved by heat treatment of whole plants. The underlying principle
is that many viruses in plant tissues are either partially or completely inactivated at higher
temperatures with minimal injury to the host plant. Thermotherapy (at temperatures 35-40°C)

27 | P a g e
was carried out by using hot water or hot air for elimination viruses from growing shoots and
buds.
There are two limitations of viral elimination by heat treatment:
1. Most of the viruses are not sensitive to heat treatment.
2. Many plant species do not survive after thermotherapy.
With the above disadvantages, heat treatment has not become popular for virus elimination.
Meristem-Tip Culture:
A general description of the methodology adopted for meristem and shoot tip cultures
has been described (see Fig 47.2). For viral elimination, the size of the meristem used in
cultures is very critical. This is due to the fact that most of the viruses exist by establishing a
gradient in plant tissues.
In general, the regeneration of virus-free plants through cultures is inversely
proportional to the size of the meristem used. The meristem-tip explant used for viral
elimination cultures is too small. A stereoscopic microscope is usually employed for this
purpose.
Meristem-tip cultures are influenced by the following factors:
i. Physiological condition of the explant — actively growing buds are more effective.
ii. Thermotherapy prior to meristem-tip culture — for certain plants (possessing viruses in the
meristematic regions), heat treatment is first given and then the meristem-tips are isolated and
cultured.
iii. Culture medium —MS medium with low concentrations of auxins and cytokinins is ideal.
Chemical Treatment of Media:
Some workers have attempted to eradicate viruses from infected plants by chemical
treatment of the tissue culture media. The commonly used chemicals are growth substances
(e.g. cytokinins) and antimetabolites (e.gthiouracil, acetyl salicylic acid).
There are however, conflicting reports on the elimination viruses by chemical treatment of
the media. For instance, addition of cytokinin suppressed the multiplication of certain viruses
while for some other viruses, it actually stimulated.
Other in Vitro Methods:
Besides meristem-tip culture, other in vitro methods are also used for raising virus-
free plants. In this regard callus cultures have been successful to some extent. The callus
derived from the infected tissue does not carry the pathogens throughout the cells. In fact, the
uneven distribution of tobacco mosaic virus in tobacco leaves was exploited to develop virus-
free plants of tobacco. Somatic cell hybridization, gene transformation and somaclonal
variations also useful to raise disease-free plants.
Elimination of Pathogens Other than Viruses:
Besides the elimination of viruses, meristem-tip cultures and callus cultures are also
useful for eradication bacteria, fungi and mycoplasmas. Some examples are given

28 | P a g e
i. The fungus Fusariumroseum has been successfully eliminated through meristem cultures
from carnation plants.
ii. Certain bacteria (Pseudomonas carophylli, Pectobacteriumparthenii) are eradicated from
carnation plants by using meristem cultures.
Merits and Demerits of Disease-Free Plant Production:
Among the culture techniques, meristem-tip culture is the most reliable method for
virus and other pathogen elimination. This, however, requires good knowledge of plant
pathology and tissue culture.
Virus-free plants exhibit increased growth and vigour of plants, higher yield (e.g.
potato), increased flower size (e.g. Chrysanthemum), and improved rooting of stem cuttings
(e.g. Pelargonium)
Virus-free plants are more susceptible to the same virus when exposed again. This is
the major limitation. Reinfection of disease-free plants can be minimized with good
knowledge of greenhouse maintenance.

ADVANTAGES-

Plant tissue in small amounts is sufficient for the production of

millions of clones in a year using micropropagation. It would take
a great deal of time to produce an equal number of plants using
conventional methods.
The technique of micropropagation provides a good alternative
for those plant species that show resistance to practices of
conventional bulk propagation.
An alternative method of vegetative propagation for mass
propagation is offered through micropropagation. Plants in large
numbers can be produced in a short period. Any particular
variety may be produced in large quantities and the time to
develop new varieties is reduced by 50%.
Large amounts of plants can be maintained in small spaces. This
helps to save endangered species and the storage of germplasm.
The micropropagation method produces plants free of diseases.
Hence, disease-free varieties are obtained through this technique
by using meristem tip culture.

29 | P a g e
The proliferation of in vitro stocks can be done at any time of the
year. Also, a nursery can produce fruit, ornamental, and tree
species throughout the year.
Increased yield of plants and increased vigor in floriculture
species are achieved.
Fast international exchange of plant material without the risk of
disease introduction is provided. The time required for
quarantine is lessened by this method.
The micropropagation technique is also useful for seed
production in certain crops as the requirement of genetic
conservation to a high degree is important for seed production.
DISADVANTAGES-Some plants are very difficult to disinfect of
fungal organisms
Labour may make up 50%-69% of operating costs.[3]
A monoculture is produced after micropropagation, leading to a
lack of overall disease resilience, as all progeny plants may be
vulnerable to the same infections.
An infected plant sample can produce infected progeny. This is
uncommon as the stock plants are carefully screened and vetted
to prevent culturing plants infected with virus or fungus

30 | P a g e
 Experiment No.5: Nursery protrays

Introduction:
• Vegetable nursery is now accepted as a specialized enterprise and is gradually
changing from open field nurseries to protected raised bed or pro tray productions.
• The portrays are generally kept under net house which is cost effective and practical.
The height of the structure should be 3m while length and breadth depend upon the
requirement of nursery.
• Generally, 50% Ultraviolet stabilized HDPE shade net is used. It is recommended to
cover the sides with 40 mesh UV stabilized nylon insect proof net.
Portrays:
• Protrays are shallow plugs in which germination media remains warm and provides
better aeration. Seed are sown directly into plugs. Weeding and thinning is easily
carried out in such portrays.
• Plugs per tray varies from 48-96 per tray. Trays are made of soft plastic to facilitate
removal of seedling without damaging its roots.
• 96 celled trays which are 54 cm X 27 cm and 4 cm deep are commonly used for
tomato seedling. Life of the tray depends on the handling and quality of trays.
Growing Media for Protrays:

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 • Coco peat, a by-product of coir industry having high water holding capacity is
commonly used as media in portrays. Cocopeat has 6 times water holding capacity to
its weight.
• Coco peat should be supplemented with nutrients. Sterilizing the growing media
reduces diseases and pest introduction and attack.
• Other recommended media are Coco peat + vermi-compost or vermi-compost + sand
or soil loam + FYM in equal proportion.
Filling and Sowing:
• Portrays are filled with appropriate growing media.
• Small depressions (0.5 cm) are made at the center of the plugs with finger tips. One
seed is sown in each cell and covered with medium containing 300 - 400 percent
moisture.
• The trays are covered with polyethylene sheet to ensure conservation of moisture until
germination.
After Care:
• Light irrigation is provided to trays with a fine rose spray depending upon the weather
conditions. Over irrigation results in nutrient leaching and fungal attack
• Coco peat is deficient in nutrients and therefore needs nutrient supplementation.
Water soluble fertilizer (19:19:19) is sprayed @ 3 grams / liter of water on 12 th and
20th days after sowing.
• Manual weeding should be carried out as and when necessary.
Plant Protection:
Disease:
• Occurrence of damping off disease is more in crowded seedlings due to poor
ventilation. Sterilizing media, good drainage, seed treatment with Thiram 0.3% and
drenching of Bavistin @ 0.3% are recommended for avoiding damping off disease.
• Fungal diseases are prevented by maintaining sanitation and drenching of Copper
fungicide (0.3%) or Carbendazim (0.1%).
Pricking of Seedlings:
• Pricking is done when seedlings are at 2-4 leaf stage. Pricking is shifting of seedlings
to comparatively bigger size trays or containers to accommodate seedlings in better
growing condition.
• Seedling trays are bigger and seedlings get appropriate quantity of nutrients and
moisture. Trays have pre-punched holes at the bottom for proper drainage and have
the appropriate spacing.

Fig. 5.1:- Draw the sketch of protrays

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Protray-
The Protray nursery is an upcoming technique for quality vegetable seedling production,
where seedlings are produced under shade net and such seedlings have better germination,
appears healthy and are protected from pest and diseases and build up well developed root
system within 25-30 days.

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Advantages-
The benefits of protray nursery includes production of pest free quality seedlings, having
independent area for each seed, improved seed germination, better root development,
minimized seedling mortality and damping off disease, provides uniform, healthy and early
maturity, easy handling and cheaper transportation

Experiment No.6: Micro-irrigation

Introduction
Irrigation advancements within the last decade have been astounding. Microirrigation
is one of the latest innovations for applying water and it represents a definite advancement in
irrigation technology. It can be defined as the frequent application of small quantities of
water on or below the soil surface as drops, tiny streams or miniature sprays through emitters
or applicators placed along a water delivery lateral line. It differs from sprinkler irrigation by
the fact that only part of the soil surface is wetted. Micro-irrigation encompasses a number of
methods or concepts such as bubblers, drip, trickle, mist or spray and subsurface irrigation.
Surface Drip Irrigation
The application of water to the soil surface as drops or tiny streams through emitters
with discharge rate for point – source emitters less than 8 l/h for single outlet emitter and for
line-source emitters less than 4 l/h. Often the terms drip and trickle irrigation are considered
synonymous.
Subsurface Drip Irrigation
The application of water below the soil surface through emitters, with discharge rate
generally in the range of 0.6 to 4 l/h. This method of water application is different from and
not to be confused with the method where the root zone is irrigated by water table control,
herein referred to as sub irrigation.
Spray Irrigation

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 The application of water by a small spray or mist to the soil surface, water travel
through the air becomes instrumental in the distribution of water. In this category two types
of equipment are in use viz., micro-sprayers and micro-sprinklers. Micro-sprayers and static
micro jets are non-rotating type with flow rates ranging from 20 to 150 l/h, whereas, micro-
sprinklers are rotating type with flow rates ranging from 100 to 300 l/h.
Bubbler Irrigation
The application of water to the surface at a small stream orfountain where the
discharge rate for point source bubbler emitters are greater than the drip or subsurface
emitters but generally less than 225 l/h. Since the emitter discharge rate generally exceeds the
infiltration rate of the soil, a small basin is usually required to contain or control the water.
Present developments and expansion of micro-irrigation
The first reported micro-irrigation experiments began in Germany in 1860, where
subsurface clay pipes were used in combination with irrigation and drainage systems (Davis,
1974). Inthe United States, around 1913 House tried to irrigate with perforated subsurface
pipes, but he indicated that the method was too expensive. Irrigation of plants through narrow
openings in pipes can also be traced back to green house operations in the United Kingdom in
the late 1940s (Davis, 1974). Current micro-irrigation technology dates back to the work of
Blass (1964). Based on the observation that a large tree near a leaking faucet exhibited a
more vigorous growth than other trees in the area,he developed the first patented drip/trickle
irrigation system. Theavailability of low cost plastic pipe for water delivery lines helped to
speed up the use of drip irrigation systems. From Israel the drip irrigation concept spread to
Australia, North America and South Africa by the late 1960s and eventually throughout the
world. The large scale use of drip irrigation system started in 1970s in Australia, Israel,
Mexico, New Zealand, South Africa and USA to irrigate vegetables, orchards and its
coverage was reported as 56,000 ha. The micro-irrigated area grew slowly but steadily and it
was 0.41 million ha in 1981, 1.1 million ha in 1986, 1.77 million ha in 1991, 3.0 million ha in
2000, 6.2 million ha in 2006 and about 8.0 million ha in 2009. At present United States (1.52
million ha) has the greatest land area under micro-irrigation followed by Spain (1.5 million
ha) and India (1.43 million ha). Although micro-irrigation systems are considered the leading
water saving technologies in irrigated agriculture, their adoption is still low. At present, of the
total world irrigated area, about 2.9% (8 million ha) is equipped with micro-irrigation. Most
of the micro-irrigated area is concentrated in Europe and the America. Asia has the highest
area under irrigation (193 million ha, which is 69% of the total irrigated area), but has very
low area 1.8 million ha (<1.0%) under micro-irrigation. In some countries such as Israel &
Jordan, where water availability limits crop production, micro-irrigation systems irrigate
about 75% of the total irrigated area. In India it accounts for 2.3% of the total irrigated area
(62.3 million ha). While the ultimate potential for micro-irrigation in India is estimated at 27
million ha. Micro-irrigation, like other irrigation methods, will not fit every agricultural crop,
specific site or objective. Presently, micro-irrigation has the greatest potential where
(i) water and labour are expensive or scarce;
(ii) water is of marginal quality viz., saline;
(iii) soils are sandy, rocky or difficult to level,
(iv) steep slopes and undulated topography;
(v) high value crops are produced.

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 The principal crops under micro-irrigation are commercial field crops (sugarcane,
cotton, tobacco etc), horticultural crops – fruit & orchard crops, vegetables, flowers, spices &
condiments, bulb & tuber crops, plantation crops and silviculture/forestry plantations. This
method of irrigation continues to be important in the protected agriculture viz., greenhouses
shade nets, shallow & walking tunnels etc., for production of vegetables & flowers. Micro-
irrigation is also used for landscapes, parks, highways, commercial developments and
residences.
Undoubtedly, the area under micro-irrigation will continue toincrease rapidly as the
amount of water available to agriculture declines and the demands for urban and industrial
use increase. Micro-irrigation is also one of the techniques that enable growers to overcome
salinity problems that currently affect 8.0 million ha in India. As this area increases, so too
will the use of micro-irrigation to maintain crop production. In addition, because growers are
looking to reduce cost of production but at the same time improve crop quality, the improved
efficiency provided from micro-irrigation technology will become increasingly important.
Potential advantages of micro-irrigation
Many reports have listed and summarized potential advantages of micro-irrigation
compared to sprinkler and surface irrigation methods. Each irrigation method has possible
advantages and limitations with respect to technical, economical and agronomic (or crop
production) factors. Here, an attempt is made to discuss some ofthe important benefits of
micro-irrigation.
Enhanced Plant Growth, Yield and Quality
The soil water content in a portion of the plant root zone remains fairly constant
because irrigation water can be supplied slowly and frequently at a predetermined rate using
drip irrigation. Generally, the total soil water potential increases (the soil water suction
decreases) with elimination of the wide fluctuations in the soil water content, which typically
result from conventional sprinkler and surface irrigation methods. Under traditional irrigation
methods plants extract water from the soil from Field Capacity down towards Permanent
wilting point. During this transition in the soil moisture, it becomes increasingly difficult for
the plant to extract water and therefore the consumptive water use rate decreases. This
reduction in water use accompanied by a reduction in growth of the plants results in reduced
yields. Ideally to achieve maximum yields the soil moisture level should be slightly below
field capacity. The drip irrigation system with its controlled application of water makes
possible the task of maintaining the soil moisture close to the field capacity, thus resulting in
noticeable increase in growth and yield. The more favourable growing conditions made
possible by drip irrigation will bring the crops into maturity earlier than traditional irrigation
methods.
Water conservation through increased beneficial use of available water.
There is a general agreement that irrigation water requirementscan be less with drip
irrigation than with conventional surface andsprinkler irrigation methods. The savings,
ofcourse, depend on the crop, soil, environmental conditions and theattainable on-farm
irrigation efficiency. Primary reasonsgiven for the water savings include irrigation of a
smaller portion ofthe soil volume, decreased direct soil surface evaporation,reduced water
uptake by weeds due to dry surfaces between rows/trees, reduced irrigation runoff from the
field (the dry soil between rows could also store more precipitation), prevention of runoff
from steep hills and particularly for lowpermeability or crusted soils andcontrolled deep
percolation losses especially on sandysoils below the crop root zone. Sprinkler irrigation
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issubject to water loss by wind drift, increased evaporation, or poorapplication uniformity,
especially with strong winds. Further the increase in yields combined with water savings
results inhigher water use efficiency (WUE). Considerable evidence exists that waters of
higher salinity canbe used with drip irrigation than with other methods without
greatlyreducing crop yields. Minimizing the salinity hazard to plants irrigatedby drip
irrigation can be attributed to:
(i) Dilution of the soil solution’s salt concentration, as a consequence of high frequency the
irrigation used to maintain high soil water contents in the root zone (Bernstein and Francois,
1975; Rhoades et al., 1974);
(ii) Elimination of leaf damage caused by foliar salt absorption with sprinkler irrigation
(Gornat et al., 1973; Bernstein and Francois, 1975);
(iii) Movement of salts beyond the active plant root zone (Patterson andWierenga, 1974;
Tscheschke et al., 1974).
Improved fertilization through fertigation
Drip irrigation offers considerable flexibility in fertilization. Frequent or nearly
continuousapplication of plant nutrients along with the irrigation water isfeasible practice
known as fertigation and appears to be beneficial forcrop production. Several researchers
have proposed various reasons for the increasedefficiency of fertilization. (i) decreased
quantity of applied fertilizer,because fertilizer is applied only to the root zone (ii)improved
timing of fertilization to match plant requirements at variousgrowth stages; and (iii) improved
distribution of fertilizer withminimum leaching beyond the root zone or runoff.However,
fertilizers must be completely soluble in water in orderto be distributed evenly through the
drip system. Chemicals of lowsolubility may precipitate causing blockage of the emitters.
There isusually no problem with nitrogen and potassium compounds (Miller etal., 1976).
Phosphorous is usually added in soluble forms asorthophosphate, as mono ammonium
polyphosphate, phosphoric acid. Microelements may be added in chelate form. The drip
systems is well suited to the application of herbicides and soil-borne diseases and pests, since
localized application only in the wetted area results in the chemicals being more effective at
lower concentrations
Reduced operation labour
Labour and operational costs can be reduced by simultaneous application of water,
fertilizer, herbicide, insecticide, fungicide and other additives through the drip irrigation
system. Localized dry and wet patterns facilitate these simultaneous operations. Further drip
irrigation systems can be easily automated where labour is limited &expensive using simple
automation equipment such as electrical, mechanical or battery operated time clocks that
activate pumps and solenoid valves at selected time during the day.
Maintaining dry foliage
Dry foliage retards the incubation and development of many plant pathogens.
Therefore, less frequent pesticide and fungicideapplication is required under drip irrigation
and the chemicals are not washed from the leaves by irrigation water. An additional
advantage of dry foliage is the avoidance of leaf burn when irrigating with saline water and
the possibility of using eclaimed sewage water without leaf and fruit contamination.
Moreover, dry foliage eliminates direct evaporation loss of water from the canopy, although
such evaporation is sometimes desirable for microclimate modification. Showed a 10%

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reduction in water loss due to avoidance of canopy wetting of potato by drip compared with
sprinkler irrigation.
Potential disadvantages of micro-irrigation
Despite observed successes, several problems have been encountered in the
mechanics of applying water with micro-irrigation equipment for some soils, water qualities
and environmental conditions. Some of the more important possible disadvantages of micro-
irrigation systems as compared to other irrigation methods include the following:
Emitter clogging
Emitter clogging is considered the most serious problem in dripirrigation unless
preventive measures are taken (Bucks et al., 1977). Clogging will adversely affect the rate
and uniformity of water application, increase maintenance costs (as it becomes necessary to
check, replace or reclaim clogged emitters), and result in crop damage and decreased yield if
not detected and corrected early. Researchers and equipment manufacturers have chosen to
solve this problem either by developing emitters which may require less maintenance or by
improving the quality of water before it reaches the emitters. However, all agree that
preventive maintenance (including filtration, chemical water treatment, flushing dripper lines
and field inspection) is probably the most effective solution to emitter clogging.

Mechanical damage
Damage to drip system is sometimes caused by man(implements and vandalism) or by
animals (birds or mammals making holes in the laterals while searching for water). This
damage may be partially prevented by covering the laterals and emitters with a shallow layer
of soil, but by doing so, problems of clogging by roots may occur and furthermore, the
performance of the emitters cannot be easily observed. Trapping, or repelling, the fauna or
providing them with an alternative source of water is sometimes effective. Mechanical
damage may also be induced by annual removal and subsequent installation of the laterals, by
tillage implements or by thermal expansion and contraction, which may disconnect inline
emitters.
Economic limitations
Because equipment requirements are numerous withmicroirrigation, initial
investments and annual costs may be high. The actual costs will vary considerably depending
on the crop, grade of pipelines, filtration equipment, fertigation equipment and the degree of
automation desired. Generally, the system was found to be economically viable in
commercial field crops, vegetables, flowers, orchard& fruit crops.
Operational constraints
High technical skills are required for the proper design andmaintenance of drip
irrigation systems. The filtration requirements are stringent and should be designed according
to fluctuations in water quality. Careful monitoring of the filtration system, the operating
pressures and the emitter flow rates is required. Drip systems have a limited buffering
capacity because of the limited wetted root volume. Therefore, any malfunction of pumping,
filtration, fertilizing or chlorination equipment or any leak in mains or laterals can have a
disastrous consequence, if not corrected in a timely manner. This is especially true for a

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subsurface system, where the emitters are buried and any failures caused by clogging are
difficult to observe and still more difficult to repair.
System components
Much significant advancement has occurred in the design ofcomponents and
microirrigation systems. The basic components of a micro-irrigation system can be grouped
into three subsystems viz., control head unit, water carrier system and water distribution
system besides a pumping station (Fig. 2.1).

Fig. 6.1: Layout of drip system

• Head control unit – Non return valve, Air release valve, Vacuum breaker, Filtration
unit, Fertigation unit, Throttle valve,Pressure gauge, Water meter, Pressure regulator and
Pressure relief valve.
• Water carrier system – PVC main pipeline, PVC submainpipeline, Control valve,
Flush valve and other fittings.
• Water distribution system – Drip lateral, Emitters, Micro sprinklers, Grommet, Start
connector, Nipple, End Cap.The water distribution system components vary depending upon
the type of emitter device selected by the farmer to suit his soil and crop requirement. For
example if the farmer is growing citrus or mango at wider spacing, drip system with online
emitters is recommended. On the other hand if he is growing vegetable or field crop like
sugarcane or cotton crop with narrow spacing, integral dripline with line source emitters
would be appropriate. In fruit crops with more than 10 years age spray irrigation viz., either
micro sprinkler or micro jets may be advisable in view of adaptability problems with drip
irrigation.
Emitters
Many different emitters have been devised and manufactured within the last decade.
Some of the more distinctive designs are the short-path, long-path, short-orifice, vortex,
pressure-compensating, self-flushing, perforated single and double - chamber tubing, as well
as porous – tubing emitters. These designs can beclassified into two types, point source and
line source. Point – source systems discharge water from individual or multiple outlets that
are spaced at least 1 m apart. Line – source systems have perforations, holes, or porous walls
in the irrigation tubing that discharge water at close spacings, or even continuously along a
lateral line. Typically, point-source emitters are used for tree crops, vines, ornamentals and
shrubs, whereas line-source emitters are used for small fruits, vegetables, or other closely
spaced row crops. Better materials and manufacturing have improved extrusion and molding

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of point-source emitters. Multilayer bonding and laser techniques have enhanced the
reliability of line-source emitters. A miscellaneous group of emitters (bubblers, low-head
sprayers, spitters, foggers, etc.) can also be included, since they resemble both a point –
source emitter and a small sprinkler.
Hydraulically, most emitter flow regimes can be characterized by the Reynolds
number, Re, defined as
Re =vd/v

{Where v is the emitter flow velocity (m/sec), d is the emitter diameter (m), and v is the
Kinematic viscosity (m2/sec).} Four flow regimes are defined as: (1) laminar, Re<2000; (2)
unstable, 2000≤Re≤4000;(3) partially turbulent, 4000≤Re≤10,000; and (4) fully turbulent,
10,000 ≤Re.Keller and Karmeli (1974, 1975) and Howell and Hiler (1974) have suggested
that the emitter flow function can be given as
q =cHe

{Where q is the emitter discharge rate (liters/hr), c is the emitter discharge coefficient that
depends on the choice of units, H is the emitter pressure head (m), and e is the emitter
discharge exponent that characterizes the flow regime. For fully turbulent flow, e = 0.5; for
partially turbulent flow, 0.5<e<0.7; for the unstable flow regime, 0.7<e<1.0; and for laminar
flow e=1.0. Short-orifice emitters arealways fully turbulent, where as long-path or other
emitters may vary in flow characteristics.}
Many manufacturers provide standard curves that showaverage emitter discharge
rates for different operating pressure heads under laboratory conditions.
Distribution lines and Fitting
Distribution lines consist of a network of graduated pipe sizes starting with a single,
large main line followed by smaller sub-main and lateral lines. The buried main and submain
lines are normally of rigid polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe. They can also consist of lay-flat
PVC pipe (temporary surface lines for row crops), asbestos-cement pipe (main line for tree
crops), or polyethylene (PE) plastic (temporary surface lines for all crops). Main and submain
lines range in diameter from 4 to 15 cm and should have valved outlets for periodic pipeline
flushing. The submain line may also contain pressure regulators or flow control valves,
manual or automatic control valves, secondary filters for final filtration or protection against
pipeline breakage, or additional safety devices. Lateral lines are usually of PE plastic and
range in diameter from 8 to 25 mm, with the 14-mm size being most common. Early versions
of PE tubing developed cracking problems, caused by polyaxial stress from the insertion of
fittings that were larger than the inside diameter of the lateral, and/or by the thermal or
chemical environment. Stress cracks also developed where ends of PE lateral were closed off
or crimped. Improved PE pipe extrusion techniques, the use of cross-linking methods and
ultraviolet decomposition inhibitors, the proper sizing of barb fittings and the development of
compression fittings have eliminated most of the problems. Also, polybutylene is sometimes
used in place of PE for lateral lines to avoid stress cracking.
System control, Water measurement and Automation
The main control station for a trickle irrigation system consistsof a pump, a back
flow - prevention device, a primary filter, a pressure regulator (or automatic or mechanical

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flow control valves), pressure gauges, a water meter and sometimes automation and chemical
injection equipment. Some of these components will be discussed in greater detail later in this
chapter. The importance of installing a water measurement device on every trickle system has
been too often overlooked. A water meter is needed to check initial designs, to manage or
schedule irrigations and to monitor possible maintenance problems. Frequent measurement of
the flow rate to various sections of the field facilitates detection of problems before they
become serious. For example, a gradual decrease in flow rate may indicate a clogged
secondary filter or emitter, whereas a sudden increase in flow could suggest a break in the
distribution lines. Because discharge rates for trickle emitters are normally low, smaller
capacity and less costly water meters can be used for trickle than for other traditional
irrigation methods. Trickle systems are readily automated. Single and multistationtimers or
controllers and related solenoid valves are easily installed to eliminate the work of turning
water on or off manually. Filter back washing and lateral line flushing for system
maintenance can also be automated. Soil moisture sensors can be used to activate control
systems.
System design and evaluation
Before any system is installed, the hydraulic design should beadequately evaluated
and the emission uniformity continually evaluated for assuring maximum economical and
efficient operation.

Hydraulics
The flow regime throughout a trickle irrigation system ishydraulically steady,
spatially varied pipe flow with lateral outflows. The total discharge in the distribution
network (Lateral, sub main and main lines) decreases with respect to distance from the pump.
The lateral and sub-main have similar hydraulic characteristics and are designed to maintain a
small pressure variation along the lateral line. The main line is designed in terms of input
pressures and minimal required pressures at any sub- main line. Trickle design principles are
similar to those developed for sprinkler irrigation systems except that the flow rates are lower
and the number of outlets (sub mains, laterals and emitters) is larger. Trickle irrigation
distribution lines are normally considered to be smooth pipes, and either the Darcy –
Weisbach or Hazen – Williams equation can be used to compute friction losses for the
pipelines.
The Darcy – Weisbach equation is
Hf=6.38fLD-5Q2

{Where Hf is the pipe friction loss (m), L is the pipe length (m), D is the inside pipe diameter
(mm), Q is the pipe flow rate (liters/hr), and f is a dimensionless friction factor. An
acceleration of gravity of 9.81 m/sec2 was assumed in this equation.}
Watters and Keller (1978) proposed a
simplified form of Hf = 6.38fLD-5Q2
Hf=0.465LD-4.75Q1.75
{Equation (Hf = 0.465LD-4.75Q1.75) incorporates a friction factor estimated from the
Blasius equation for smooth pipes with a water temperature of 200C (v=1.0×10-6 m2/sec).}

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The empirically developed Hazen – Williams equation is
Hf=0.628LD-4.865[(100Q)/C]1.852
{Where C is a dimensionless pipe roughness factor. Equation
(Hf = 0.628 LD-4.865 [(100Q)/C]1.852) is widely used because of its simplicity, although it
has no correction for viscosity. Care should be taken inselecting the C values.} Hughes and
Jeppson (1978) showed that the selection of the proper C for Hf = 0.628 LD-4.865
[(100Q)/C]1.852 obviously depends on the Reynolds number Re; and Howell et al. (1980)
suggested that the best C values for trickle irrigation systems were C = 130 for 14-15 mm
pipe, C = 140 for 18-19 mm pipe, and C = 150 for 25-27-mm pipe. A low estimate of C will
overestimate the friction loss, whereas a high estimate will result in more conservative
friction loss for design purposes}. Pressure variations along a trickle irrigation line are
primarily due to friction and slope. Numerous publications and books describe the basic
principles, procedures and details for proper sizing of trickle irrigation pipelines present
design charts for lateral, sub-main and main lines for different field slopes, shapes and pipe
sizes along with design examples. Some of the more recent developments in trickle irrigation
hydraulics are as follows; Bresler (1978) introduced a design procedure using both soil water
flow models and hydraulics; Keller and Karmeli (1974) developed a compact “polyplot”
design technique for tapered submains; Braud and Soom (1981) introduced design equations
including both emitter and pipeline hydraulics; and Wu and Gitlin (1981) developed double –
inlet and inflow – outflow systems using network design principles. Steady and non-steady
infiltration models (Bresler, 1978) wereused to calculate the desired spacing between emitters
as a functionof their discharge, soil hydraulic properties and crop sensitivity towater stress.
Ideally, trickle irrigation systems should be designed with emitter spacings and discharge
rates such that small depression ponds of less than 0.2 m in diameter will develop beneath or
around an emitter without runoff or down slope channelization. Varying the size of submain
lines gives the designer an opportunity to reduce costs, investigate alternate designs and
develop site-specific designs (Keller and Karmeli, 1974). Design equations in a form that
include emitter characteristics (emitter exponent, emitter variability, etc.) as well as lateral
line hydraulics (length, diameter, land slope, etc.) are being developed for analysis by
programmable digital calculators (Braud and Soom, 1981). Multiple-inlet systems can be
designed with a combination of double-inlet (inflow from both ends of a lateral line from two
submains) and inflow – outflow (inflow from a submain to a lateral line with out flow to the
next submain line) in a total network design (Wu and Gitlin, 1981). This type of design can
permit any length of lateral in varying field shapes and terrain. As a general recommendation,
lateral lines should seldom be more than 300 m long and should be laid down slope for less
than 5% slopes. If the slope exceeds 5%, laterals should be installed along the field contour,
pressure compensating emitters specified, or pressure control devices installed. Uniformity of
water application along lateral lines can also be improved by changing emitter sizes (Myers
and Bucks, 1972). The fixed emitter characteristics are normally adequate from a hydraulic
standpoint for level terrain.
Emission Uniformity
Several methods have been proposed for assessing theuniformity of water application
in irrigation systems. The term emission uniformity has generally been used to describe the
emitter flow variation for a trickle irrigation unit or subunit. Emission uniformity can be a
function of:

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(1) Hydraulic variation caused by evaluation changes and friction losses along distribution
lines.
(2) Emitter discharge variation at a given operating pressure caused by manufacturing
variability, clogging water temperature changes, and aging.
Presently, no design equation has been developed that includesall the factors which
might affect emission uniformity.

Advantages-drip irrigation

Because of its high efficiency.

Allows for flexibility in the timing and amounts of applied water.
Less water is applied, nutrient leaching is reduced.
Nutrient applications can also be better timed to meet plant needs.

Disadvantages-Similar to the long path emitters with a shorter and smaller water path.
Advantages: Low costs and operating on very low-pressure systems, such as gravity flow drip
systems fed by water from rain barrels. Disadvantages: Clogging up easily and poor water
distribution uniformity compared to other emitter types.

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 Experiment No.7: Canopy management

Canopy management is the ‘art’ of fruit growing - it is much more than cutting off a
few branches. In fact, as you will learn in this document, removing wood from a tree is one of
the last things you want to do. To optimize your fruit crop, thoughtful canopy management is
one of the most important subjects to master, and the best way to master it is through
practice!
Necessity of canopy management
Fruit trees produce fruit regardless of human intervention. Fruits house the seeds
needed for trees to reproduce – when birds and animals eat the fruits, they distribute the seeds
to start new growth.

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 However, for human consumption, it is important to manage fruit tree canopies to
optimize the balance between vegetative growth and fruit production, and also to keep fruit
picking manageable. An unmanaged canopy will grow all its fruit 25 – 30 feet in the air,
which is difficult and just plain dangerous to get at!
Managing a canopy will help to develop a strong tree that will support heavy crop loads,
while increasing fruit production and improving fruit quality in the long-term.
The Basics
There are three primary methods for managing fruit tree canopies:
Pruning:
The removal of limbs or branches from the tree. This is what most of us think of as
canopy management, but it is only one part of a larger process.
Training:
Positioning limbs in specific ways to manage growth, rather than removing them.
Train rather than prune when possible!
Horticultural Practice:
Addition of nutrients, water, etc. E.g. Rather than cutting limbs, cut back on water and
nitrogen to stop excessive tree growth.
Timing for the canopy management
It’s best to prune a fruit tree when it is dormant – typically the dormant season is in
the winter months, running from around November to early March. Pruning during the
dormant season is ideal for several reasons:
1. You can see the shape and structure of the tree, as there are no leaves – this gives you a
better idea of what you’re working with.
2. The tree’s physiological response to pruning will be predictable throughout the dormant
season – whether you prune in November or February, the tree’s growth response will be the
same. The metabolic processes are slow to non existent.
3. If you prune during the growing season (spring through fall), it is impossible to know what
stage of growth the tree is in, and so it’s growth response is unpredictable.
4. Microorganisms (e.g. bacterial and fungal infections) are plentiful during the summer
months. Pruning in the summer creates wounds that make trees more susceptible to
infections.
Toolkit for Canopy Management
Rather than cutting away limbs, we can learn to manipulate trees based on our
understanding of how they grow and develop.
As mentioned in our guide on Fruit Tree Management, all commercially grown fruit
trees are made up of two genetically distinct organisms: a root stock and a scion. The
rootstock of your tree will affect the way its canopy grows – a dwarf tree that will only grow
to 5ft must be managed differently than a standard tree that could grow to 25 ft.

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 The more ‘dwarfing’ a rootstock, the more inclined the tree will be to produce
flowers and fruits. Because they don’t produce as much vegetative (structural) growth, dwarf
trees often need to be supported by posts and trellises.
Mechanisms for growth of trees
Trees have a set amount of energy (created through photosynthesis) that they can use
to grow. Based on external and internal cues, they will produce either reproductive growth or
vegetative growth. Canopy management manipulates the allocation of the tree’s resources to
favour one kind of growth over another – creating the right balance is crucial!
Maintaining the Balance
Optimum rate of reproduction
We want as much fruit as possible, but too much emphasis on fruit will prevent good
structure. If a tree bears too much fruit too early, it can become ‘runted out’, or unable to
grow adequately, and will produce far less fruit in the long run. It is important that enough
vegetative growth occurs in roots, branches, etc. to ensure that the tree is healthy and sturdy.
Optimum rate of vegetation
Because one form of growth occurs at the expense of the other, the best way to
control overly vigorous vegetative growth is to let the tree fruit. Pruning can delay fruiting –
if you want more fruit, sooner, don’t prune.
Appearance for growth of good vegetation
Current season growth should be between 18 – 20 inches. More than that is excessive
and should be controlled. Less than that will not be enough to support fruit.
Trees grow in two ways:
Primary Growth:
Growth in length of limbs. This form of growth results from the activity of the ‘apical
meristem’, which creates undifferentiated cells (cells which have no particular function, but
will eventually be differentiated to become blossoms, bark, etc.).
Secondary Growth:
Growth outwards and in diameter (i.e. thickening of the limbs). When managing the
canopy, it’s important to know what age of wood you’re working with. This is referred to in
years, e.g. one year old wood, two year old wood, etc.
Current Season Growth:
It is the new shoot growth expanding from the last terminal bud. At the end of the
season, when the tree goes dormant, it sets up a new terminal bud at the end of the growth.
That growth then becomes one-year-old wood. Over time you will be able to recognize old
terminal buds (bud scale scars) and the age of the wood stemming from them.

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 Fig: 7.1: Growth mechanisms of stem
Tree Habits
Every tree has tendencies towards certain shapes of growth – knowing and
understanding these tendencies can make canopy management much more efficient.
Growth Habit
The growth habit of a tree is its natural inclination towards a certain canopy shape.
There are two basic growth habits:
Acrotonic: Strong growth at the top of the tree, at the expense of weaker growth on lower
levels. Red Delicious apple has this tendency.
Basitonic: Lower branches are stronger and outgrow the top of the tree. Braeburn apple
trees have this tendency.
There are also a number of growth habits in between, such as columnar or conical
shaped canopies. When managing a canopy, we generally seek to develop a conical shape
where the top of the tree is narrower than the bottom. This is easier to do with a basitonic
growth habit. Not sure what kind of growth habit you’re dealing with? Keep an eye on it as
the leaves fall – the structure of the branches will become apparent.

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 Acrotonic Growth Habit Basitonic Growth Habit

Fig: 7.2: Growth habits of shoot

Fruiting Habit
A tree’s fruiting habit refers to the timing of its fruit production.
Pome Fruits (apple, pear) will only produce fruit on three year old wood or older. New
shoots become year 1 wood. The cells will differentiate in year 2, developing small spurs
which will eventually bear fruit. This wood overwinters, and blooms in year 3. Good fruit
production will occur on 4 – 5 year old wood, which is why you want to avoid pruning it all
off!
Stone Fruits (plum, peach, cherry) produce fruit on two year old wood. Buds grow in late
summer, after the harvest, rather than in early spring.
Pruning older wood (e.g. 7 years and older) renews a tree’s fruit production capacity
- as wood ages, it becomes too twisted and vascular for good reproductive growth

N.B-Trees need sun to grow! In addition to the sun required to fuel the vegetative growth
process:
•Trees require a minimum of 35% illumination throughout the day for flowers to appear.
•Without sun, apples will not develop any color.
•If we let a canopy grow unmanaged, sunlight will not reach lower branches; fruit will grow
on the outside and the top of the trees. To let sunlight filter through all parts of the canopy,
narrow the top of the tree, and thin out the branches as you work your way in to the center.
This is one of the only times where pruning is the best solution!

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Apical Dominance
The apical meristem, or growing tip, is a completely undifferentiated tissue found in
the terminal bud of a tree. Its main function is to grow new cells at the tips of roots and
shoots (forming buds, among other things). An active apical meristem lays down a growing
root or shoot behind itself, pushing itself forward.
Apical dominance is where the meristem at the tip of the main trunk prevents or
inhibits the growth of other meristems. This dominant meristem, which releases the hormone
Auxin, promotes
vegetative growth.
Therefore, the tip of the
trunk grows rapidly
and is not shadowed by
branches. If the
dominant meristem is
cut off, one or more
other branch tips will
become dominant.
These newly dominant
branches will start
growing faster and the
Fig: 7.3: Apical dominance at work Altering the flow of auxin
new growth will be
vertical, leading to
bushy growth.
We can train a tree by bringing shoots/branches down to horizontal, altering the flow
of Auxin. The lower you pull the branch, the more new breaking buds you will create.
Pruning
All pruning is dwarfing in the sense that it reduces the overall size of the tree. Any
growth stimulated by cutting is local and temporary. There are two main kinds of cuts used in
pruning:
Heading:
Cutting one year old wood to
destroy apical dominance and invigorate
local growth.
(Do not go overboard with heading cuts –
end up with a bush.)

Fig 7.4: Heading back method of

pruning

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Thinning Out:
Removing a shoot or shoot system at the point of origin. These cuts allow sunshine to
filter through and penetrate the tree’s branches. Avoid cutting everything – often you can find
one or two optimal thinning cuts that will affect the whole canopy. Thinning cuts stop or
greatly weaken growth – you are basically
telling the branch that it’s time is done.

Fig 7.5: Thinning out method of pruning

Training
Training is a practice that allows tree growth to be directed into a desired shape and
form. Training young fruit trees is essential for proper treedevelopment.
Central Leader:
For dwarfing trees, it is common to use a Central Leader System. Weak side shoots
are trimmed back in favour of a central trunk with side branches.

Fig 7.6: Central leader system of training

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Open-Centre:
In larger trees we aim for a beehive or A shape – a slight narrowing at the top and
bottom.

Fig 7.7: Open centre system of

training
Modified leader:
This system of training is between the central
leader and open centre. During the period of training the
central leader is cut back slightly and not allowed to
become dominant. The process of cutting back and
selecting laterals is respected until the proper number and
distribution of branches have been obtained. The modified
leader is most desirable for many fruit plants because it
combines the most important advantages of the above two
types.

Fig 7.8:
Modified leader system of training
Espalier:
A great method for saving space when growing dwarf trees – training limited
branches horizontally.

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Fig 7.9: Espalier system of training

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 Experiment No.8:EC, pH based fertilizer scheduling

Preserving environment in farming is now becoming main concern since use of inputs
like fertilizers &pesticides has been widely employed. Site–specific application of
agricultural chemicals is an effective way of resource saving and environmental protection.
Precise farming implementation is now gaining popularity and widely accepted as one of
smart solutions to sustain agriculture production without ignoring environment. In
appropriate nutrient inputs has affected environment and human’s health. Indiscriminate use
of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers has led to ground water pollution. So the farmers have
to pay attention to nutrient control into their farming techniques. The balanced nutrition level
to plant is provided by managing pH and Electrical conductivity level of fertilizer solution
according to soil pH and electrical conductivity. Design consist of two sensors to measure pH
and EC of the fertilizer solution and soil.
The pH and EC (electrical conductivity) are the two important indices of fertilization.
They represent the wholequality and characteristics of fertilizers and water. It varies for
different plants and soils.
(a) pH
pH give the information of acidity or alkalinity of solution. . A pH reading of 7 is
neutral because there are equal concentrations of (H+) and (OH-) is ideal for many plants and
spray materials. pH = - log [H+] (neg. log of the H+ conc.) pH level gives the availability of
nutrients in the soil or fertilizer solution. pH range of fertilizers solution delivered in soil
effects the soil properties. Calcium, Phosphorus, potassium and magnesium are unavailable to
plants in acidic soil. Plants have difficulty in absorbing micronutrients like copper, zinc,
boron, manganese and iron in basic soils; however their presence in soil can also be excessive
and become toxic to plants. A higher quantity of bicarbonate ions are contained inbasic soil
which affects the optimum growth in plants by interfering with the normal uptake of other
ions.
(b) Electrical Conductivity
Salinity of solution is measured by common way using electricalconductivity (EC)
sensor. This sensor measures the electricity moves through a saltier solution, the electricity
moves through it is directly proportional to the conductivity readings. EC is measured in
dS/cm (deciSiemens per centimeter). In all soils salts are naturally present additional salts
build up in the soil by higher concentration of
fertilizers applied .

Fertilizers selection
The main factors affecting fertilizers composition are the plant characteristics, soil
characteristics, irrigation waterquality and growing place. Major nutrients nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) are supplied to plant through fertigation process. However
calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) are sometimes supplied in the field. When potassium
sulphate and magnesium sulphate are used to supply K and Mg respectively, soil also gets
Sulphur (S) in addition. The micronutrients such as boron (B), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn),
zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) and molybdenum (Mo) are generally applied as foliar sprays because
they are required in small amounts. Fertilizers to manage pH and EC-Soil pH is altered by the
application of fertilizers solution. Ammonium forming fertilizers make solution acidic while
nitrate forming fertilizers contains basic ions and are less acid forming makesolution alkaline.

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Ammonium and ammonium forming fertilizers (ex. urea) are used to decrease pH level.
Elementalsulphur, ammonium sulphate, and compounds such as iron or aluminiumsulphates
can reduce the soil pH. Acidic soils are neutralized with the application of lime addition in
soil. The requirement of lime dependent upon the buffering capacity of the soil. The Saline
soils are also termed as alkaline soil. Gypsum is the most common amendment used to
remove excessive amounts of
sodium ions (Na+) from soil profile and improve saline soil. Gypsum is used to
improve saline and alkaline soil having pH range up to 9.0. Sulphur, iron sulphate , iron
pyrite used for soil having pH level 8.0-9.0, lime stone is used having pH less than 8.0.
Mixing of fertilizer-The mixing container with 50 - 75% of the required water should be used
in the mixture if mixing dry soluble fertilizers. Always put acid into water rather than water
into acid.When chlorinating water with chlorine always add chlorine to water and not vice
versa. Acid or acidified fertilizers cannot be mixed with chlorine.
A. Measuring pH
Fertizer’s pH is measured using pH electrode. The output signal of pH electrode is in
milli-volts (mV). Theworking of pH electrode is based on the principle that a potential is
developed when two solutions of different pH comes in contact through a thin glass
membrane. The pH electrode is consists of glass electrode and reference electrode the
potential between these two electrodes.
B. Measuring EC
The electrical conductivity of a solution is measured by determining the resistance of the
solution between two flat orcylindrical electrode separated by a fixed distance. The resistance
is measured by a conductivity cell. An alternating voltage is used in to avoid electrolysis.The
parameter cell constant of conductivity cell is used to convert the conductance measured by
conductivity cell and is defined by

K= d/A
K = Cell constant or Cell factor
d = Distance between the electrodes
A = Area of the electrodes

NITROGEN BASED-
Sodium nitrate
Potassium nitrate
Ammonium sulphate
Ammonium Nitrate
Urea (CO (NH2)2)
Guano
Groundnut cake
PHOSPHORUS -
Single Superphosphate (16% P2O 5 Powdered)
ii. Omitted

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 Triple Superphosphat Bone meal, Raw
v. Bone meal, Steamed
vi. Rockphosphate
vii. Single Superphosphate (16% P2O 5 Granulated
viii. Superphosphoric Acid (70% P2O 5 )
POTASSIUM-
Potassium Chloride (Muriate of Potash)

ii. Potassium Sulphate

iii. Potassium Schoenite
iv. Potassium Chloride (Muriate of Potash) (Granular)
v. Potash derived from Molasses
COMPLETE Fertilizer-----
Diammonium Phosphate (18-46-0)

ii. Diammonium Phosphate (16-44-0)--------phosporous

iii. Ammonium Phosphate Sulphate (16-20-0)------nitrogen
iv. Ammonium Phosphate Sulphate (20-20-0)-------nitrogen,
phosphate
v. Ammonium Phosphate Sulphate Nitrate (20-20-0)-------nitrogen
phosphate
vi. Ammonium Phosphate Sulphate (18-9-0)-------nitrogen phosphate

vii. Nitro Phosphate (20-20-0)----------nitrogrm, phosphate

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 Experiment No. 9: Visit to hi-tech orchard/nursery

India is endowed with a remarkably heterogeneous area characterized by a great

diversity of agro climatic zones, allowing for production of a variety of horticultural crops
such as fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices, plantation crops, root and tuber crops, and
medicinal and aromatic crops. Agriculture is the backbone of our country and has a prime

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role in Indian economy. Agricultural sector provides livelihood to more than 65 percent of
the labour force. Under agriculture sector horticultural crops play very important role to
economy. It ranks second in fruits and vegetables production in the world, after China. As per
National Horticulture Database published by National Horticulture Board, during 2014-15
India produced 86.602 million metric tonnes of fruits and 169.478 million metric tonnes of
vegetables. Horticulture is the science or art of cultivating fruits, vegetables, flowers, or
ornamental plants. Etymologically, "horticulture" can be broken down into two Latin words:
hortus(garden)and cultus(tilling). As William L. George explains in his definition as
"Horticulture involves five areas of study”. These areas are floriculture (includes production
and marketing of floral crops), landscape horticulture (includes production, marketing and
maintenance of landscape plants), floriculture (includes production and marketing of
vegetables), pomology (includes production and marketing of fruits), and postharvest
physiology which involves maintaining quality and preventing spoilage of horticultural
crops."Horticulture is the cultivation of garden plants, fruits, berries, nuts, vegetables,
flowers, trees, shrubs and turf. Horticulturists work for plant propagation, crop production,
plant breeding, genetic engineering, plant biochemistry, plant physiology, storage, processing
and transportation. They work to better crop yield, quality, nutritional value and resistance to
insects, diseases, and environmental pollution. Horticulturalists use modern nurseries for the
production of seedlings and mother plants. These plants are propagated through different
methods such as seeds, inarching, budding, veneer grafting, patch budding and soft wood
grafting.
Horticulture exports have helped the country to earn Rs 14,000 crore in 2011-12.
Horticulture accounts for 30% of India’s agricultural GDP from 8.5% of the cropped area.
India’s major exports include onion, mango pulp, fresh mangoes, dried walnuts, fresh grapes.
India’s biggest export markets are South Asian and Middle East Countries. India’s share in
the global market is insignificant – it accounts for 1.7% of the global trade in vegetables and
0.5% in fruits. Twenty two types of fruits (e.g. banana, mango, citrus, apple, guava, grapes,
pineapple, papaya, pomegranate etc.), 20 types of vegetables (e.g. potato, brinjal, tomato,
tapioca, onion, cabbage, cauliflower, okra etc.), flowers (loose and cut) plantation crops
(coconut, cashew nut, areca nut, cocoa), spices (e.g. mustard seed, chilli, turmeric, garlic,
ginger, tamarind, coriander, cumin, pepper, fenugreek etc.) and some aromatic and medicinal
plants are being produced. Nursery is defined as an area where plants are raised for eventual
planting out. It comprises of nursery beds, paths irrigated channels etc. Nursery bed is
defined as a prepared area in a nursery where seed is sown or into which seedlings or cuttings
are raised. On the bases of kind of plants growing in them nursery beds are classified into
seedling beds and transplant beds, seedlings, beds are those nursery beds in which seedlings
are raised either for, transplanting in other beds or for planting out. A nursery which has only
seedling beds i.e. in which seedlings are only raised for transplanting is called seedlings
nursery. Transplant beds are those nursery beds in which seedlings raised in seedling beds are
transplanted before planting out in forest. A nursery that has only transplant beds i.e. in which
seedlings are transplanted in preparation for forest planting is called transplant nursery. In
India separate seedling and transplant nurseries are seldom made in the same nursery.
Generally whatever is grown in nursery for planting out is called nursery stock.
The aim of good nursery management is to provide planting material of the highest
possible quality for new development areas and replanting. This aim is of the greatest
important as the areas planted are likely to have a productive life span of 25 years or more.
Poor planting materials will lead to low yield and unnecessary thinning cost top rid off runts
in planted field. So, the selection of good planting materials and strict culling in nursery are
the important step. The importance of the best quality planting material as an initial
investment is a well realized factor for persons engaged in Horticulture field. So nurseries

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have great demand for the production of plants, bulbs, rhizomes, suckers and grafts. But in
general good quality and assured planting material at reasonable price is not available. So
persons having a skill of propagation of plants can go for this avenue as an agro-business of
future. Seedling production is a major expense of afforestation and every effort should be
made to produce good quality seedlings at a reasonable cost. To this end mastering the
techniques of nursery operations is essential means high tech nursery management is very
essential. (Mboraet al., 2008)
State of Indian Agriculture 2011-12 reported the increase in per capita availability of
fruit (from 115 gram to 172 gram per day) and vegetables (from 236 gram to 312 gram per
day) between 2001-02 and 2010-11. As per FSI (2011), the total forest cover increased and
reached 692027 km2 (21.05% of geographic area) while the total tree cover has been
estimated to be 90,844 km2 (2.76% of geographic area). Even though the agriculture
production is in an upward trend, the increase in population, inflation and climate uncertainty
warrants efforts towards sustainable agriculture.
The main suppliers of perennial tree seedlings are the departmental/government and
industrial nurseries. They are producing seedlings and vegetative propagules to meet their
own seedling demand and also supply them to public to meet their raw material demand.
Mostly the vegetable and ornamental seedlings are produced by the farmers themselves, due
to the market availability of improved seed and requirement of minimum inputs to establish
them. Since the price of ornamental seedlings mainly depends on the buyer's interest, size of
planting material, the small private nurseries mostly concentrate on the ornamental
seedling/propagule production to fetch more profit.
The industrial nurseries are well equipped with infrastructure, manpower, automation
and target to produce seedling/propagules of short rotation tree species to meet their factory
raw material demand such as pulp and paper, plywood, small timber for furniture, juice, jam
and pickle making. Hence, different kind of nurseries targets various end products. But
nursery is pre requisite for meeting the quality seedlings demand and nursery management is
a potential tool to execute the activity in successful way.
Popular hitechnursery in India are

1. TanishkaHitech Nursery, Pune, Maharashtra

2. Sangeeta Hi-Tech Nursery, Tindivanam, Pondicherry
3. Ankur Hi-tech Nursery, Latur, Maharashtra
4. Anjali Hitech Nursery, Belgaum,

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