5.et Unit 1

ME 6301-Engineering Thermodynamic
Unit-1- BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW
Unit 1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
Thermo means heat and dynamic means motion
Thermodynamics is the field of science, which deals energy transfer (heat,

work), and properties of system.
Conversion of heat energy into power plays important role. One of the
important fundamental laws is conservation of energy principle. Therefore, the
first law of thermodynamics is simply an expression of conservation of energy.
Ex: a) A ball falling from a tower picks speed because of its potential energy (PE)
being converted to kinetic energy (KE).
b) A person eating more and working less i.e., a person who has a greater energy
input (food) than energy output (exercise) will gain weight (store energy in the
form of fat).
- Thermodynamics is a field of science, which deals,
(a) Energies possessed by gases and vapours.
(b) Conservation of energies and
(c) The relationship with properties of system.
Applications of Thermodynamics law & principles
- House hold appliances such as pressure cooker, electric heater and shower.
- Internal combustion (I.C) engines (Deals chemical energy of a fuel into work).
- Refrigeration and Air conditioning.
- Compressors.
- Pumps.
- Gas turbines.
- Steam and nuclear power plants.
- Gas dynamics and jet propulsion and
- Cryogenic systems.
Types of Thermodynamics
Department of Mechanical Engineering Page 1 of Unit 1
1. Classical thermodynamic (or) Macroscopic approach

2. Statistical thermodynamic (or) Microscopic approach
Macroscopic/Classical/Engineering Approach Microscopic/Statistical Approach
Macro means big. Micro means small.
It is the overall behaviour of the system (System It is the individual behaviour of the
is considered as whole) and intermolecular molecule in the system (The effect of
spacing or free mean path are negligible. molecular motion is considered).
It is an average approach. It is a detailed approach for get

complete details.
Properties (p, V and T) can be sensed by human Properties cannot be measured with
senses or measuring instruments. Ex: Pressure common instruments. Ex: Momentum.
and temperature.
To describe a system, only a few properties and To describe a system, large number of
simple equations are required. variables and many complicated
equations are required.
Both approaches used to study the behaviour of the system but most of the
analyses are based on macroscopic approach.
Concept of Continuum

- A continuous homogenous medium is known as continuum.

- The continuum refers to a continuous distribution of matter.
- There is no macroscopic void and cavities present.
It indicates that every part of the system is similar to the adjacent parts.
Ideal (or) hypothetical (or) Perfect gas Real Gas
(or) Characteristic gas equation (or)
Equation of state (or) Ideal gas Law (or)
Equation
It is an imaginary substance that obey the The gas which does not obey the ideal
gas laws pV = mRT at all conditions of gas is called as real gas.
pressure and temperature.
No intermolecular forces between the It having particle attraction.

molecules.
Equation of state : f (p, v, T) = 0 and pV = pV = ZRT (or) pV = nRT

mRT Characteristic gas equation: pv/T
Let,
= C or pv = RT or p = ρRT or or pV =
nRuT. Z =1 (Ideal gas)
Z > 1 (or) Z < 1 (Real gas).
Thermodynamic System (or) System
- A system is a matter on which analysis (energy conversions) studied.

- The state of a system is described by the properties (p,v & T).
Types of system
1. Based on the mass and energy transfer

i) Closed system / cycle (or) Non ii) Open system / cycle (or) Flow
– flow process / system process / system (or) Control
(or)Thermodynamic cycle (or) volume (or) Control surface

Control mass (or) Fixed mass
The same working substance is The working substance enter the

recirculated again and again and system and leaves to atmosphere
finally return to initial state. after doing work.
No mass transfer and only energy Both mass and energy (heat and
(heat and work) crosses the work) transfer takes place.
boundary.
System boundary is fixed. System boundary may or may not

change.
A certain quantity of matter
(control mass) is considered. A certain region (control volume)
is considered.
Ex: Pressure cooker, cylinder and Ex: I.C engines, ceiling fan,
piston arrangement, Thermal windmill, centrifugal pump, gas
power plant, Refrigerator, mixture turbine, nozzle, boiler, compressor,
of ice and water in a container. pVϒ = C, p = C, V = C and T = C.
iii) Isolated System

- It is an imaginary system.
- No mass and no energy (heat and work) transfer i.e., No interaction between
system and surrounding.
- Total energy remains constant (E = 0).
- Ex: Universe, thermo flask and nuclear waste package.
2. Based on the composition
i) Homogeneous system
- A system has a single phase (uniform chemical composition).
- Ex: Crude oil, air in the cycle tube, mixture of air and water vapour and water in
the bottle.
ii) Heterogeneous system
- A system consists of more than one phase.
- Ex: Water + steam, water + oil, water + ice and fog.

Surrounding (or) Environment

Everything external to the system is called surrounding.
Boundary (or) Control Surface (or) Control Volume

- It separate system and from surrounding.
- It may be real or imaginary.
- It may be fixed boundary (Ex: Rigid tank containing gas) or movable boundary
(Ex: Cylinder with piston).

- It may be diathermic boundary (Permit heat transfer between the system and
surrounding.
- Ex: Outer surface of pressure cooker and engine cylinder surface) or Adiabatic
boundary (Prevent heat transfer between the system and surrounding. Ex:
Thermo flask).
- The control volume is bounded by a control surface.
Thermodynamic property (or) Property

- State is the condition of the system and described by properties.
- Properties or Characteristics are coordinates, its depend only end states and not
on the path (independent of the path).
- Properties are point function and are exact or perfect differentials and
macroscopic in nature.
- Specific properties are intensive properties and denoted by lowercase(small
letters)
- Total properties are extensive properties and denoted by uppercase
(capitalletters).
Intensive/ Intrinsic property Extensive/ Extrinsic property
Independent on mass (or) size of Dependent on mass (or) size of the

the system. system. If mass is increased, the
extensive properties values also
increase.

Ex: Pressure, temperature, specific Ex: Mass, weight, length, total

volume, specific enthalpy, specific volume, total energy (energy),
entropy, specific internal energy, Internal energy, enthalpy, entropy
specific heat, velocity, dynamics and heat capacity etc.,
viscosity and density etc.,
Heat (or) Heat Transfer (Q) Work (or) Work Transfer (W)
A form of energy transfer (energy It is an energy transfer

interactions) from a hot body to cold body
due to temperature gradient.
It is low grade energy (low grade energy is It is high-grade energy (high-grade

cannot be converted fully to useful work). energy is fully convertible to useful
work).
It is a boundary and transient phenomena It is a boundary and transient

and not a property. phenomena.
It represented by an area under T - s It represented by an area under p - V

diagram. diagram.
It is a path function and inexact (or) It is a path function, not a property and
imperfect differential. inexact (or) imperfect differential.
It having magnitude and direction. It having magnitude and direction.
Q = W + ΔU For a closed system or Work = Force x Distance moved i.e.,

process). (Force moves through a distance).
∮ dQ = ∮ dW (For a closed system or Work, W = ∫p. dV For Reversible

cycle). process).
Q = mcΔT
Sign conversion of heat: Sign conversion of work:

Heat supplied to the system: (+Q) W = ʃpdV( Only for Reversible process,
closed system and work should cross
Heat rejected by the system: (-Q)
the boundary)
W = - ʃvdp( Only for open system)
W.D by the system : (+ ve)
Ex: HE and Turbines etc.,
W.D on the system : (- ve)
Ex: Compressor, Fan and Heat pump

etc.,
Specific heat (c)

c = Q / m ΔT
Q – Amount of heat transfer (J)
m – Mass of the substance (kg)
ΔT – Rise in temperature (K)
- The Amount of heat required to raise a unit mass of the substance through a
unit rise in temperature.
- Unit: J/kg K.
Heat capacity (C)
- Heat capacity = mc.

- Product of mass and specific heat.
- Unit: J/K (or) kJ/K.
Specific heat at constant pressure (cp )
Amount of heat required to increase or decrease a unit mass of the

substance through a unit rise in temperature at constant pressure.
c p = ∂h/∂T p
Specific heat at constant volume (cv)
Amount of heat required to increase or decrease a unit mass of the

substance through a unit rise in temperature at constant volume.
The rate of change of specific internal energy with respect to temperature
when the volume is held constant.
c v = ∂u/∂T v
Modes of work transfer

1. Mechanical work
a) Boundary or Displacement work
The work associated with the change in volume of a closed system
Work, W = ∫p. dV
b) Gravitational work
c) Acceleration work
d) Spring work
When the force is applied on a spring, the length of the spring changes.
e) Shaft work
Torque is applied to the shaft.
f) Paddle wheel work (or) Stirring work
When the weight is lowered, and the paddle wheel turns, there is work
transfer into the fluid, which is stirred.
g) Thermodynamic work
- Work done by the system when the energy transferred across the
boundary of the system.
- Work is considered as an output done on the system or by the system.

- It is mainly due to intensive property and difference between system and
surrounding.
h) Reversible Work
The maximum amount of useful work that can be obtained as a system
undergoes a process between specified initial and final states.
2. Non – mechanical work
a) Electrical work
When current (a) flows through a potential difference V, the electrical W.D,
W e = VI.
b) Magnetic work
Thermodynamics is the science of energy transfer which deals with the
relations among heat, work and properties of systems.
Energy Exergy (or) Availability (or) Available
energy (AE or A)
Capacity to do work. Available energy means the part of heat

energy, which can be converted into work
by a reversible (ideal) process.
Energy is property and conserved in It is measured in terms of second law

every process. efficiency.
It depends on the mass. The quality of energy is expressed in terms

of exergy or availability. Availability means
maximum useful work.
Fig pa.4.2, ramalingam pa.10.4
Energy can convert from one form into Exergy can never increase in isolated
another form, but it cannot be destroyed. system.
Total Energy, E = ∑ PE+KE+U+Other Availability = 1 - 2 or Ψ1 - Ψ2

form of energy)
= U - ToS +PoV (Closed system)

Ψ = h - ToS (Open system)
Unavailable energy (U.A.E or UE) (or) Anergy (or) Loss of availability
The part of the heat energy, which cannot be converted into work due to
friction.
UE = TE - AE
Specific Energy
The energy per unit mass.
Types of Energy / Forms of Energy
i) Stored Energy
- Stored energy is contained within the system boundaries.
- Ex: PE, KE and Internal energy.
- Stored energy is further classified into macroscopic energy and

microscopic energy.
Macroscopic energy (Ek) Microscopic energy (Ep)
It is the form of energy depend on It is the form of energy independent

the reference frame. of outside reference frames.
The energy contained in myriads of The energy contained in the total

molecules. system.
Ex: Kinetic energy and potential Ex: Internal energy, Thermal energy
energy. and chemical energy.
Potential Energy (PE)
-The Energy possessed by a system due to its height from ground level.

- PE = m g Z (J/kg)
Let,
Z – Height or elevation from ground level (m)
Kinetic Energy (KE)
The energy possessed by a body due to motion. It is measured in Joules.
Let,
V - Velocity of the system
Internal Energy (U or IE)
- U = f (T) (For Ideal gas).
- The energy possessed by a body due to its molecular interactions.
- Internal Energy is an outcome of first law of thermodynamics ΔU = Q - W).
- ΔU = mcvΔT
ii) Transit Energy
- The energy which crosses the system boundary.
- Ex: Heat energy, work energy and electrical energy.
iii) Enthalpy (or) Total heat (H)
- It is the property of a system and point function.
- Total heat content of a body.
- H = U +pV
- H = mcpT → ΔH = mcpΔT
Specific enthalpy (h)

- h = u + pV (J/kg)
- Sum of internal energy (u) and flow energy (pV).
- Enthalpy per unit mass is called specific enthalpy.
iv) Flow Energy (pV) or displacement energy
- The energy transferred across the boundary.
- This form of energy is possessed by all fluids in motion.
- It occurs only in flow process (or) open system.
v) Pressure Energy
- Virtue of pressure.
- Pressure Energy (J/kg).
Equilibrium / Steady state
The system should not undergo any changes with respect to time.
Thermodynamic equilibrium
The system satisfies all modes of equilibriums (i.e., mechanical, thermal

and chemical equilibrium) are called Thermodynamics equilibrium.
a) Mechanical equilibrium
Pressure remains constant (or) Equality of forces and couple.
b) Thermal equilibrium
Temperature remains constant.
c) Chemical equilibrium
There is no chemical reaction and uniform chemical composition.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics (or) Law of temperature

Two systems are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third system, all the
three systems must be in thermal equilibrium with each another.
TA = TB = TC
- It is the basis of temperature measurement.
- Zeroth Law deals with system in thermal equilibrium.

First Law of Thermodynamics
- Heat and work are mutually convertible Q α W .
- It deals with quantity of energy (As a conservation of energy rule).
- Conservation of energy principle states that one form of energy is

converted into another form, but it cannot be destroyed.
- Ex: The increase in the energy of a potato in an oven is equal to the amount
of heat transferred to it.
For a closed system (cycle or cyclic or series of process)
Algebraic sum of heat transfer is equal to algebraic sum of work transfer ƩQ =

ƩW).
Mathematically, ∮ dQ = ∮ dW
Let,
∮ - Cyclic integral (or) Complete cycle
For a process (Non – cyclic process)
Q = W + ΔU
Let,
Q – Heat transfer
W – Work transfer
ΔU – Change in internal energy (If KE and PE are negligible)
ΔE – Change in internal energy
Limitations of First Law of Thermodynamics
- It is impossible to transfer heat from lower temperature to higher

temperature.
- All heat energy is cannot converted into work and does not tell how much
energy can be transformed from one form to another.
- It does not give any information regarding whether the process is possible
or not.
- The law does not specify the direction of heat and work.
Corollaries of first law of Thermodynamics
Corollary I
Energy is a function of heat and work transfers in a system.
Corollary II
Internal energy of a closed system remains unchanged.
Corollary III
PMM - I is impossible.
Perpetual Motion Machine (PMM)
It is a device, which violates either the first or the second law of

thermodynamics.
PMM - I (Perpetual Motion of Machine of First Kind)

- It violates the first law of thermodynamics.
- It develops work, without any heat input. So the machine is impossible (or)
Imaginary engine.
Type of processes based on process index (n) (or) Non - flow processes (or)
closed system
Non - flow process occur in closed system, which do not permit no mass
transfer, but permit energy transfer (heat and work). The heating and expanding
of gases are done by following methods.
Most non – flow processes are reversible and most flow processes are
irreversible.
1. Constant pressure/Isobaric/Isopiestic process (Process index, n=0), p =C
When a gas is heated at a constant pressure, both volume and

temperature will increase.
2. Constant volume/Isochoric/Isometric process n=∞ , V= C
When a gas is heated at a constant volume (i.e., fixed space), its

temperature and pressure will increase.
3. Constant temperature/Isothermal/ Hyperbolic process (n=1), T =C or pV = C
- The temperature of the working substance remains constant.
- Isothermal process is very slow process and it is applicable to gases only.

- Hyperbolic process is applicable to vapours, in which the gas is heated or

expanded in such a way that the product of its pressure and volume
remains constant.
- Hyperbolic process Ex: Expansion of vapour.
4. Reversible adiabatic/Isentropic process n= , pV =C
5. Polytropic /General Law of expansion and compression of gases / Constant

energy gradient process (n=n), pVn=C
6. Other process (p = a + bV)
First law of Thermodynamics Applied to Flow process (or) Steady flow

process (or) Open System (or) Control Volume (or) Control surface
- Flow process occur in open system, which permit both mass and energy
(heat and work) transfer. The working medium is continuously flowing in
and out.
- The space enclosed by the boundary is called control volume. It is an

imaginary boundary and fixed one.
1. Throttling / Isenthalpic process (Enthalpy remains constant (h = 0; Q=0;

W=0; ΔU=
- It is an irreversible process.
- Enthalpy remain constant.
- When a fluid flow through small opening like an orifice is called as

throttling process.
- Pressure and velocity are reduced.
2. Free expansion / Unresisting / Constant internal energy process (Q=0;

W=0; ΔU=
- It is an irreversible process.
- Work done remain constant.

- Gas expands in vacuum is called free expansion.
- In expansion process the pressure decreases or volume increases.
Why does free expansion have zero work transfer?
In free expansion, no work is done on or by the system i.e., boundary of the

system does not move and also no heat flows to or from the fluid.
Type of processes based on pressure and volume changes
a) Compression process (pressure increase or volume decrease).
(b) Expansion process.
Path Function Point Function (or) State Function
Depend on path. Ex: Heat (Q) and Depend on end state only (or) does
work (W). not depend on path. Ex: (p, v & T),
internal energy, enthalpy and
entropy.
Path functions are inexact Point functions are exact

differentials . differentials (d).
It consider the direction of processes. It does not consider the direction of

processes.
The cyclic integral of a path function The cyclic integral of a path function
is non – zero. is zero.
NON-FLOW EQUATIONS FOR AN IDEAL GAS
Process n
P= n=0
constant

V=C n=∞
T=C n=1
Adaibatic n=
Polytropic n=n
For all processes, ∆S can find by any one of the following three equations:
∆S= mcvIn(T2/T1) + mRIn(T2/T1).
∆S= mcpIn(T2/T1) - mRIn(p2/p1).
∆S= mcpIn(V2/V1)+ mcvIn(p2/p1).

Process Constant Constant Constant Reversible

Polytropic
Pressure Volume Temperature Adiabatic
n exponent n=0& p n = ∞ & V =C n =1 & T =C n = & pV = C n = n & pVn = C

in =C
pVn = C
p, V, T T2/T1 = T2/T1 = p2/p1 p1/p2 = V2/V1 T2/T1 = (p2/p1) - T2/T1 = (p2/p1) n-1/
Relationshi V2/V1 / = (V1/V2) -1 n = (V1/V2) n -1
ps
Work done, p(V2-V1) 0 p1V1In(V2/V1) p1V1 – p2V2/ -1 p1V1 – p2V2/ n -1
W (or) (or) (or) (or)
mR(T2-T1) mRT1In(V2/V1 mR(T1 –T2 / -1 mR(T1 –T2)/ n-1
)
Heat ∆H ∆U Q=W 0 Wx -n/ -1)
Transfer, Q (or)
mcp (T2-T1)
Change in mcv(T2-T1) mcv(T2-T1) 0 ∆U = - W mcv(T2-T1)
Internal (or)
Energy, ∆U mcv (T2-T1)
Change in mcp(T2-T1) mcv(T2-T1) 0 mcp(T2-T1) mcp(T2-T1)
Enthalpy,
∆H
Change in mcpIn(T2/T mcvIn(T2/T1) mRIn(V2/V1) 0 mcnIn(T2/T1)
Entropy, ∆S 1) (or) (or)
(or) mcvIn(P2/P1) mRIn(p2/p1)
mcpIn(V2/V
1)
p - V and T – s diagram
- Area under p - V diagram represents work done during the process.

- Area under T – s diagram represents heat transfer during the process.
Isothermal process Adiabatic process
pV= C. pVϒ= C.
Temperature remain constant. Entropy remain constant.
Slowest process. Quickest process.
Heat transfer takes place. Q = 0.
During the process, internal energy During the process, internal energy
and enthalpy remain constant. and enthalpy will change.
Quasi – Static (or) Quasi – Equilibrium Process
- It is an idealized (reversible) process.
- It is very low process.
- A quasi-static process is that a succession of equilibrium states.
- Infinite slowness (very very slowly) is the characteristic feature of a quasi

– static process.

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ME 6301-Engineering Thermodynamic

Unit-1- BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

Unit 1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

Thermo means heat and dynamic means motion

Thermodynamics is the field of science, which deals energy transfer (heat,

Applications of Thermodynamics law &amp; principles

1. Classical thermodynamic (or) Macroscopic approach

Macro means big. Micro means small.

It is an average approach. It is a detailed approach for get

Department of Mechanical Engineering Page 2 of Unit 1

- A continuous homogenous medium is known as continuum.

No intermolecular forces between the It having particle attraction.

Equation of state : f (p, v, T) = 0 and pV = pV = ZRT (or) pV = nRT

Z > 1 (or) Z < 1 (Real gas).

Thermodynamic System (or) System

- A system is a matter on which analysis (energy conversions) studied.

1. Based on the mass and energy transfer

Department of Mechanical Engineering Page 3 of Unit 1

Control mass (or) Fixed mass

The same working substance is The working substance enter the

System boundary is fixed. System boundary may or may not

iii) Isolated System

Department of Mechanical Engineering Page 4 of Unit 1

Surrounding (or) Environment

Boundary (or) Control Surface (or) Control Volume

(Ex: Cylinder with piston).

Thermodynamic property (or) Property

Independent on mass (or) size of Dependent on mass (or) size of the

Department of Mechanical Engineering Page 5 of Unit 1

Ex: Pressure, temperature, specific Ex: Mass, weight, length, total

A form of energy transfer (energy It is an energy transfer

It is low grade energy (low grade energy is It is high-grade energy (high-grade

It is a boundary and transient phenomena It is a boundary and transient

It represented by an area under T - s It represented by an area under p - V

It having magnitude and direction. It having magnitude and direction.

Q = W + ΔU For a closed system or Work = Force x Distance moved i.e.,

∮ dQ = ∮ dW (For a closed system or Work, W = ∫p. dV For Reversible

Sign conversion of heat: Sign conversion of work:

Department of Mechanical Engineering Page 6 of Unit 1

W = - ʃvdp( Only for open system)

W.D by the system : (+ ve)

Ex: HE and Turbines etc.,

W.D on the system : (- ve)

Ex: Compressor, Fan and Heat pump

Specific heat (c)

Heat capacity (C)

- Heat capacity = mc.

Specific heat at constant pressure (cp )

Amount of heat required to increase or decrease a unit mass of the

Specific heat at constant volume (cv)

Amount of heat required to increase or decrease a unit mass of the

Modes of work transfer

- Work is considered as an output done on the system or by the system.

Capacity to do work. Available energy means the part of heat

Energy is property and conserved in It is measured in terms of second law

It depends on the mass. The quality of energy is expressed in terms

Fig pa.4.2, ramalingam pa.10.4

Total Energy, E = ∑ PE+KE+U+Other Availability = 1 - 2 or Ψ1 - Ψ2

Department of Mechanical Engineering Page 9 of Unit 1

Ψ = h - ToS (Open system)

Unavailable energy (U.A.E or UE) (or) Anergy (or) Loss of availability

The energy per unit mass.

Applications of Thermodynamics law & principles