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TuningFork PDF
TuningFork PDF
TuningFork PDF
Daniel A. Russell
Science and Mathematics Department, Kettering University, Flint, Michigan 48504
共Received 14 June 1999; accepted 25 April 2000兲
When a sounding tuning fork is brought close to the ear, and rotated about its long axis, four distinct
maxima and minima are heard. However, when the same tuning fork is rotated while being held at
arm’s length from the ear only two maxima and minima are heard. Misconceptions concerning this
phenomenon are addressed and the fundamental mode of the fork is described in terms of a linear
quadrupole source. Measured directivity patterns in the near field and far field of several forks agree
very well with theoretical predictions for a linear quadrupole. Other modes of vibration are shown
to radiate as dipole and lateral quadrupole sources. © 2000 American Association of Physics Teachers.
冉 冊
fork sound field, and to present experimental measurements
A 3 i3k
of the near-field and far-field radiated patterns. While pri- p 共 r, 兲 ⫽ 2 ⫺k ⫺
2
sin cos , 共2兲
mary attention will focus on the sound field produced by the r r r
principal mode of the tuning fork, as shown in Fig. 1共a兲, where A is an amplitude factor which depends on the size,
radiation patterns from other less frequently observed vibra- strength, and frequency of the quadrupole source. The pres-
tional modes will also be discussed. ence of the ‘‘i’’ in the third term in parentheses indicates that
1139 Am. J. Phys. 68 共12兲, December 2000 http://ojps.aip.org/ajp/ © 2000 American Association of Physics Teachers 1139
Fig. 3. Frames from an animated GIF movie 共Ref. 12兲 animating the sound
field produced by an oscillating cylinder according to Eq. 共1兲.
Fig. 1. 共a兲 Principal mode of a tuning fork. 共b兲 End view of a tuning fork
showing regions of loud and quiet.
to the maximum value, as is the accepted practice for direc- The result by Sillitto7 gives an equivalent expression in terms
tivity plots.16 The directivity plot shows that the lateral quad- of Legendre polynomials and spherical Bessel functions.
rupole pressure field exhibits four directions where sound is Figure 5共b兲 is a polar plot showing the directivity pattern for
radiated very well alternating with four directions in which a longitudinal quadrupole with an observer distance r
no sound is radiated. This directivity pattern matches nearly ⫽0.05 m from a 426-Hz source, so that kr⫽0.39. The prod-
exactly the sound field predicted by the cylindrical source as uct kr is typically used to define the boundary between the
shown in Fig. 3. near field and far field of a source. As a general rule of
A lateral quadrupole source model has been used to de- thumb, if kr⬍1 the observer is in the near field, and if kr
scribe the sound field of the tuning fork.3,8 While this might ⬎1 the observer is in the far field.
appear to explain what one hears in the near field of a tuning The near-field directivity pattern in Fig. 5共b兲 matches what
fork, there are several problems. First, this model does not is heard close to a tuning fork. There are four maxima, two
explain why one hears only two maxima and minima when in the plane of the fork and two perpendicular. However, the
the fork is held at arm’s length from the ear. If the tuning maxima perpendicular to the plane of the fork 共at 90° and
fork behaved as a lateral quadrupole the sound field should 270°兲 are approximately 5 dB lower than the maxima at 0°
be the same at any distance from the fork. Second, this and 180°. Since changes in sound pressure level of 5 dB are
model implies that close to the fork all four loud regions clearly noticeable to the ear15 this difference in amplitude is
should be equally loud. However, close listening reveals that quite observable. Furthermore, the minima are not symmetri-
maxima in the plane of the fork are definitely louder than
those perpendicular to the plane of the fork. Third, as the
data will show, the minima do not fall exactly along 45°
from the plane of the tines.
Fig. 2. The radial oscillation of a cylinder according to Eq. 共1兲. Times are Fig. 4. Lateral quadrupole model for a tuning fork: 共a兲 simple source ar-
fractions of one period, T, of the motion. rangement; 共b兲 directivity pattern.
1140 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 68, No. 12, December 2000 Daniel A. Russell 1140
Fig. 5. Linear quadrupole: 共a兲 simple source arrangement; 共b兲 near-field
directivity pattern for kr⫽0.39.
1141 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 68, No. 12, December 2000 Daniel A. Russell 1141
Table I. Dimensions of tuning forks used in experiment.
Fig. 10. Measured directivity patterns for the small 426-Hz fork at a dis-
tance of 共a兲 20 cm (kr⫽1.56) and 共b兲 88 cm (kr⫽6.25) from the center of
Fig. 8. Experimental apparatus for measuring the directivity pattern for the tines. The solid curve represents linear quadrupole theory and points
sound radiation from a tuning fork. represent data.
1142 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 68, No. 12, December 2000 Daniel A. Russell 1142
Fig. 11. Measured directivity patterns for the 2000-Hz fork at a distance of Fig. 13. 275-Hz antisymmetric in-plane mode for the small 426.6-Hz fork.
共a兲 4 cm (kr⫽1.46) and 共b兲 78 cm (kr⫽28.6) from the center axis of a 共a兲 Relative tine motion. 共b兲 Measured directivity pattern at a distance of 5
2000-Hz tuning fork. The solid curve represents theory and points represent cm. Solid curves are for a dipole from Eq. 共6兲.
data.
Fig. 12. 共a兲 Directivity pattern for a dipole source. 共b兲 Frame from a movie Fig. 14. 344-Hz out-of-plane mode for the large 426-Hz tuning fork. 共a兲
共Ref. 12兲 showing the sound field produced by a dipole source 共oscillating Relative tine motion. 共b兲 Measured directivity pattern at a distance of 5 cm.
sphere兲. Solid curves are for a dipole from Eq. 共6兲.
1143 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 68, No. 12, December 2000 Daniel A. Russell 1143
Fig. 16. 共a兲 Wineglass. 共b兲 Exaggerated top view of the glass vibrating in its
fundamental mode. 共c兲 Sound field measured at a distance of 20 cm from the
glass fit with a lateral quadrupole directivity pattern.
Fig. 15. 483-Hz out-of-plane mode for the large 426-Hz tuning fork. 共a兲
Relative tine motion. 共b兲 Measured directivity pattern at a distance of 5 cm.
Solid curves are for a lateral quadrupole from Eq. 共3兲. tempts at explaining the radiated sound field in terms of
compressions, rarefactions, and interference effects are un-
able to explain the details of the radiated sound field; a lat-
If the stem of the tuning fork is rigidly clamped so that the eral quadrupole-type source also does not correctly model
fork cannot rotate, a more prominent mode may be found in both the near- and far-field radiated patterns. A linear quad-
which the tines move with opposite phase perpendicular to rupole model appears to correctly predict the locations and
the plane of the fork. The frequency of this mode of vibra- relative amplitudes of observed maxima and minima both
tion is usually fairly close to the fundamental frequency of when the fork is held close to the ear and when it is held at
the fork.4 In the large 426.6-Hz fork used in this experiment arm’s length. Other, less commonly observed, vibrational
this out-of-plane mode occurred at 482 Hz. Figure 15共a兲 modes behave as dipole sources, and one mode exists in
shows the relative motion of the tines. This vibrational mode which the tines move as a lateral quadrupole. The tuning fork
bears similarity to a lateral quadrupole source as described in is thus a simple device which can be effectively used to
Sec. II. As Fig. 15共b兲 shows, measurements of the sound demonstrate the more advanced concept of near-field and
field radiated by this mode agree very well with lateral quad- far-field radiation as well as the behavior of a linear quadru-
rupole theory from Eq. 共2兲. pole acoustic source.
1144 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 68, No. 12, December 2000 Daniel A. Russell 1144
11 20
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