PNN - FAQ

Pulsed Neutron Neutron

Frequently Asked Questions
Version 2.0

HOTWELL G.m.b.H

Oedenburger Strasse 6
7013 Klingenbach
AUSTRIA

Tel.: +43 (0) 2687 - 48058

Fax: +43 (0) 2687 - 48059

office@hotwell.at | www.hotwell.at
 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

Frequently Asked Questions about Hotwell’s PNN System

This is designed to answer frequently asked questions on Hotwell’s PNN system
for a better understanding of both the technical and the analytical (interpretation
and application) procedure.

¾ Introduction and Background

Hotwell’s PNN measures the thermal decay of neutrons by neutron capture

(Sigma tool). It is comparable to any standard Gamma Ray type of pulsed
neutron tools (such as PDK or TDT). There are differences to conventional
techniques with many improvements in the measurement itself as well as in data
processing. This makes Hotwell’s PNN much more sensitive which enables us to
use it in low-salinity formation water and at lower porosities.
To examine these statements closer the following contains some theoretical
explanation on measurement techniques and some examples.

¾ PNN measurement: The theory on thermal decay time

During a PNN measurement a neutron generator emits high-energy (14.1 MeV)

neutrons. Interaction of these neutrons with other particles results in scattering
where the neutrons move on average away from the source. With each collision,
the neutron loses some of its kinetic energy until it has a value just above the
thermal energy (0.025 eV). This energy level is equal to the thermal vibration
energy of the nuclei in the formation. Following collisions will, statistically,
maintain the neutron's energy which is now in equilibrium with the thermal energy
of the formations nuclei. In this short thermal energy phase, each neutron
behaves like a gas atom and experiences repeated collisions and changes in
direction. Finally, neutron capture by the formation’s atoms terminates this
process. Neutron-capture results in the excitement of atoms that - after a short
time - fall back into ground state accompanied by Gamma Ray emission.

On the whole, there are two ways to record the thermal neutron decay function.
One way is to record free thermal neutrons (directly) or to measure the Gamma
Rays (indirectly). In theory, these two ways are equivalent and should give
similar results. The practice, there are significant advantages using a direct
neutron measurement.

The main difference between Hotwell’s PNN and “standard” PNL tools is that
Hotwell’s PNN measures thermal neutrons that are not captured.

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

¾ Development of Pulsed Neutron measurement

During the late 60ies and early 70ies many laboratory and field tests (Dresser
Atlas, Schlumberger) studied the decay spectrum of neutrons in pulsed neutron
systems and the detection of thermal neutrons in particular. The conclusion at
that time was to use indirect detection by Gamma Rays because the efficiency of
this measurement was between 30 and 40% as opposed to the efficiency of
thermal neutron detectors (16%).

Nowadays the situation has changed significantly - mainly because the quality of
detectors has improved greatly over the years. Today’s neutron detectors are
highly efficient (>95%) while Gamma Ray technology has not improved on such a
high level.

Figure 1: Here a typical indirect thermal-neutron decay measured by Gamma Ray (left) and a
typical directly measured PNN thermal neutron decay (right) can be compared.
Left: Note that the indirect detection is limited by the natural (background) Gamma Ray radiation
of the formation;
Right: Direct detection of residual neutrons by PNN. Here four different zones (shale, water, oil,
and gas) may be identified in one well.

The natural Gamma Ray emission is by default removed by filtering in indirect

measurements but this process is influenced by statistics and values at or close
to the background level have high uncertainties. Small differences in the neutron
decay function at the end of the spectrum may sometimes be essential for the
detection of saturated zones in particular in cases of a small difference between
the capture-cross sections of formation waters with low salinity and hydrocarbon
(such as heavy oil).

The direct measurement of free residual neutrons with Hotwell’s PNN (right part
of Figure 1) is not influenced by the background and the entire decay function
can be used for processing and interpretation which results in a higher accuracy
and lower detection limit.

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

In summary, at a lower capture cross section (<20 to 25 count units) Hotwells

PNN gives a better resolution and better statistics compared to Gamma Ray
tools because residual neutrons are detected directly as opposed to low Gamma
Ray emission that may be further blurred by natural background, in particular
under conditions with low salinity formation water and in tight or low porosity
situations.

In high capture cross section situations, such as high salinity formation water or
shale the relationship is reversed. Because of the high difference in capture
cross section between high saline waters and oil this is negligible and Hotwells
PNN can be used reliably in this conditions. (see question 2)

Figure 2: Schematics of the difference between the direct PNN (red) and indirect Gamma Ray
type (blue) of detection at different capture cross-sections

A master log (Figure

3) to compare the
differences between
Gamma Ray and PNN
shows that low salinity
water and oil are
easily identified by
PNN.

Figure 3: Master Log of

Gamma Ray (TD log) and
residual neutron (PNN)
detection

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

After statistical processing even small differences between zones with low
salinity water and heavy oil can be interpreted reliably. In such cases a
quantitative interpretation is followed by a qualitative interpretation.

¾ Examples

A sound interpretation requires not only a

statistically satisfying measurement but also data
that are minimally influenced by the borehole and
its influenced zone and with a maximum of
formation influence where ideally the impact of
diffusion is removed. The processing of the PNN
measurement enables us to visualize the vast
amount data and to remove these influences
before interpretation. One of most important
steps is the construction of Sigma matrix files
(Figure 4) which enables us to identify the
borehole effect and to remove it. Additionally, the
diffusion effect can be identified and removed
from the final curve (Sigma).

The borehole influence (zone 2, Figure 4) may be

recognized and removed. In this case Sigma is
calculated after this zone (zone 3, to the right).
To the far right side the statistical influence
increases and this zone should be avoided (zone
4, Figure 4).

Figure 4: Sigma image with different extracted zones: 1.

zone influenced by late thermalization; 2: borehole
influence zone; 3: formation response zone, 4: zone with
statistical influence

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

The borehole influence may occasionally result in a lower Sigma compared to the
formation. In this case the diffusion effect is possibly higher. It may be different
for various zones of the logged interval. There is no automated way to recognize
and remove the borehole influence.

Figure 5: Different borehole conditions within one interval – an example for the removal of
borehole influence.

Another method to improve the statistics of PNN measurements is to execute

stop-check measurements at selected points (at the supposed contact zone
between water and oil). Throughout this measurement the PNN tool remains
static and records the thermal neutron decay as long as necessary (usually 5
minutes) to obtain the formations capture cross section that is then with virtually
no statistical influence (Figure 6). This is essential in difficult cases where a
similar kind of measurement is impossible with a Gamma Ray type of tool
because of constant activation during measurement.

Figure 6: stop check method to determine the

formations capture cross section. Note the
homogeneous distribution without any statistical
influence. Compare with Figure 4, zone 4.

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

1. You claim that Hotwell’s PNN system is more sensitive compared to the
regular PNL capture tools under low salinity and low porosity conditions. The
capture cross section of fresh water is similar to oil; what is the lower limit of
salinity where Hotwell’s PNN System can be used reliably and the difference
between oil and water can be detected?

A1: The procedures mentioned above result in a robust calculation of the

Sigma curve which enables us to interpret the saturation in low salinity formation
water and low porosity at a resolution that is not possible with standard Gamma
Ray detection tools. Up to now we have excellent results from lake
Maracaibo, Venezuela where salinities are as low as 3 000 to 5 000 ppm.

Formation waters below 15000 ppm are considered to be low saline; at these
concentrations Hotwell’s PNN can distinguish oil and water reliably.

Depending on the salinity, the capture cross section of water varies between 22
(distilled water) and 138 (oversaturated water) capture units (cu). In comparison,
Sigma for gas ranges between 5 and 16 cu depending on its composition,
pressure, and temperature and between 16 and 22 cu for oil which depends
mostly on the gas oil ratio and its density. In a reservoir with 0 ppm salinity and
heavy oil such as bitumen or asphalt it will be impossible to separate oil zones
from water zones. Therefore the theoretical limit of a reliable PNN
measurement lies at 22 capture units.

In most cases the capture cross section of oil lies between 18 and 20 and
the water capture cross section in complex situations between 24 and 25.
Under these conditions with moderate porosities (around 15 and 20 %) we get
reliable results with Hotwell’s PNN tool.

2. Salinity influences the result of a PNN measurement: How big is the

influence at certain salinity levels?

A2. As already stated in A1, the salinity of the formation water is one main factor
in the interpretation of water saturation from PNN measurement. For details
please see A1.

To better illustrate this issue Figure 7a, b, and c give examples of a PNN log in
measured under different salinities

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

Oil Sat. Oil Displ. Water Sat. Shale Sandstone

Gas Sep. Gas Sat. Casing Perforation

0 CCL10000 0 SP 100 100 Sw PNN [SWPNN] 0 50 Porosity [POR] 0 0 Lithology [VSH] 100

0 GR OH [GR] 150 100 Sw OH [SW] 0 50 PorWaterPNN [PORWPNN] 0 100 Porosity [PORT] 0

0 GRPNN 150 50 Sigma [SIGMA1] 0 72 LSN Pnn [LSN] 472

0 So PNN [SO] 100 300 SSN Pnn [SSN] 2300

50 PorWaterOH [PORW] 0

50 PorOil [POROPNN] 0

5350

5400

5450

5500

5550

5600

Figure 7.a PNN interpretation example in low formation water salinity (2-4000) ppm.

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

9100

9150

9200

9250

9300

9350

9400

9450

9500

9550

9600

9650

9700

9750

9800

9850

9900

9950

10000

10050

10100

10150

10200

10250

10300

10350

10400

10450

10500

10550

10600

10650

10700

Figure 7.b PNN interpretation example in high formation water salinity (90000-100000) ppm.

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

Water Sat. Water Sat. Shale Sandstone Gas Separation

Oil Saturation Gas Saturation Water Sat.

0 CCL10000 60 TempOuter 75 100 SWPNN 0 50 PORD 0 0 Lithology [VSH] 100

10 PERF 0 0 GR_OH 100 60 SIGMA 0 0 LSN 400 100 PORD 0

100 SW 0 0 SSN 800 100 POROPNN 0

0 SO 100 50 PORWPNN 0 100 PORWPNN 0

50 POROPNN 0

400

450

500

550

Figure 7.c.PNN interpretation example in extremely high formation water salinity (>200000) ppm.

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

3. How does Hotwell’s PNN tool work at salinities of 50 000 ppm or even in
saturated formation water? How does it work in porosities of ~30 %? How does it
perform in gas wells?

A3. Reliable results are easily obtained at high salinities and high porosities.
Hotwell’s PNN detects neutrons at two detectors where the ratio and the
separation between long and short space count rates can be used to determine
the hydrogen index accurately. In the same way, low porosity or gas zones can
be easily recognized. Figure 7 shows one of many examples where one well was
logged with PNN and TDT in one Egyptian Red Sea well to compare results. In
this example the gas-oil contact can be seen at 2007 m and a small sand
interlayer between 1999 m and 2003 m was identified by PNN and interpreted to
be gas saturated which was not in agreement with the TDT interpretation (Figure
8). The final perforation of the interval in question resulted in gas and verified
Hotwell’s PNN measurement and interpretation.

Oil Gas Water Gas Separation Shale

Sand

0 GR OH [GR] 100 100 Sw[SWPNN] 0 50 Porosity [POR] 0 0 Lithology [VSH] 100

0 GR OH [GRPNN] 100 100 Sw OH [SW] 0 50 Porosity Wate [PORWPNN] 0 100 Porosity [PORT] 0

50 Sigma [SG] 0 6 LSN Pnn [LSN] 156

0 SwGas [SWPNNG] 100 0 SSN Pnn [SSN] 1000

2000

Figure 8: PNN and TDT measurement in the Red sea. Note sand interlayer identified by PNN.

4. Hotwell’s PNN pulses for 3 microseconds and counts for only 2.16
miliseconds. Why don’t you increase the pulse frequency? This might increase
the logging speed. Or do you want to record the background for some reason?

A4. Our generator has a high output in neutrons and a low frequency.
Physically it is not possible to fire this generator above 30 Hz. We have
experimented with different frequencies and came to conclusion that 15 –20 Hz

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

is the best because it results in good statistics for the measurement and saves
generator lifetime. Under favorable conditions (gas well, higher porosities) the
PNN may be run up to 3 m/min (10 ft/min). The rig-time is relatively short
because no tedious calibration before and after logging is required. Further,
measurement in shut-in or flowing conditions (Figure 9a; independent of the fluid
in the well) saves workover operations.

0 CCL [CCL]
10000 0 GR PNN [GRPNN] 250 50 Sigma [SG2329] 0 77 LSN Pnn [LSN] 277 0 Lithology [VSH] 100

0 GR PNN_Rep 250 50 Sigma_Rep [SG2329_C] 0 200 SSN Pnn [SSN] 1200 100 Porosity [PORT] 0

16 LSN Pnn _R 216 0 [CSND] 100

-100 SSN Pnn_R 900 0 [CLIM] 100

2625

Figure 9a (top): thermal neutron

decay in flowing and shut in
conditions
2650
Figure 9b (right): comparison of main
and repeat section

5. Is there a way to tell gas from low porosity tight streaks on the log?

A5. Hotwell’s PNN recognizes tight formations (with virtually zero porosity) by
their low hydrogen index (HI) calculated from the ratio (total or partial) between
long and short space detector count rates. Both, gas saturation and tight streaks
lack hydrogen; therefore it is not possible to distinguish both reliably by solely
PNN. Some differences exist but they are small and require advanced
processing and a detailed knowledge on the well and the site. On the whole, by
comparison of openhole logs (basic or expanded sets) and PNN we developed a
procedure to distinguish gas from tight streaks and we are able to identify gas
layers in more than 95% cases given a complete set of openhole data.

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

6. Is Hotwell’s PNN better under low salinity/ low porosity conditions because
of better statistics?

A6. Robust Sigma curves, without any borehole or diffusion effect, have a
small statistical influence and reliably distinguish oil from low salinity formation
water. Figure 0 shows an example with a formation water salinity of 4000 ppm
where it is simple to find the oil saturated zone without processing.

Figure 10: Note the differences in the Sigma curve (violet) in the (1) original water saturated zone,
(2) depleted zone, and (3) in the zone with good oil saturation.

7. Do you calculate the volume of shale by Gamma Ray?

A7. Shaliness can be calculated from a Gamma Ray curve recorded during
PNN measurement. Hotwell’s PNN tool has a Gamma Ray section far from the
generator to measure the natural radioactivity for correlation with open hole data.
This can also be used for the calculation of shaliness if no significant amounts of
radioactive minerals accumulated during production. If this is the case other
curves are used for the calculation of shaliness. One way is to use Sigma values
from the PNN measurement but this is always influenced by hydrocarbon
saturation. Certain channels from PNN measurement may be selected which
result in an overlap in shale zones and can be used for the calculation of the
volume of shale. Additionally, the Ratio between short and long space detector
can be used for the calculation of shaliness.

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

In practice, the best way to calculate shaliness is from openhole curves (GAMMA
RAY or any suitable other curve). In an ideal case the customer’s petrophysical
interpretation is used for the PNN interpretation. If a petrophysical interpretation
is not available we also provide a petrophysical interpretation - given that
openhole curves are supplied - and use this as input for PNN analysis. If we lack
openhole information we will use solely PNN data. In the past we successfully
used this approach. However, the best way is to have an independent
petrophysical interpretation or at least the volume of shale and porosity from
open hole analysis.

8. How reliable is the porosity measurement? Is it a calibrated porosity and is

it necessary to calibrate the tool at the shop in a fixture for either porosity or
Sigma?

A8. The assembly of two differently spaced neutron detectors makes this tool
compared to other tools an excellent hydrogen index indicator and therefore an
excellent porosity tool (much better than a GAMMA RAY type of tool, see also
Q2). Hotwell’s PNN is not calibrated because we rarely use the tool for porosity
determination. A calibration is possible in fields with similar wells if there is an
openhole compensated neutron measurement from an offset well that can be
correlated. The neutron porosity is influenced by the gas saturation and this has
to be considered. If we know beforehand that the porosity is of interest it is
possible to calibrate the PNN tool. Figure 11 shows the comparison of a PNN
Ratio curve with an openhole compensated neutron porosity curve. Note the high
correlation of both that proves the hydrogen index measured by Hotwell’s PNN a
reliable porosity indicator.

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

6 Caliper 16 60 Neutron Porosit [CN] 0

0 GR OH [GR] 100 26 PNN Ratio [RAT1736] 3

20 GR PNN [GRPNN] 110

10150

10200

10250

10300

10350

10400

10450

Figure 11: Left: PNN ratio curve in comparison with a CN curve; Right: comparison of CN (blue)
and PNN Ratio (red)

9. Are there problems with communication between the tool and the surface
unit in plastic coated pipes; are there any other situations where the
communication may be affected?

A9. A plastic pipe does not influence the communication but it may influence
the CCL curve. Up to now we never measured with Nickel cables but it should be
no problem. It is easy for the logging engineer to adjust to the particular logging
line.
The communication works reliably up to a length of the logging line of 42000 ft
and a 3/16” diameter with a single conductor line where the two drums of 21000
ft lines were connected serially.

10. How does PNN Sigma compare to other Sigmas from capture tools? We
will be running a second or third log to evaluate hydrocarbon movement over
time.

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

A10. The processing of Hotwell’s PNN can be normalized to match any Sigma
curve from other measurements such as TDT or PDK. Hotwell measured several
wells after TDT and the PNN Sigma compared well to the TDT Sigma. Therefore
PNN can follow up in time lapse measurements after any other pulsed neutron
measurement. For example, TDT was logged three years after the openhole
campaign and PNN was logged 15 years after TDT (Figure 11).

Figure 12: Time lapse measurement; note the matching Sigma curves (left) in the shale interval
above the reservoir; the change of reservoir saturation in the perforated zone was recorded.
Interpretation of Sigma PNN (right) using the same parameters as in Sigma TDT

11. Is it possible to use the real time Sigma (field Sigma) accurately? Is
processing necessarily required for a reliable Sigma?

A11. There is no automated way to predict borehole effects because they are
influenced by several parameters such as fluid in the borehole, casing, cement,
tubing, fluid between tubing and casing, etc… Therefore, in most of the cases a
final Sigma needs processing. However, in a field with uniform conditions
processing parameters can be established such that the processed Sigma and
field Sigma are very similar. In extreme cases an interpreter at the well site may
provide immediate processing and interpretation. It is possible to provide reliable
information within one hour. The main difference between a field Sigma and the

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

processed Sigma are the absolute values but the amplitudes are similar. We
insist on a processed Sigma although in most cases there will be no big
differences. The impact of unpredictable small-scale changes and borehole
effects on the results might cause more expenses than one additional day rig-
time.

On the whole, parameters for a good real-time Sigma processing can be

established in explored fields.

12. How do you quantify hold up?

A12. We advise to judge borehole Sigma and count rates only qualitatively. If a
hold up is essential we recommend using data from the same well which are
calibrated for 100% of water or any other fluid. If it is possible to know hold ups
above all intervals you may quantify.

13. How do you calculate water flow?

A13. The presence of water between the casing and the formation can be
confirmed by activation logging where the PNN tool moves downwards. In
addition, stop check measurements can be used to calculate the velocity of
moving fluid. For quantification the cross section has to be determined. This is
highly efficient for detection of flow but in the present setup of Hotwell’s PNN we
detect only the upward flow direction.

One way to detect downward flow would be to place the Gamma Ray section
below the source section but this is not included in the current arrangement of
the tool mainly for economical reasons.

14. Did you ever think of making a Gamma Ray section with 2 detectors that
would detect the Gamma Rays of capture and give a conventional pulsed
neutron response? You could even place a longer spaced third detector on the
tool for detection of gas. In this way you could use the tool however you wanted
to use it. Lower salinities use the NN section; higher salinities use the GG
section. There are even some clients that would run both tools on the same well
to see what each tool would tell them. It seems to me the tools are made and all
you would need is an added detector section. For this kind of tool I would even
be willing to share some of the development costs for exclusive use.

A14. Any tool that is of interest for customer may be interesting to be built and
we would be ready to work on it if really there is economical justification. Anyway
as we discussed with our colleges technically it seems that it is easy just instead
of neutron to put GAMMA RAY detectors but as we understand it and from our

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

point of view there are some significant difficulties. Definitely it will be time to
discuss about this with our designing people during our visit when our possible
projects start more seriously. But we need to say that from our point of view
(interpreting) PNN is completely compatible tool with GAMMA RAY type of tools
for working in higher salinity’s and we already have had measurements in
oversaturated fluid in borehole together with very saline formation water and with
good results. And this is really the worst case for PNN tool because in very saline
fluid in borehole count rate is significantly decreased because of thermal neutron
capture before they come to detector.

Log examples of, decays and Images in high salinity formations and salts follows:

Salt

Normal
Formation

Figure 13

Salt layers and domes will be easily recognized and measured with very high
Sigma values while zones and reservoirs without salt may be evaluated standard
way. Only problem will be if there is precipitation of salt inside pore space of
reservoir rock. In this case interpretation is questionable

15. Are there any technical papers published on Hotwell’s PNN?

A15. Up to now there are no published papers in peer reviewed journals. We

contributed abstracts and papers to petroleum or geological congresses in
different countries. Further, Hotwell organized two PNN conferences in 2006 and
2007. Papers dealing with PNN theory and the application of Hotwell’s PNN tool
are compiled in both abstract volumes.

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

16. What is the depth of investigation and the vertical resolution of Hotwell’s
PNN?

A16. The depth of investigation lies between 8” and 12” but on the whole it is
not trivial to determine the depth of investigation because it depends on different
conditions (such as the borehole, formation). The vertical resolution is 1.5’; for
intervals as thick as 3’ we are sure to get consistent results.

17. How does the porosity calculated from a PNN measurement differ from a
porosity calculated from openhole measurements?

A17. Details on the porosity measurement by Hotwell’s PNN can be found in A7.

In general, the same approach to determine porosity will result in no differences.

Some inconsistencies might arise if porosity is calculated by a different approach
or diverging matrix parameters are used. Using similar matrix parameters and a
different approach to determine the influence of dispersed or laminar shale inside
sandstones (Figure 15) will give a different result of porosity. The differences are
higher in shaly zones and do not exist in clean zones (Figure 14, Figure 15). The
effective porosity is used for the quantitative interpretation of PNN measurements
and is not influenced by shaliness.

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

Hydrocarbon Sat. Shale Sandstone Gas Separation Displaced Hydrocarbons

Water Sat. Perfs.

0 CCL 5000 0 GRPNN 150 100 Sw PNN Std [SWPNN] 0 60 Porosity [POR] 0 0 Lithology [VSH] 100

10
Perf. [PERF] 0 20 SP [SP] 50 60 Sigma [SIGMA] 0 60 PorWaterPNN [PORWPNN] 0 100 Porosity [PORT] 0

100 100 SWOpen

Temp
Hole [SW] 0 6 LSN Pnn [LSN] 120
206

0 SSN Pnn [SSN] 1000

60 Porosity [POR_ET] 0

2370

2380

2390

Figure 14 The openhole (customer) porosity interpretation is based on Gamma Ray in track 4
(green); Hotwell’s porosity is the red curve in track 3. Clean zones have no significant differences
in porosities; in shaly zones the differences are higher.

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

Hydrocarbon Sat. Shale Sandstone Gas Separation Displaced Hydrocarbons

Water Sat. Perfs.

0 CCL 5000 0 GRPNN 150 100 Sw PNN Std [SWPNN] 0 60 Porosity [POR] 0 0 Lithology [VSH] 100

10Perf. [PERF] 0 20 SP [SP] 50 60 Sigma [SIGMA] 0 60 PorWaterPNN [PORWPNN] 0 100 Porosity [PORT] 0

100 100 SWOpen

Temp
Hole [SW] 0 6 LSN Pnn [LSN] 120
206
Shale Influence
0 SSN Pnn [SSN] 1000

60 Porosity [POR_ET] 0

2460

Figure 15: Like in Figure 14, porosities are the same in clean zones but differ in shaly zones.
Effective porosity is used for quantitative PNN interpretation and this should not be influenced by
the volume of shale.

18. If the salinity is very low and not suitable for Hotwell’s PNN, is there a way
to back calculate during analysis?

A18. In cases of very low salinity combined with very low porosity, a well
interpreted openhole dataset has to be used that provides a reliable porosity,
shaliness, and matrix minerals. Small incorrectness of any of these parameters
may influence the final interpretation of water saturation. Local experience and
the design of adjusted interpretation modules may produce correct parameters.

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

19. Is there a way to measure the formations matrix of a well that had
production recovery using polymer?

A19. The matrix itself should not be influenced by polymer injection and recovery
but the pore space filled with polymer is influenced. This part of the pores is
considered not as pore space anymore but as matrix with a different capture
cross section. The influence depends on polymer chemistry - this should be
known. Further, the modeling of polymer distribution during injection helps to
select correct parameters.
Up to now, we did not measure in zones with extensive polymer injection. The
polymers final influence may vary locally.

20. How does Hotwell process Sigma; how is it corrected and calibrated to
obtain reliable results

A20. A1 deals in part with this question: PNN system description and some
small issues about data processing are described in A1.

Further details and definitions are given below:

Capture Cross Section

The rate of thermal neutron decay in the formation can be measured and used to
differentiate between hydrocarbons in the pore space and water - in particular
salt water. A mineral's ability to absorb thermal neutrons is defined as its capture
cross section, Sigma.
Sigma is measured in capture units (c.u.). A high Sigma value represents a high
capture of thermal neutrons. By measuring the rate at which thermal neutrons
are absorbed by the formation (either by measuring the thermal neutrons
themselves or by measuring the Gamma Rays given off during thermal neutron
absorption), the capture cross section of the formation and formation fluids can
be predicted.
Tables with capture cross-section list many of the elements and compounds
found in reservoirs throughout the world. Lithology and formation fluids
containing chlorine atoms are the most effective capturers of thermal neutrons.
Good thermal neutron absorbers such as cadmium are rarely found in oilfield
geology. Boron is sometimes used during measurement, but its concentration is
very low compared to salt water. Rock salt has a high Sigma value due to its
chlorine content (Table 1). Salt-water values may range from 25,000 ppm (30
c.u.) to 275,000 ppm (130 c.u.) chloride equivalents.

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

Quarz 4.3 Halite 754

Calcite 7.1 Gypsum 19
Dolomite 4.7 Anhydrite 12
Siderite 52 Barite 6.8
Ankerite 22 Kaolinite 14
Feldspars 16 Chlorite 25
Plagioclase 7.3 Illite 18
Muscovite 17 Montmorillonite 14
Biotite 30 Glauconite 21
Table1: Sigma values for different Minerals

Sigma processing from PNN measurement

After PNN logging the data need processing. By using Hotwell’s processing
software HWProc parameters such as Tau (τ), Sigma (Σ), and Ratio (r) for
different channels can be selected. The correct values of these parameters result
in a qualitative and quantitative interpretation.

Processing principles
Hotwell’s PNN system measures the decay function of thermal neutrons on two
detectors. 60 time channels at each detector record the number of neutrons.
Each channel is 36 μs wide. A1 lists the advantages of measuring the thermal
neutrons compared to Gamma Ray detection that are a product of thermal
capture.

PNN Measurement
The neutron generator emits pulsed high energy neutrons (14 MeV) into the
formation. This pulse is repeated at a fast rate. The thermal neutrons are
measured at the two detectors in each 60 time channels. The entire
measurement is recorded and available for processing at any time after the
logging job is completed. This is an advantage of Hotwell’s PNN system,
because if some information on the formation and distribution of the fluids inside
the reservoir is missed during real time processing these data will be available
during full analysis.

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

Decay function: Mathematical Background

Neutrons are rapidly slowed down to their thermal state by collisions with nuclei
in the formation. They are eventually captured depending on

v * Σabs (1)

where v represents the thermal neutron velocity which depends on temperature,

and Σabs is the macroscopic capture cross section of the formation. If neutron
capture is the only phenomenon, the number of neutrons decays exponentially.
The rate of decay increases when oil is replaced by water in the pores of a rock,
because water has a higher Sigma than oil (Figure 16b).

Figure 16a: decay of thermal neutrons over time; 16b difference in neutron decay in shale, oil,
water, or gas saturated reservoir rock.

The number of neutrons (counts) at time t1 is given by:

N1 = N0e(-v*Σabs*t1) (2)
where
N0 - number of thermal neutrons per unit volume at time t0 (neutron
burst)
N1 - number of thermal neutrons remaining per unit volume at time t1
t1 < t0
t1 time since t0
Σabs - sum of the atomic cross sections of all the atomic nuclei in a
defined volume for a neutron velocity of v=2200 m/s (at 75oF) [cm2/cm3].

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

the measurement is repeated at time t2 the relationship is the following

N2 = N0e (-v* Σabs*t2) (3)

where:
N2 - number of thermal neutrons remaining per unit volume at time t2;
t2 - time since t0.

The decrease of the thermal neutron density can be quantified

N2=N1e-v Σabs(t2-t1) (4)

From which it can be derived as follows:

Σabs=1/(v*(t2-t1))*ln(N1/N2) (5)

Replacing the natural logarithm with logarithms to the base of 10 at v = 2200 m/s,
t [s] and Sigma [cm-1]

Σabs=10.5/ t * log10(N1/N2) (6)

Because of exponential decay, it can be presented by introducing an intrinsic

decay time, τint, that corresponds to the time until the initial number of neutrons
N0 per cm of formation decays by 63%, or to 37 % of its original number (which is
1/e):

τint
Nt=N0e-t/ (7)

Where Nt is number of neutrons per cm3 at time t. Combining eq. (2) and eq. (7)
results in

τint=1/v*Σabs (8)

The decay (neutron die-away time, or life time) is hardly dependent on

temperature. With t in s, and v=0.22 cm/ s, equation 8 becomes:

τint=4.55/ Σabs [cm2/cm3] (9)

This is then more conveniently scaled in units of 10-3cm-1 (the conversion of

capture units c.u. into Sigma units s.u.:

τint=4550/Σabs [c.u.] (10)

This is used in Hotwell HWProc for an accurate calculation of die-away time (τ)
and bulk capture cross-section (Σ).

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

PNN measures the density of the thermal neutrons on both detectors in 60 time
channels (Figure 17).

Figure 17 PNN tool timing sequence.

There are 60 time channels and each channel is 36 μs wide. During acquisition
all raw data acquired by sensors are stored without any filtering and removal of
data.

Logging – Linear Scale Processing – Logarithmic Scale

Figure 18 PNN measured decay during logging (a) and during processing (b)

During logging the thermal neutron decay is plotted in linear scale (Figure 18a)
and during the processing on natural logarithmic scale (Figure 18b). From this
decay curve the Sigma curve is extracted. All calculations are according to the
physical considerations and mathematical formulae mentioned above. The most
important step is to select parameters to remove the borehole influence, diffusion
of thermal neutrons, and statistical influences. To obtain an accurate capture
cross section of the formation, the Sigma is taken from the zone with maximum
formation influence. In the field a number of different zones with differing

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

borehole influences may exist, but all can be summed up into three varieties with
all variations between them (Figure 19).

Sigma-Borehole > Sigma-Formation Sigma-Borehole = Sigma-Formation

Sigma-Borehole < Sigma-Formation

Figure 19 Three end members of Sigma influenced by borehole conditions.

Casing or equipment in the borehole may result in a borehole Sigma larger than
the formation Sigma (Figure 19a). If those influences can be identified it is easy
to extract the formation Sigma without borehole influence in Hotwell’s processing
software HWProc.

Sometimes the formation and the borehole Sigma is similar and therefore not
sensitive to the selection of processing parameters (Figure 19b).

The most difficult case is when the borehole Sigma is smaller than the formation
Sigma. In this case significant neutron diffusion may exist and data from the
formation itself have to be used carefully. It is necessary to start the processing
further in the time domain and to select a later starting channel. If all this is
considered parameters may be selected to get a Sigma only influenced by the
formation.

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

The next step in Sigma processing is to select the processing modes. There are
four different modes, but all of them give similar result if parameters for removal
of borehole influences are selected logically.

All of these effects (Figure 19a, b, c) may be present in one well in different
degrees. Hotwell’s HWProc processing software allows full control of the data
and each subdivision can be examined to permit a good selection of parameters.
In some cases it is confusing to look at decays in the time and depth domain;
therefore we view an overall depth-time image of different parameters like: count
rate (on short or long-space detector), the ratio between short and long count
rates, Sigma images, and water saturation images.

In order to view these images we create matrix-files. By viewing these images it

is easy to get an overview on the well and to identify different zones for
reasonable parameter selection.

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

Figure 20: Example of a Sigma image with seven different borehole influenced zones

It is easy to recognize several different zones in Figure 20 with diverse borehole

conditions. Sigma is calculated from fixed gates through the whole zone. This
gives good processing parameters for the most bottom zone at this well while in

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 PNN Frequently Asked Questions

all other zones parameters are not good and Sigma with too high borehole
influence is processed. In this case it is necessary to make different zones
processing and patching final calculated curves. There is a better way to do this
and this can be done by Hotwell’s Sigma auto-processing module which
automatically calculates the best possible and not borehole or diffusion
influenced Sigma curves.

If you have any other question, don’t hesitate to contact us:

by e-mail:
z.markovic@hotwell.at Zoran Markovic
m.novak@hotwell.at Mijo Novak
k.knapp@hotwell.at Kresimir Knapp
analysis@hotwell.at
office@hotwell.at

by phone :
+43 2687 48058

or by fax:

+43 2687 48059

or you could write a letter to:

HOTWELL
Ödenburgerstrasse 6
7013 Klingenbach
Austria

Yours truly,

the HOTWELL PNN Team

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