Written as per the latest textbook prescribed by the Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook

Production and Curriculum Research, Pune.

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PERFECT

PHYSICS

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Std. XI Sci.

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Salient Features

 Written as per the new textbook

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 Subtopic-wise segregation for powerful concept building
Complete coverage of Textual Exercise Questions, Intext Questions, Activities and Textual
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
Examples (numericals illustrated in textbook)
 Extensive coverage of New Type of Questions
 ‘Solved Examples’ offer complete numerical solution
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 ‘Apply Your Knowledge’ section for application of concepts

 ‘Quick Review’ facilitates quick revision
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 ‘Important Formulae’ at the end of every chapter compiles all formulae

 ‘Competitive Corner’ presents questions from prominent competitive examinations
 Reading Between the Lines, Enrich Your Knowledge, Gyan Guru, Connections, NCERT Corner
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are designed to impart holistic education

 Video links provided via QR codes for boosting conceptual retention
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Printed at: India Printing Works, Mumbai

© Target Publications Pvt. Ltd.

No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, C.D. ROM/Audio Video Cassettes or electronic, mechanical
including photocopying; recording or by any information storage and retrieval system without permission in writing from the Publisher.

Balbharati Registration No.: 2018MH0022 P.O. No. 191274

TEID: 13661
 PREFACE

“Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler.” - Albert Einstein.
Having this vision in mind we have created “Perfect Physics: Std. XI” as per the new textbook of Maharashtra
State board. It focuses on not just preparing students from examination point of view but also equipping them
to understand and appreciate the beauty of Physics as a subject.
Every chapter, segregated subtopic-wise, encompasses all textual content in the format of Question-Answers.

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Textual Exercise questions, Intext questions, ‘Can you tell’, ‘Can you recall’, ‘Try this’ and ‘Activity’ are
placed aptly amongst various additional questions in accordance with the flow of subtopic. To offer students
better understanding of the concept discussed in question, ‘Reading between the lines’ (not a part of the

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answer) has been provided as deemed necessary. Numericals along with their step-wise solutions are covered
under heading of Solved Examples at the end of each subtopic. Quick Review has been provided to map the
chapter effectively in students’ minds. Formulae covered in the chapter are compiled together as Important

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Formulae at the end of the chapter. Exercise and MCQ sections are added to enable students assess their
range of preparation and knowledge of each topic. NCERT Corner and Notes are introduced to cover
additional bits of relevant information on each topic as seemed required.
While ensuring complete coverage of the syllabus in an effortless and easy to grasp format, emphasis is also
given on active learning. To achieve this, we have infused several key features such as, Gyan Guru, Enrich Your

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Knowledge, Connections, Additional information and QR Codes. Also, additional sections such as Apply Your
Knowledge and Competitive Corner pave the way for a robust concept building.
The following screenshots will walk you through the core features of this book and elucidate how they have been
carefully designed to maximize the student learning.
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GG - Gyan Guru Gyan Guru illustrates real life
applications or examples related to the
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concept discussed.
A slingshot is a device This is our attempt to link learning to the
normally used as a toy by life.
children. It makes use of the
elastic property of rubber to
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hit the desired target like a

fruit or a bird etc.
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Enrich Your Knowledge

Enrich Your Knowledge presents
fascinating information about the
Since sizes of degrees on the Celsius scale and the
concept covered.
Absolute scale are identical, any one of the scales can
This is our attempt to create interest in
be used for temperature difference.
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the students about the concept.

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Connections enable students to

interlink concepts covered in different
For points (ii) and (iv)
Connections chapters.
This is our attempt to encourage
students to appreciate the subject as a
In chapter 3, you have studied about angular
whole.
velocity () and centripetal force.
 Reading between the lines
Reading between the lines provide
elaboration of concept or missing Explanation for (vi) :
fragments of concept.  
Let two vectors R and Q are represented in
This is our attempt to explain the
concept without deforming the length of magnitude by,
 
expected answer. R  R x ˆi  R y ˆj  R z kˆ and Q  Q x ˆi  Q y ˆj  Q z kˆ

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NCERT Corner NCERT Corner covers additional
information from NCERT textbook

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2 relevant to topic.
1 This is our attempt to bridge the gap
between NCERT and State Board textbook,
V0
thereby benefitting students in their

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preparation of National level competitive
Barrier potential under reverse bias examinations.

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QR code provides access to a video in
order to boost understanding of a
concept or activity. [Note: Students can scan the adjacent QR code
This is our attempt to facilitate learning to get conceptual clarity about resolution of
with visual aids.
O vectors with the aid of a linked video.]
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Apply Your Knowledge
Apply Your Knowledge includes
Q.109. The Mariana trench is located in the Pacific
challenging questions.
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Ocean and at one place it is nearly 11 km beneath

This is our attempt to take students one
the surface of water. The water pressure at the
step further and challenge their
bottom of the trench is about 1.1  108 Pa. A steel conceptual understanding.
ball of initial volume 0.32 m3 is dropped into the
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ocean and falls to the bottom of the trench.

Quick Review
Quick review includes tables/ flow chart
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to summarize the key points in chapter. Steady state

This is our attempt to help students to
reinforce key concepts. is achieved due to
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Thermal conductivity Temperature gradient

Important Formulae
Important Formulae includes all of the
2. Direction of resultant vector: key formulae in the chapter.
 Qsin   This is our attempt to offer students tools
 = tan1  
 P  Qcos   of formulae handy while solving
problems and last minute revision at a
3. Commutative law of vector addition:
   
glance.
P + Q = Q + P
 Exercise includes subtopic-wise Exercise
additional questions, problems and
MCQs. 2.2 Vector Analysis
This is our attempt to provide additional 1. Distinguish between scalars and vectors.
practice to students to gauge their Ans: Refer Q. 2
preparation. 2. Define the term negative vectors.

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Ans: Refer Q. 5 (iii)

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Competitive Corner
Competitive Corner presents questions
4. A unit vector is represented as  0.8 ˆi  bjˆ  0.4kˆ  . from prominent competitive exams

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Hence the value of ‘b’ must be based entirely on the syllabus covered in
[MHT CET 2018] the chapter.
This is our attempt to give competitive
(A) 0.4 (B) 0.6
edge to the students.
(C) 0.2 (D) 0.2

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Additional Information Additional Information covers
interesting information covered in
According to the world health organization a
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billion young people could be at risk of hearing
textbook.
This is our attempt to highlight the
loss due to unsafe listening practices. Among additional information sprinkled in the
teenagers and young adults aged 12-35 years chapter.
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(i) about 50% are exposed to unsafe levels of

The journey to create a complete book is strewn with triumphs, failures and near misses. If you think we’ve nearly
missed something or want to applaud us for our triumphs, we’d love to hear from you.
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Please write to us on: mail@targetpublications.org

A book affects eternity; one can never tell where its influence stops.
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Best of luck to all the aspirants!

From,
Publisher
Edition: First
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Disclaimer
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This reference book is transformative work based on textbook Physics; First edition: 2019 published by the Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook
Production and Curriculum Research, Pune. We the publishers are making this reference book which constitutes as fair use of textual contents which
are transformed by adding and elaborating, with a view to simplify the same to enable the students to understand, memorize and reproduce the same in
examinations.
This work is purely inspired upon the course work as prescribed by the Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, Pune.
Every care has been taken in the publication of this reference book by the Authors while creating the contents. The Authors and the Publishers shall not be
responsible for any loss or damages caused to any person on account of errors or omissions which might have crept in or disagreement of any third party on
the point of view expressed in the reference book.
© reserved with the Publisher for all the contents created by our Authors.
No copyright is claimed in the textual contents which are presented as part of fair dealing with a view to provide best supplementary study material for
the benefit of students.
 CONTENTS

Chapter No. Chapter Name Page No.

1 Units and Measurements 1

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2 Mathematical Methods 30

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3 Motion in a Plane 63

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4 Laws of Motion 101

5 Gravitation 157

6 Mechanical Properties of Solids 195

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7 Thermal Properties of Matter
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8 Sound 274

9 Optics 304
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10 Electrostatics 350

11 Electric Current Through Conductors 382

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12 Magnetism 414
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13 Electromagnetic Waves and Communication System 432

14 Semiconductors 456
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Note: 1. * mark represents Textual question.

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2. # mark represents Intext question.

3. +mark represents Textual examples.
4.  symbol represents textual questions that need external reference
for an answer.
 

Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Physics

1 Units and Measurements

Contents and Concepts

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1.1 Introduction 1.6 Dimensions and Dimensional Analysis

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1.2 System of Units 1.7 Accuracy, Precision and Uncertainty in
1.3 Measurement of Length Measurements

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1.4 Measurement of Mass 1.8 Errors in Measurements
1.5 Measurement of Time 1.9 Significant Figures

1.1 Introduction Q.3. Can you recall? (Textbook page no. 1)

i. What is a unit?

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Physics is the branch of science which deals ii. Which units have you used in the
with the study of nature and natural phenomena. laboratory for measuring
It is a quantitative science where various a. length b. mass
physical quantities are measured.
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A quantity which can be measured and with iii.
c. time d. temperature?
Which system of units have you used?
the help of which, various physical happenings can Ans:
i. The standard measure of any quantity is called
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be explained and expressed in the form of laws, is
called a physical quantity. the unit of that quantity.
Examples: length, mass, time, force etc. ii.
Physical
Length Mass Time Temperature
Q.1. What is a measurement? How is measured quantity
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quantity expressed? Units millimetre, gram, seconds Degree

centimetre, kilog- minutes celsius
Ans: metre ram degree
i. A measurement is a comparison with
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fahrenheit
internationally accepted standard measuring
unit. iii. MKS or SI system is used mostly. At times,
ii. The measured quantity (M) is expressed in even CGS system is used.
terms of a number (n) followed by a
corresponding unit (u) i.e., M = nu. 1.2 System of Units
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Example:
Length of a wire when expressed as 2 m, it Q.4. Describe briefly different types of systems
means value of length is 2 in the unit of m of units.
(metre). Ans: System of units are classified mainly into four
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Q.2. State true or false. If false correct the i.
statement and rewrite.
Different quantities are measured in different
units.
Ans: True.
ii. M.K.S. system:
[Note: Choice of unit depends upon its suitability for
measuring the magnitude of a physical quantity
under consideration. Hence, we choose different
scales for same physical quantity.]
types:
C.G.S. system:
It stands for Centimetre-Gram-Second system.
In this system, length, mass and time are
measured in centimetre, gram and second
respectively.
It stands for Metre-Kilogram-Second system.
In this system, length, mass and time are
measured in metre, kilogram and second
respectively.
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Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Physics

iii. F.P.S. system: Q.7. State and describe the two supplementary
It stands for Foot-Pound-Second system. In this units.
system, length, mass and time are measured in Ans: The two supplementary units are:
foot, pound and second respectively. i. Plane angle (d):
iv. S.I. system: a. The ratio of length of arc (ds) of an
It stands for System International. This system circle to the radius (r) of the circle is
has replaced all other systems mentioned called as Plane angle (d)
above. It has been internationally accepted and ds
i.e., d =

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is being used all over world. As the SI units r
use decimal system, conversion within the r
system is very simple and convenient. d ds
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Enrich Your Knowledge b. Thus, d is angle subtended by the arc
at the centre of the circle.

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The three systems namely CGS, MKS and FPS c. Unit: radian (rad)
were used extensively till recently. In 1971, the d. Denoted as c
14th International general conference on e. Length of arc of circle = Circumference
weights and measures recommended the use of of circle = 2r.
‘International system’ of units.  plane angle subtended by entire circle at
2πr

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Q.5. What are fundamental quantities? its centre is  = = 2c
r
State two examples of fundamental ii. Solid angle (d):
quantities. Write their S.I. and C.G.S. units. a. solid angle is 3-dimensional analogue of
Ans: Fundamental quantities:
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The physical quantities which do not depend
plane angle.
b. Solid angle is defined as area of a
on any other physical quantity for their
portion of surface of a sphere to the
measurements i.e., they can be directly
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measured are called fundamental quantities. square of radius of the sphere.
Examples: mass, length etc. dA
i.e., d  =
r2
Fundamental
S.I. unit C.G.S. unit
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quantities r
Mass kilogram (kg) gram (g) d
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Length metre (m) centimetre
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(cm)

Q.6. What are fundamental units? State the S.I. c. Unit: Steradian (sr)
units of seven fundamental quantities. d. Denoted as ()
Ans: Fundamental units: e. Surface area of sphere = 4r2
 solid angle subtended by entire sphere at
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The units used to measure fundamental

quantities are called fundamental units. 4πr2
its centre is  = 2 = 4 sr
S.I. Units of fundamental quantities: r
Q.8. Derive the relation between radian and
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Fundamental SI Units
degree. Also find out 1 and 1 in terms of
quantity Name Symbol their respective values in radian.
Length metre m Ans: We know that,
Mass kilogram kg 2 c = 360
Time second s  c = 180
Electric current ampere A 180 180
 1c = = = 57.296
Thermo dynamic kelvin K π 3.1416
Temperature π 3.1416
Similarly, 1 = =
Amount of substance mole mol 180 180
Luminous intensity candela cd = 1.745  102 rad
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Chapter 1: Units and Measurements

As, 1 = 60 Ans:
1.745  102
 1 = = 2.908  104 rad. Fundamental Supplementary Derived
60 units units units
As, 1 = 60
metre radian newton
2.908  104
 1 =  4.847  106 rad. candela steradian hertz
60 ampere square metre
[Note: Students can scan the adjacent kelvin tesla

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QR code to get conceptual clarity about mol volt
degree and radian with the aid of a coulomb

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linked video.] farad
Q.12. List the conventions followed while using SI
Q.9. What are derived quantities and derived units.
units? State two examples. State the

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Ans: Following conventions should be followed
corresponding S.I. and C.G.S. units of the while writing S.I. units of physical
examples. quantities:
Ans: i. Unit of every physical quantity should be
i. Derived quantities: represented by its symbol.
Physical quantities other than fundamental
ii. Full name of a unit always starts with smaller
quantities which depend on one or more

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letter even if it is named after a person,
fundamental quantities for their measurements
eg.: 1 newton, 1 joule, etc. But symbol for unit
are called derived quantities.
named after a person should be in capital
ii. Derived units:
letter, eg.: N after scientist Newton, J after
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The units of derived quantities which are
expressed in terms of fundamental units for
scientist Joule, etc.
their measurements are called derived units. iii. Symbols for units do not take plural form.
iii. Examples and units: iv. Symbols for units do not contain any full stops
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at the end of recommended letter.
Derived S.I. C.G.S. v. The units of physical quantities in numerator
Formula
quantity unit unit and denominator should be written as one
Velocity Unit of displacement m/s cm/s ratio. For example the SI unit of acceleration
is m/s2 or m s–2 but not m/s/s.
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Unit of time
vi. Use of combination of units and symbols for
Acceleration Unit of velocity m/s2 cm/s2 units is avoided when physical quantity is
expressed by combination of two. For
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Unit of time
example, The unit J/kg K is correct while
Momentum Unit of mass kg m/s g joule/kg K is not correct.
 Unit of velocity cm/s
vii. A prefix symbol is used before the symbol of
Q.10. Classify the following quantities into the unit.
fundamental and derived quantities: a. Prefix symbol and symbol of unit
M

Length, Velocity, Area, Electric current, constitute a new symbol for the unit
Acceleration, Time, Force, Momentum, which can be raised to a positive or
Energy, Temperature, Mass, Pressure, negative power of 10.
Magnetic induction, Density. For example,
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Ans: Fundamental Quantities: Length, Electric 1 ms = 1 millisecond = 10–3 s

current, Time, Temperature, Mass. 1 μs = 1 microsecond = 10–6 s
Derived Quantities: Velocity, Area,
1 ns = 1 nanosecond = 10–9 s
Acceleration, Force, Momentum, Energy,
Pressure, Magnetic induction, Density b. Use of double prefixes is avoided when
single prefix is available
Q.11. Classify the following units into 10–6 s = 1 μs and not 1 mms
fundamental, supplementary and derived
units: 10–9 s = 1 ns and not 1 mμs
newton, metre, candela, radian, hertz, viii. Space or hyphen must be introduced while
square metre, tesla, ampere, kelvin, volt, indicating multiplication of two units e.g., m/s
mol, coulomb, farad, steradian. should be written as m s–1 or m-s–1.
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Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Physics

Ans: Solid angle at perihelion distance is
Solved Examples 2.146  10–13 sr and at aphelion distance is
7.798  10–14 sr.
+Q.13. What is the solid angle subtended by the
moon at any point of the Earth, given the 1.3 Measurement of Length
diameter of the moon is 3474 km and its
distance from the Earth 3.84 × 108 m? Q.15. Define a metre.
Solution: Ans: The metre is the length of the path travelled by
Given: Diameter (D) = 3474 km light in vacuum during a time interval of

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 Radius of moon (R) = 1737 km 1/299,792,458 of a second.
= 1.737  106 m Q.16. What is parallax?
Distance from Earth r = 3.84  108 m

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Ans:
To find: Solid angle (d) i. Parallax is defined as the apparent change in
dA position of an object due to a change in
Formula: d = 2 position of an observer.
r

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Calculation: From formula, ii. Explanation: When a pencil is held in front of
our eyes and we look at it once with our left eye
πR2
d = 2 ….( cross-sectional area closed and then with our right eye closed,
r pencil appears to move against the background.
of disc of moon = R2) This effect is called parallax effect.
  1.737  10 5 
2

= 6.43  10–5 sr Q.17. What is parallax angle?

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d =
 3.84  10 
8 2
Ans:
Ans: Solid angle subtended by moon at Earth is i. Angle between the two directions along which
6.43  10–5 sr. a star or planet is viewed at the two points of
[Note: Above answer is obtained substituting value
O observation is called parallax angle
(parallactic angle).
of  as 3.142.] S
Q.14. Pluto has mean diameter of 2,300 km and
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very eccentric orbit (oval shaped) around 
the Sun, with a perihelion (nearest) distance
of 4.4  109 km and an aphelion (farthest)
distance of 7.3  109 km. What are the D D
respective solid angles subtended by Pluto
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from Earth’s perspective?

Assume that Earth’s distance from the Sun b
can be neglected.
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b
Solution: ii. It is given by  =
D
2300
Given: Radius of Pluto, R = km where, b = Separation between two points of
2 observation,
= 1150 km D = Distance of source from any point
Perihelion distance rp = 4.4  109 km of observation.
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Aphelion distance ra = 7.3  109 km

*Q.18. Star A is farther than star B. Which star
To find: Solid angles (dp and da)
will have a large parallax angle?
dA R 2 Ans: A
Formula: d = 2 = 2
r r
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Calculation: From formula, A

 1150  3.142  1150 
2 2
B DA
 dp = =
 4.4  10  9 2
 4.4  10 
9 2

B
= 2.146  10–13 sr
 1150  DB
2

and da =
 7.3  10  9 2
b
i. ‘b’ is constant for the two stars
3.142  1150 
2

= = 7.798  10–14 sr 1
 7.3  109   
2

D
4 4
 

Chapter 1: Units and Measurements

ii. As star A is farther i.e., DA > DB Star
 A < B.
Hence, star B will have larger parallax angle
than star A.
Q.19. Explain the method to determine the
distance of a planet from the Earth.
Ans:
i. Parallax method is used to determine distance A B
1 AU S 1 AU

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of different planets from the Earth.
ii. To measure the distance ‘D’ of a far distant
planet S, select two different observatories Orbit of Earth around Sun

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(E1 and E2).
iii. The planet should be visible from E1 and E2 Enrich Your Knowledge
observatories simultaneously i.e. at the same
time.

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For measuring large
iv. E1 and E2 are separated by distance ‘b’ as distances, astronomers use
shown in figure. the following units. 1
 E1E2 = b S The astronomical unit
(AU) is the mean distance 1 pc
 between the centre of the
Earth and the centre of the

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Sun 1 AU
Sun.
1 astronomical unit, (AU) = 1.496 × 1011 m
D D A light year is the distance travelled by light in
O one year.
1 light year = 9.46 × 1015 m
E1 E2
b A parsec (pc) is the distance from where 1 AU
Earth subtends an angle of 1 second of arc.
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v. The angle between the two directions along r = 1AUc = 1.496 × 10 –6 = 3.08  1016 m
which the planet is viewed, can be measured. 1  4.847 × 10
It is parallax angle, which in this case is 1 parsec (pc) = 3.08 × 1016 m  3.26 light years
 E1SE2 = 
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vi. The planet is far away from the (Earth)

observers, hence Q.21 Explain how size of a planet or star is
measured.
bD
Ans:
PL

b i. To determine the diameter (d) of a planet or

   1 and ‘’ is also very small.
D star, two diametrically opposite points of the
Hence, E1 E2 can be considered as arc of length b planet are viewed from the same
of circle with S as centre and D as radius. observatory.
 E1S = E2S = D ii. If d is diameter of planet or star, angle
b subtended by it at any single point on the
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 = ….( is taken in radian) Earth is called angular diameter of planet.

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b iii. Let angle  be angle between these two
 D= directions.
θ iv. If distance between the Earth and planet or
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Thus, the distance ‘D’ of a far away planet ‘S’ d

can be determined using the parallax method. star (D) is known,  =
D
Q.20. Explain how parallax method is used to v. This relation gives, d =  D
measure distance of a star from Earth. Thus, diameter (d) of planet or star can be
Ans: determined.
i. The parallax measured from two farthest
distance points on Earth for stars will be too Q.22. Name the devices used to measure very
small and hence cannot be measured. small distances such as atomic size.
ii. Instead, parallax between two farthest points Ans: Devices used are:
(i.e., 2 AU apart) along the orbit of Earth Electron microscope, tunnelling electron
around the Sun (s) is measured. microscope.
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Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Physics

Q.23. Just as large distances are measured in AU, +Q.25.The moon is at a distance of 3.84 × 108 m
parsec or light year, atomic or nuclear from the Earth. If viewed from two
distances are measured with the help of diametrically opposite points on the Earth,
microscopic units. Match the units given in the angle subtended at the moon is 1 54.
column A with their corresponding SI unit What is the diameter of the Earth?
given in column B. Solution:
Column A Column B Given: Distance (D) = 3.84 × 108 m
i. Angstrom (Å) a. 1015 m Subtended angle ()
b. 1010 m

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ii. femtometre (fm) = 1 54 = (60 + 54) = 114
c. 1012 m = 114 × 2.91 × 10–4 rad
= 3.317 × 10–2 rad
Ans: i. – (b), ii. – (a)

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To find: Diameter of Earth (d)
Formula: d = D
Enrich Your Knowledge
Calculation: From formula,
d = 3.317  10–2  3.84  108

To measure sizes of microscopic object using
microscope, the wavelength of light to be used
in microscope is so chosen that it is smaller
than size of the object to be measured. Thus,
visible light with wavelength range of 4000 Å
to 7000 Å can measure sizes upto 4000 Å.
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= 1.274  107 m
Ans: Diameter of Earth is 1.274  107 m.
*Q.26.When the planet Jupiter is at a distance of
824.7 million kilometers from the Earth, its
angular diameter is measured to be 35.72

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If object size is smaller than this, smaller of arc. Calculate the diameter of the
wavelength will be needed thereby making use Jupiter.
of electron microscope necessary. Solution:
Approximate wavelength of electrons in
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electron microscope is about 0.6 Å allowing
Given: Angular diameter () = 35.72
= 35.72  4.847  106 rad
measurement of atomic sizes of 1 Å.  1.73  104 rad
Distance from Earth (D)
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= 824.7 million km
Solved Examples
= 824.7  106 km
= 824.7  109 m.
+Q.24.A star is 5.5 light years away from the
To find: Diameter of Jupiter (d)
Earth. How much parallax in arcsec will it
E

Formula: d=D
subtend when viewed from two opposite
points along the orbit of the Earth? Calculation: From formula,
Star d = 1.73  104  824.7  109
PL

= 1.428  108 m
= 1.428  105 km
Ans: Diameter of Jupiter is 1.428  105 km.

1.4 Measurement of Mass

M

A Q.27. Explain the method to measure mass.

1 AU S 1 AU B
Ans: Method for measurement of mass:
Solution: Orbit of the Earth around the Sun i. Mass, until recently, was measured with a
standard mass of the international prototype of
SA

Two opposite points A and B along the orbit

of the Earth are 2 AU apart. The angle the kilogram (a platinum-iridium alloy
subtended by AB at the position of the star is cylinder) kept at international Bureau of
AB Weights and Measures, at Serves, near Paris,
= France.
distance of the star from the Earth ii. As platinum – iridium piece was seen to pick
2AU 2  1.496  1011 up microparticles and found to be affected by
= = = 5.75  10–6 rad
5.5 l y 5.5  9.46  1015 atmosphere, its mass could no longer be
= 5.75  10–6  57.297  60  60 arcsec treated as constant.
….(converting radian into arcsecond) iii. Hence, a new definition of mass was
= 1.186 arcsec introduced in terms of electric current on 20th
Ans: Parallax is 1.186 arcsec May 2019.
66
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Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Physics

iii. F.P.S. system: Q.7. State and describe the two supplementary
It stands for Foot-Pound-Second system. In this units.
system, length, mass and time are measured in Ans: The two supplementary units are:
foot, pound and second respectively. i. Plane angle (d):
iv. S.I. system: a. The ratio of length of arc (ds) of an
It stands for System International. This system circle to the radius (r) of the circle is
has replaced all other systems mentioned called as Plane angle (d)
above. It has been internationally accepted and ds
i.e., d =

T
is being used all over world. As the SI units r
use decimal system, conversion within the r
system is very simple and convenient. d ds
O

N
Enrich Your Knowledge b. Thus, d is angle subtended by the arc
at the centre of the circle.

TE
The three systems namely CGS, MKS and FPS c. Unit: radian (rad)
were used extensively till recently. In 1971, the d. Denoted as c
14th International general conference on e. Length of arc of circle = Circumference
weights and measures recommended the use of of circle = 2r.
‘International system’ of units.  plane angle subtended by entire circle at
2πr

N
Q.5. What are fundamental quantities? its centre is  = = 2c
r
State two examples of fundamental ii. Solid angle (d):
quantities. Write their S.I. and C.G.S. units. a. solid angle is 3-dimensional analogue of
Ans: Fundamental quantities:
O
The physical quantities which do not depend
plane angle.
b. Solid angle is defined as area of a
on any other physical quantity for their
portion of surface of a sphere to the
measurements i.e., they can be directly
C
measured are called fundamental quantities. square of radius of the sphere.
Examples: mass, length etc. dA
i.e., d  =
r2
Fundamental
S.I. unit C.G.S. unit
E

quantities r
Mass kilogram (kg) gram (g) d
O dA
Length metre (m) centimetre
PL

(cm)

Q.6. What are fundamental units? State the S.I. c. Unit: Steradian (sr)
units of seven fundamental quantities. d. Denoted as ()
Ans: Fundamental units: e. Surface area of sphere = 4r2
 solid angle subtended by entire sphere at
M

The units used to measure fundamental

quantities are called fundamental units. 4πr2
its centre is  = 2 = 4 sr
S.I. Units of fundamental quantities: r
Q.8. Derive the relation between radian and
SA

Fundamental SI Units
degree. Also find out 1 and 1 in terms of
quantity Name Symbol their respective values in radian.
Length metre m Ans: We know that,
Mass kilogram kg 2 c = 360
Time second s  c = 180
Electric current ampere A 180 180
 1c = = = 57.296
Thermo dynamic kelvin K π 3.1416
Temperature π 3.1416
Similarly, 1 = =
Amount of substance mole mol 180 180
Luminous intensity candela cd = 1.745  102 rad
22
 

Chapter 1: Units and Measurements

As, 1 = 60 Ans:
1.745  102
 1 = = 2.908  104 rad. Fundamental Supplementary Derived
60 units units units
As, 1 = 60
metre radian newton
2.908  104
 1 =  4.847  106 rad. candela steradian hertz
60 ampere square metre
[Note: Students can scan the adjacent kelvin tesla

T
QR code to get conceptual clarity about mol volt
degree and radian with the aid of a coulomb

N
linked video.] farad
Q.12. List the conventions followed while using SI
Q.9. What are derived quantities and derived units.
units? State two examples. State the

TE
Ans: Following conventions should be followed
corresponding S.I. and C.G.S. units of the while writing S.I. units of physical
examples. quantities:
Ans: i. Unit of every physical quantity should be
i. Derived quantities: represented by its symbol.
Physical quantities other than fundamental
ii. Full name of a unit always starts with smaller
quantities which depend on one or more

N
letter even if it is named after a person,
fundamental quantities for their measurements
eg.: 1 newton, 1 joule, etc. But symbol for unit
are called derived quantities.
named after a person should be in capital
ii. Derived units:
letter, eg.: N after scientist Newton, J after
O
The units of derived quantities which are
expressed in terms of fundamental units for
scientist Joule, etc.
their measurements are called derived units. iii. Symbols for units do not take plural form.
iii. Examples and units: iv. Symbols for units do not contain any full stops
C
at the end of recommended letter.
Derived S.I. C.G.S. v. The units of physical quantities in numerator
Formula
quantity unit unit and denominator should be written as one
Velocity Unit of displacement m/s cm/s ratio. For example the SI unit of acceleration
is m/s2 or m s–2 but not m/s/s.
E

Unit of time
vi. Use of combination of units and symbols for
Acceleration Unit of velocity m/s2 cm/s2 units is avoided when physical quantity is
expressed by combination of two. For
PL

Unit of time
example, The unit J/kg K is correct while
Momentum Unit of mass kg m/s g joule/kg K is not correct.
 Unit of velocity cm/s
vii. A prefix symbol is used before the symbol of
Q.10. Classify the following quantities into the unit.
fundamental and derived quantities: a. Prefix symbol and symbol of unit
M

Length, Velocity, Area, Electric current, constitute a new symbol for the unit
Acceleration, Time, Force, Momentum, which can be raised to a positive or
Energy, Temperature, Mass, Pressure, negative power of 10.
Magnetic induction, Density. For example,
SA

Ans: Fundamental Quantities: Length, Electric 1 ms = 1 millisecond = 10–3 s

current, Time, Temperature, Mass. 1 μs = 1 microsecond = 10–6 s
Derived Quantities: Velocity, Area,
1 ns = 1 nanosecond = 10–9 s
Acceleration, Force, Momentum, Energy,
Pressure, Magnetic induction, Density b. Use of double prefixes is avoided when
single prefix is available
Q.11. Classify the following units into 10–6 s = 1 μs and not 1 mms
fundamental, supplementary and derived
units: 10–9 s = 1 ns and not 1 mμs
newton, metre, candela, radian, hertz, viii. Space or hyphen must be introduced while
square metre, tesla, ampere, kelvin, volt, indicating multiplication of two units e.g., m/s
mol, coulomb, farad, steradian. should be written as m s–1 or m-s–1.
3
 

Chapter 1: Units and Measurements

Q.32. A book with many printing errors contains
four different formulae for the Enrich Your Knowledge
displacement y of a particle undergoing a
certain periodic function: Dimensional analysis can also be used to derive
the formula of a physical quantity, provided we
2 t
i. y = a sin know the factors on which the physical quantity
T depends.
ii. y = a sin v t
a t Q.35. Explain the use of dimensional analysis to

T
iii. y= sin check the correctness of a physical
T a
equation.
a  2 t 2 t 
iv. y=  sin  cos Ans: Correctness of a physical equation by
T 

N
2 T
dimensional analysis:
Here, a is maximum displacement of i. A physical equation is correct only if the
particle, v is speed of particle, T is time dimensions of all the terms on both sides of
period of motion. Rule out the wrong

TE
that equations are the same.
formulae on dimensional grounds. ii. For example, consider the equation of motion.
(NCERT) v = u + at .…(1)
Ans: The argument of trigonometrical function, i.e., iii. Writing the dimensional formula of every
angle is dimensionless. Now, term, we get
 2 t   T  Dimensions of L.H.S. [v] = [L1 M0 T1],
i. The argument,  = = 1 = [L0 M0 T0]
 T  T 

N
Dimensions of R.H.S. = [u] + [at]
which is a dimensionless quantity. = [L1 M0 T1] + [L1 M0 T2] [L1 M0 T1]
Hence, formula (i) is correct. = [L1M0T–1] + [L1M0T–1]
ii. The argument,
O
[v t] = [LT–1] [T] = [L] = [L1 M0 T0] iv.
 [L.H.S.] = [R.H.S.]
As dimensions of both side of equation is
which is not a dimensionless quantity. same, physical equation is dimensionally
Hence, formula (ii) is incorrect. correct.
C
iii. The argument,
 t  T –1 0 1
Q.36. Time period of a simple pendulum depends
 a  = L = [L M T ] upon the length of pendulum (l) and
    acceleration due to gravity (g). Using
which is not a dimensionless quantity. dimensional analysis, obtain an expression
E

Hence, formula (iii) is incorrect. for time period of a simple pendulum.

iv. The argument, Ans: Expression for time period of a simple
 2 t  T 0 0 0 pendulum by dimensional analysis:
 T  = T = 1 = [L M T ]
PL

    i. Time period (T) of a simple pendulum

which is a dimensionless quantity. depends upon length (l) and acceleration due
Hence, formula (iv) is correct. to gravity (g) as follows:
T  l a gb
Q.33. State principle of homogeneity of i.e., T = k l a gb .…(1)
dimensions. where, k = proportionality constant, which is
M

Ans: Principle of homogeneity of dimensions: dimensionless.

The dimensions of all the terms on the two ii. The dimensions of T = [L0 M0 T1]
sides of a physical equation relating different
The dimensions of l = [L1 M0 T0]
physical quantities must be same.
The dimensions of g = [L1 M0 T2]
SA

Q.34. State the uses of dimensional analysis. Taking dimensions on both sides of equation
Ans: Uses of dimensional analysis: (1),
i. To check the correctness of a physical [L0 M0 T1] = [L1 M0 T0]a [L1 M0 T2]b
equation. (Refer Q.35. for explanation) [L0 M0 T1] = [La + b M0 T2b]
ii. To derive the relationship between related iii. Equating corresponding power of L, M and T
physical quantities. (Refer Q. 36. for on both sides, we get
explanation) a+b=0 .…(2)
iii. To find the conversion factor between the
and 2b = 1
units of the same physical quantity in two
different systems of units. (Refer Q. 37. for 1
 b= 
explanation) 2
9
 

Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Physics

iv. Substituting ‘b’ in equation (2), we get logarithmic functions (log x, log x3, etc) as
1 these quantities are dimensionless.
a= iii. This method is not useful if constant of
2
v. Substituting values of a and b in equation (1), proportionality is not a dimensionless quantity.
we have, iv. If the correct equation contains some more
1 1 terms of the same dimension, it is not possible
T=k l g 2 2
to know about their presence using
1 1 dimensional equation.
 l 2
l2 l

T
 T = k 1 = k  = k
g
  g Reading between the lines
g2
vi. Experimentally, it is found that k = 2

N
Explanation for point (iii):
l Gravitational force between two point masses
 T = 2
g is directly proportional to product of the two
This is the required expression for time period masses and inversely proportional to square

TE
of a simple pendulum. of the distance between the two
Q.37. Find the conversion factor between the S.I. m1m2
i.e., F 
and the C.G.S. units of work using r2
dimensional analysis. m1m2
Ans: Conversion factor between units of same  F = G 2
r

N
physical quantity: The constant of proportionality 'G' is NOT
i. Let ‘n’ be the conversion factor between the dimensionless. Thus, method of dimensional
units of work. analysis will not work.
 1 J = n erg ….(1)
iii. Dimensions of work in S.I. system are
 L21 M 11 T1 2  and in CGS system are
O Explanation for point (iv):
1 2
at
With standard symbols, the equation s =
 L 22 M 12 T 2 2 
2
C
is dimensionally correct. However, the
iv. From (1), 1 2
1  L21 M 11 T1 2  = n  L22 M 12 T 2 2  complete equation is, s = ut + at
2
 2 1 2

 n =  L21 M11 T12 
 L 2 M 2 T2  Q.39. If two quantities have same dimensions, do
E

2 1 2 they always represent the same physical

=  L1   M 1   T1  ....(2) content?
 L 2   M 2   T2  Ans: When dimensions of two quantities are same,
PL

v. By expressing L, M and T into its they do not always represent the same physical
corresponding unit we have, content.
2 2 1

n =  m   kg   second  .…(3) Example:

 cm   g   second  Force and momentum both have same
vi. Since, 1 m = 100 cm and 1 kg = 1000 g, we dimensions but they represent different
have, physical content.
M

2
 
n =  100cm   1000 g  (1) 2 Q.40. A dimensionally correct equation need not
 cm   g  actually be a correct equation but
n = 104  103  1 = 107 dimensionally incorrect equation is
SA

Hence, the conversion factor, n = 107 necessarily wrong. Justify.

Therefore, from equation (1), we have, Ans:
 1 J = 107 erg. i. To justify a dimensionally correct equation
Q.38. State the limitations of dimensional need not be actually a correct equation,
analysis. consider equation,
Ans: Limitations of dimensional analysis: v2 = 2as
i. The value of dimensionless constant can be Dimensions of L.H.S. = [v2] = [L2M0T2]
obtained with the help of experiments only. Dimensions of R.H.S. = [as]= [L2M0T2]
ii. Dimensional analysis cannot be used to derive  [L.H.S.] = [R.H.S.]
relations involving trigonometric (sin , cos , This implies equation v2 = 2as is
etc.), exponential (ex, e x , etc.), and dimensionally correct.
2

10
10
 

Chapter 1: Units and Measurements

But actual equation is, v2 = u2 + 2as  K.E. = kmxvy ….(1)
This confirms a dimensionally correct equation where,
need not be actually a correct equation. k = dimensionless constant of proportionality.
ii. To justify dimensionally incorrect equation is Taking dimensions on both sides of equation
necessarily wrong, consider the formula, (1),
1 [L2M1T2] = [L0M1T0]x [L1M0T1]y
mv = mgh
2 = [L0MxT0] [LyM0Ty]
Dimensions of L.H.S. = [mv] = [L1M1T1] = [L0 + y Mx + 0 T0y]
[L M T ] = [LyMxTy]
2 1 2

T
Dimensions of R.H.S. = [mgh] = [L2M1T2] .…(2)
Since the dimensions of R.H.S. and L.H.S. are Equating dimensions of L, M, T on both sides
not equal, the formula given by equation must of equation (2),

N
be incorrect. x = 1 and y = 2
This confirms dimensionally incorrect Substituting x, y in equation (1), we have
equation is necessarily wrong. K.E. = kmv2

TE
Q.41. State, whether all constants are +Q.44.A calorie is a unit of heat and it equals
dimensionless or unitless. 4.2 J, where 1 J = kg m2 s–2. A distant
Ans: All constants need not be dimensionless or civilisation employs a system of units in
unitless. which the units of mass, length and time are
Planck’s constant, gravitational constant etc.,  kg,  m and  s. Also J is their unit of
possess dimensions and units. They are energy. What will be the magnitude of

N
dimensional constants. calorie in their units?
Solution:
Solved Examples 1 cal = 4.2 kg m2s2
S.I. system New system
O
Q.42. If length ‘L’, force ‘F’ and time ‘T’ are L1 = 1 m L2 =  m
taken as fundamental quantities, what M1 = 1 kg M2 =  kg
would be the dimensional equation of T1 = 1 second T2 =  second
C
mass and density? New unit of energy is J
Solution: Dimensional formula of energy is [L2M1T2]
i. Force = Mass  Acceleration According to the question,
Force 4.2[ L 21 M 11 T12 ] = J  [ L22 M12 T22 ]
 Mass =
E

Acceleration Hence, magnitude of calorie in the new system

 Dimensional equation of mass is given by conversion factor, ‘J’.
Dimensions of force F1   L1 
2 1
 M1   T1 
2
 1 2
PL

Dimensions of acceleration  LT   J = 4.2      

 L2   M2   T2 
= [F1L1T2] 2 1 2
 1 m   1 kg   1s 
= 4.2     
Mass   m    kg    s 
ii. Density =
Volume 4.2γ 2
J = 4.2 21 2 =
M

Dimensional equation of density 

αβ 2
Dimensions of mass  F1L1T 2 
= =  3  = [F1L4T2] Ans: The magnitude of a calorie in terms of the new
Dimensions of volume L  4.2γ 2
units J is .
SA

Ans: i. The dimensional equation of mass is αβ 2

[F1L1T2]. *Q.45.An electron with charge e enters a uniform
ii. The dimensional equation of density is  
[F1L4T2]. magnetic field B with a velocity v. The
*Q.43. Derive the formula of kinetic energy of a velocity is perpendicular to the magnetic
particle having mass ‘m’ and velocity ‘v’, field. The force on the charge e is given by
 
using dimensional analysis. |F| = B e v. Obtain the dimensions of B .
Solution: 
Kinetic energy of a body depends upon mass Solution: Given: | F| = B e v
(m) and velocity (v) of the body. Considering only magnitude, given
Let K.E.  mx vy equation is simplified to,
11
 

Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Physics

F=Bev b
*Q.47. v = at + + v 0 is a dimensionally valid
F t+c
 B=
ev equation. Obtain the dimensional formula
distance for a, b and c where v is velocity, t is time
but, F = ma = m  and v0 is initial velocity.
time2 b
 1 Solution: Given: v = at + + v0
 [F] = [M ]   L2 
1 t+c
T  As only dimensionally identical quantities can

T
= [L1M1T2] be added together or subtracted from each
Electric charge, e = current  time other, each term on R.H.S. has dimensions of
L.H.S. i.e., dimensions of velocity.

N
 [e] = [I1T1]
 [L.H.S.] = [v] = [L1T1]
distance This means,
Velocity v =
time [at] = [v] = [L1T1]

TE
L Given, t = time has dimension [T1]
 [v] =   = [L1T–1]
T   L1 T 1   L1 T 1 
[a] =  =  L T  = [L1M0T–2]
1 –2
 =
 
t  T1 
Now, [B] =  F  Similarly, [c] = [t] = [T1] = [L0M0T1]
 ev 
  b = [v] = [L1T1]
 L1M1T 2  T 1 

N
= 1 1 1 1
T I   LT   [b] = [L1T1]  [T1] = [L1] = [L1M0T0]
 [B] = [L0M1T2 I–1] Q.48. Assume that the speed (v) of sound in air
[Note: The answer given above is calculated in
O depends upon the pressure (P) and density
() of air, then use dimensional analysis to
accordance with textual method considering the given obtain an expression for the speed of sound.
data.] Solution:
C
*Q.46.An object is falling freely under the It is given that speed (v) of sound in air
gravitational force. Its velocity after depends upon the pressure (P) and density ()
travelling a distance h is v. If v depends of the air.
upon gravitational acceleration g and Hence, we can write, v = k Pa b …(1)
E

distance, prove with dimensional analysis where, k is a dimensionless constant and a and
that v = k g h where k is a constant. b are powers to be determined.
Dimensions of v = [L1M0T1]
Solution: Given = v = k g h
Dimensions of P = [L1M1T2]
PL

Dimensions of  = [L3M1T0]
Quantity Formula Dimension Substituting the dimensions of the quantities
Velocity (v) Distance L 1 1 on both sides of equation (1),
 T  = [L T ]  [L1M0T1] = [L1M1T2]a [L3M1T0]b
Time  
Height (h) Distance [L1]  [L1M0T1] = [LaMaT2a] [L3bMbT0]
M

Gravitational Distance  [L1M0T1] = [La 3bMa + bT2a]

L 1 2
acceleration (g)  Time
2  T2  = [L T ] Comparing the powers of L, M and T on both
  sides, we get,
2a = 1
SA

k being constant is assumed to be

dimensionless. 1
 a=
Dimensions of L.H.S. = [v] = [L1T1] 2
Dimension of R.H.S. = [ g h ] Also, a + b = 0
1 1
= [L1T2]1/2  [L1]1/2  +b=0  b=
2 2
= [L2T2]1/2 Substituting values of a and b in equation (1),
= [L1T1] we get
As, [L.H.S.] = [R.H.S.], v = k P1/2 1/2
 v = k g h is dimensionally correct  v=k P
equation. 

12
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Chapter 1: Units and Measurements

Q.49. Density of oil is 0.8 g cm3 in C.G.S. unit.
1.7 Accuracy, Precision and Uncertainty
Find its value in S.I. units.
in measurements
Solution:
Dimensions of density is [L3M1T0] Q.51. What is accuracy?
C.G.S unit S.I unit Ans: Accuracy is how close a measurement is to the
actual value of that quantity.
Dimension = L M T  Dimension = éëêL2 M2 T2ùûú
3 1 0 -3 1 0
1 1 1
GG - Gyan Guru
L1 = 1 cm L2 = 1 m = 100 cm

T
M1 = 1 g M2 = 1 kg = 1000 g
T1 = 1 s T2 = 1 s Results of Tata Mumbai
Marathon 2019 saw Kenya’s
0.8 g cm3 = conversion factor (n)  kg m3

N
Cosmas Lagat as winner with
….(1) race time. 2:09:15. Aychew
0.8 [L 13 M 11 T10 ] = n  [L 23 M 12 T 20 ] Bante was at second position
0.8[L13 M11 T10 ] (2:10:05) and Shumet Akalnew

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 n= (2:10:14) was a close third.
[L23 M12 T20 ]
3 1 0 The result clearly marks necessity of accurate
 L1   M1   T1  measurement of time. To achieve this, most
n = 0.8      
 L2   M2   T2  timed races today use race bibs with a timing
3 1 0 chip. When a runner moves past a special mat
 1cm   1g  1s  at starting line, chip registers beginning time

N
= 0.8     
100 cm  1000g  1s  and as runner crosses the finish line, it
registers finishing time.
= 0.8 [103]1 [102]3
= 0.8 [103] [10]6
n = 0.8  103
Substituting the value of ‘n’ in equation (1),
O
we get, 0.8 g cm3 = 0.8  103 kg m3.
C
Ans: Density of oil in S.I unit is 0.8  103 kg m3.
Q.50. The value of G in C.G.S system is
6.67  108 dyne cm2 g2. Calculate its value
in S.I. system.
E

Solution:
Dimensional formula of gravitational constant
= [L3M1T2] Q.52. What is precision?
Ans: Precision is a measure of how consistently a
PL

C.G.S system S.I. system

device records nearly identical values i.e.,
Dimension= Dimension = reproducible results.
1
[ L 31 M 1- 1 T1- 2 ] [ L 32 M 2 T 2 2 ]
Q.53. A scale in a lab measures the mass of object
L1 = 1 cm L2 = 1 m = 100 cm
consistently more by 500 g than their actual
M1 = 1 g M2 = 1 kg = 1000 g
mass. How would you describe the scale in
T1 = 1 s T2 = 1 s
M

terms of accuracy and precision?

6.67  108 dyne cm2 g2 Ans: The scale is precise but not accurate.
= Conversion factor (n)  Nm2 kg2 ....(1) Explanation: Precision measures how
 6.67  108 [ L 31 M 1 1 T1 2 ] = n  [ L 32 M 2 1 T 2 2 ] consistently a device records the same answer;
SA

3 1 2 even though it displays the wrong value.

 n = 6.67  108  L 1   M 1   T1  Hence, the scale is precise.
 L2   M 2   T2  Accuracy is how well a device measures
3 1 2

n = 6.67  108  1 cm   1 g   1 s  something against its accepted value. As scale in

 100 cm   1000 g   1 s  the lab is always off by 500 g, it is not accurate.
n = 6.67  10  106  103
8 [Note: The goal of the observer should be to get
n = 6.67  1011 accurate as well as precise measurements.]
From equation (1), [Note: Students can scan the adjacent
6.67  108 dyne cm2 g2 QR code to get conceptual clarity
= 6.67  1011 N–m2 kg2 about accuracy and precision with the
Ans: Value of G in S.I. system is 6.67  1011 N–m2kg2. aid of a linked video.]

13
 
Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Physics
Q.54. Can you tell? (Textbook page no.8)
If ten students are asked to measure the
length of a piece of cloth upto a mm, using a
metre scale, do you think their answers will
be identical? Give reasons.
Ans: Answers of the students are likely to be
different. Length of cloth needs to be
measured up to a millimetre (mm) length.
Hence, to obtain accurate and precise reading
one must use measuring instrument having
least count smaller than 1 mm.
But least count of metre scale is 1 mm. As a
result, even smallest uncertainty in reading
would vary reading significantly. Also, skill of
students doing measurement may also
introduce uncertainty in observation.
Hence, their answers are likely to be different.
Q.55. List reasons that may introduce possible
uncertainties in an observation.
Ans: Possible uncertainties in an observation may
arise due to following reasons:
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i. Quality of instrument used,
ii. Skill of the person doing the experiment,
iii. The method used for measurement,
iv.
O
External or internal factors affecting the result
of the experiment.
1.8 Errors in Measurements
C
Enrich Your Knowledge
E
The difference between measured value and
true value of a physical quantity is called error.
PL
Q.56. What is systematic error? Classify errors
into different categories.
Ans:
i. Systematic errors are errors that are not
determined by chance but are introduced by
an inaccuracy (involving either the
M
observation or measurement process) inherent
to the system.
ii. Classification of errors:
Errors are classified into following two
SA
groups:
a. Systematic errors:
1. Instrumental error (constant error),
2. Error due to imperfection in experimental
technique,
3. Personal error (human error).
b. Random error (accidental error)
Q.57. What is instrumental (constant) error?
Ans: Instrumental error:
i. It arises due to defective calibration of an
instrument.
14
14
ii. Example: If a thermometer is not graduated
properly, i.e., one degree on the thermometer
actually corresponds to 0.99, the temperature
measured by such a thermometer will differ
from its value by a constant amount.
Q.58. What is error due to imperfection in
experimental technique?
Ans: Error due to imperfection in experimental
T
technique:
i. The errors which occur due to defective
setting of an instrument is called error due to
N
imperfection in experimental technique.
ii. For example the measured volume of a liquid
in a graduated tube will be inaccurate if the
tube is not held vertical.
TE
Q.59. What is personal error?
Ans: Personal error (Human error):
i. The errors introduced due to fault of an observer
taking readings are called personal errors.
ii. For example, while measuring the length of an
object with a ruler, it is necessary to look at
the ruler from directly above. If the observer
looks at it from an angle, the measured length
will be wrong due to parallax.
Q.60. What is random error (accidental)?
Ans:
i. Random error (accidental):
The errors which are caused due to minute
change in experimental conditions like
temperature, pressure change in gas or
fluctuation in voltage, while the experiment is
being performed are called random errors.
ii. They can be positive or negative.
iii. Random error cannot be eliminated completely
but can be minimized by taking multiple
observations and calculating their mean.
Q.61. State general methods to minimise effect of
systematic errors.
Ans: Methods to minimise effect of systematic
errors:
i. By using correct instrument.
ii. Following proper experimental procedure.
iii. Removing personal error.
Q.62. Define the terms:
i. Arithmetic mean
*ii. Absolute error
*iii. Mean absolute error
*iv. Relative error
*v. Percentage error
Ans:
i. Arithmetic mean:
a. The most probable value of a large
number of readings of a quantity is
called the arithmetic mean value of the
quantity. This value can be considered
to be true value of the quantity.
 

Chapter 1: Units and Measurements

b. If a1, a2, a3,…………an are ‘n’ number Q.64. Activity (Textbook page no.10)
of readings taken for measurement of a Perform an experiment using a Vernier
quantity, then their mean value is given callipers of least count 0.01cm to measure
by, the external diameter of a hollow cylinder.
a 1  a 2  ........  a n Take 3 readings at different positions on the
amean = cylinder and find (i) the mean diameter (ii)
n
the absolute mean error and (iii) the
1 n percentage error in the measurement of
 amean = ai
n i 1 diameter.

T
ii. Absolute error: Ans: Given: L.C. = 0.01 cm
a. For a given set of measurements of a To measure external diameter of hollow
cylinder readings are taken as follows:

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quantity, the magnitude of the difference
between mean value (Most probable Vernier
value) and each individual value is Main Scale Observed
called absolute error (a) in the Mean

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Scale Reading reading
measurement of that quantity. Read- Read-
Reading (VSR) (MSR+
ing ing
b. absolute error = |mean value  measured (M.S.R.) (Coinciding VSR)
value| (cm)
cm div  L.C.) cm
a1 = | amean  a1 | cm
Similarly, a2 = | amean  a2 |, _______ _______
1.

N
. . . a1
2. _______ _______ a2 amean
. . .
. . .
O 3. _______ _______ a3
. . . a1 + a 2 + a 3
an = | amean  an | i. The mean diameter = amean =
3
Δa1 + Δa 2 + Δa 3
iii. Mean absolute error: ii. Absolute mean error amean =
C
For a given set of measurements of a same 3
quantity, the arithmetic mean of all the absolute a mean  a1 + a mean  a 2 + a mean  a 3
 amean =
errors is called mean absolute error in the 3
measurement of that physical quantity. Δ amean
iii. Percentage error = ×100
a1  a2  ........  an
E

1 n amean
 a m ean = =  ai
n n i 1
[Note: The above table is made assuming zero error
iv. Relative error: in Vernier callipers. If calliper has positive or
PL

The ratio of the mean absolute error in the negative zero error, the zero error correction needs
measurement of a physical quantity to its to be introduced into observed reading.]
arithmetic mean value is called relative error.
a m e a n Types of zero error Corrected reading
Relative error = Negative: The
amea n
instrument possesses –ve
M

v. Percentage error: zero error when zero Original/observed

The relative error represented by percentage mark on Vernier scale is reading + zero error.
(i.e., multiplied by 100) is called the ahead of the main scale
percentage error. zero.
SA

a mean Positive: The instrument

Percentage error = × 100%
a mean possesses +ve zero error
Original/observed
when zero mark on
reading – zero error.
[Note: Considering conceptual conventions question Vernier scale is behind
is modified to define percentage error and not mean the main scale zero.
percentage error.]
[Note: Students can scan the adjacent
Q.63 What does a = amean ±  amean signify? QR code to get conceptual clarity
Ans: a = amean ± amean signifies that the actual value about how to read Vernier callipers
of a lies between (amean   amean) and
with the aid of a linked video.]
(amean +  amean).
15
 

Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Physics

Q.65. What is meant by the term combination of A
errors? Q.69. Show that if Z =
B
Ans: Derived quantities may get errors due to
individual errors of fundamental quantities, ΔZ ΔA ΔB
= +
such type of errors are called as combined Z A B
errors. Ans: Errors in divisions:
A
Q.66. Explain errors in sum and in difference of i. Suppose, Z = and measured values of A
measured quantity. B

T
Ans: Errors in sum and in difference: and B are (A ± A) and (B ± B) then,
i. Suppose two physical quantities A and B have A ± ΔA
Z ± Z =
measured values A ± ΔA and B ± ΔB, B ± ΔB

N
respectively, where ΔA and ΔB are their mean
absolute errors.   Z  A 1 ±  ΔA / A 
 Z 1  =
ii. Then, the absolute error ΔZ in their sum,  Z  B 1 ±  ΔB/ B 

TE
Z = A+B
A 1±  Δ A / A 
Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) + (B ± ΔB) = ×
B 1±  Δ B / B 
= (A+B) ± ΔA ± ΔB
 ± ΔZ = ± ΔA ± ΔB, ΔB
As, << 1, expanding using Binomial
iii. For difference, i.e., if Z = A – B, B
Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) – (B ± ΔB) theorem,

N
= (A – B) ± ΔA ΔB  ΔZ  ΔA   ΔB
 ± ΔZ = ± ΔA ΔB,
Z 1 ±  =Z 1 ±   1  
 Z   A   B 
iv. There are four possible values for ΔZ, namely  A 
…. 
(+ΔA – ΔB), (+ΔA + ΔB), (–ΔA –ΔB),
(–ΔA+ΔB). Hence, maximum value of
O 
=Z 
B 

absolute error is ΔZ = (ΔA+ΔB) in both the Z ΔA B A B

 1± =1±   
cases. Z A B A B
C
v. Thus, when two quantities are added or ΔA  B
subtracted, the absolute error in the final result Ignoring term  ,
A B
is the sum of the absolute errors in the
individual quantities. Z ΔA  B
=± 
Z A B
E

*67. If the measured values of two quantities are

Z
A ± A and B ± B, A and B being the This gives four possible values of as
mean absolute errors. What is the Z
PL

maximum possible error in A ± B?  ΔA ΔB   ΔA ΔB   ΔA ΔB 

+  , + + ,    and
Ans: Maximum possible error in (A ± B) is  A B  A B  A B 
(A + B).  ΔA ΔB 
  
Q.68. Explain errors in product of measured  A B 
quantity. Z  ΔA ΔB 
 Maximum relative error of =  +
M

Ans: Errors in product: 

Z  A B 
i. Suppose Z = AB and measured values of A
and B are (A ± ΔA) and (B ± ΔB) then, ii. Thus, when two quantities are divided, the
Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) (B ± ΔB) maximum relative error in the result is the sum
of relative errors in each quantity.
SA

= AB ± AΔB ± BΔA ± ΔAΔB

Dividing L.H.S by Z and R.H.S. by AB we get Q.70. Explain errors due to power (index) of
 ΔZ   ΔB ΔA  ΔA   ΔB   measured quantity.
1 ±  = 1± ± ±  
 Z   B A  A   B   Ans: Errors due to the power (index) of
Since ΔA/A and ΔB/B are very small, product measured quantity:
is neglected. Hence, maximum relative error i. Suppose
ΔZ ΔA ΔB Z = A3 = A × A × A
in Z is = + ΔZ ΔA ΔA ΔA
Z A B then, = + +
ii. Thus, when two quantities are multiplied, the Z A A A
maximum relative error in the result is the sum ii. Hence the relative error in Z =A3 is three times
of relative errors in each quantity. the relative error in A.
16
16
 

Chapter 1: Units and Measurements

iii. This means if Z = An [Note: As per given data of numerical, percentage
ΔZ ΔA error calculation upon rounding off yields
=n percentage error as 0.32%.]
Z A
Ap Bq *Q.72. In Ohm’s experiments, the values of the
iv. In general, if Z = unknown resistances were found to be
Cr
ΔZ ΔA ΔB ΔC 6.12 , 6.09 , 6.22 , 6.15 . Calculate the
=p +q +r (mean) absolute error, relative error and
Z A B C percentage error in these measurements.

T
v. This implies, the quantity in the formula
Solution:
which has large power is responsible for
maximum error. Given: a1 = 6.12 , a2 = 6.09 , a3 = 6.22 ,
a4 = 6.15 

N
Solved Examples To find: i. Absolute error (amean)
ii. Relative error
*Q.71. In a workshop a worker measures the
iii. Percentage error

TE
length of a steel plate with a Vernier
callipers having a least count 0.01 cm. Four a1  a2  a3  a4
Formulae: i. amean =
such measurements of the length yielded 4
the following values: 3.11 cm, 3.13 cm, ii. an = a mean  a
3.14 cm, 3.14 cm. Find the mean length, the
mean absolute error and the percentage Δa1 + Δa2 + Δa3 + Δa4
iii. amean =

N
error in the measured value of the length. 4
Solution: a mean
Given: a1 = 3.11 cm, a2 = 3.13 cm, iv. Relative error =
a mean
a3 = 3.14 cm, a4 = 3.14 cm

To find: i. Mean length (amean)

O
Least count L.C. = 0.01 cm. v. Percentage error =
 a mean
a mean
100%

ii. Mean absolute error (amean) Calculation:

C
iii. Percentage error. From formula (i),
a1  a2  a3  a4 6.12  6.09  6.22  6.15
Formulae: i. amean = amean 
4 4
ii. an = a mean  a n 24.58
  6.145 cm
E

Δa1 + Δa2 + Δa3 + Δa4 4

iii. amean =
4 From formula (ii),
Δa mean a1 = |6.145  6.12| = 0.025
PL

iv. Percentage error =  100

a mean a2 = |6.145  6.09| = 0.055
Calculation: From formula (i), a3 = |6.145  6.22| = 0.075
3.11  3.13  3.14  3.14 a4 = |6.145  6.15| = 0.005
amean =
4 From formula (iii),
= 3.13 cm 0.025  0.055  0.075  0.005
M

From formula (ii), amean =

4
a1 = |3.13  3.11| = 0.02 cm 0.160
a2 = |3.13  3.11| = 0 = = 0.04 
4
a3 = |3.13  3.14| = 0.01 cm
SA

a4 = |3.13  3.14| = 0.01 cm From formula (iv),

From formula (iii), 0.04
Relative error = = 0.0065 
0.02  0  0.01  0.01 6.145
amean = = 0.01 cm From formula (v),
4
From formula (iii), Percentage error = 0.0065 × 100 = 0.65%
0.01 Ans: i. The mean absolute error is 0.04 .
% error =  100 = 0.32% ii. The relative error is 0.0065 .
3.13
Ans: i. Mean length is 3.13 cm. iii. The percentage error is 0.65%.
ii. Mean absolute error is 0.01 cm. [Note: Framing of numerical is modified to reach the
iii. Percentage error is 0.32 %. answer given to the numerical.]

17
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Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Physics

+Q.73.The radius of a sphere measured repeatedly *Q.74. The masses of two bodies are measured to
yields values 5.63 m, 5.54 m, be 15.7 ± 0.2 kg and 27.3 ± 0.3 kg. What is
5.44 m, 5.40 m and 5.35 m. Determine the the total mass of the two and the error in it?
most probable value of radius and the mean Solution:
absolute, relative and percentage errors. Given: A ± A = 15.7 ± 0.2 kg and
Solution: B ± B = 27.3 ± 0.3 kg.
Given: a1 = 5.63 m, a2 = 5.54 m, a3 = 5.44 m To find: Total mass (Z), and total error (Z)
a4 = 5.40 m, a5 = 5.35 m, Formulae: i. Z=A+B
To find: i. Most probable value (Mean value) ± Z = ± A ± B

T
ii.
ii. Mean absolute error Calculation: From formula (i),
iii. Relative error Z = 15.7 + 27.3 = 43 kg
iv. Percentage error

N
From formula (ii),
a a a a a ± Z = (± 0.2) + (± 0.3)
Formulae: i. amean  1 2 3 4 5
5 = ± (0.2 + 0.3)
ii. an = a mean  a n = ± 0.5 kg

TE
a1  a 2  a 3  a 4  a 5
Ans: Total mass is 43 kg and total error is ± 0.5 kg.
iii. amean =
5 *Q.75. The distance travelled by an object in time
a mean (100 ± 1) s is (5.2 ± 0.1) m. What is the
iv. Relative error = speed and it’s maximum relative error?
a mean
Solution:
v. Percentage error = relative error
Given: Distance (D ± D) = (5.2 ± 0.1) m,

N
 100%
Calculation: time (t ± t) = (100 ± 1) s.
From formula (i), To find: Speed (v), maximum relative error
 Δv 
a m e a n = 5.63  5.54  5.44  5.40  5.35

= 27.36
5
= 5.472 m
O 
 v 


D
5 Formulae: i. v=
From formula (ii), t
C
Absolute errors: Δv  ΔD Δ t 
ii.   + 
a1 = |amean  a1| = |5.472  5.63| = 0.158 v  D t 
a2 = |amean  a2| = |5.472  5.54| = 0.068 Calculation: From formula (i),
a3 = |amean  a3| = |5.472  5.44| = 0.032 5.2
E

a4 = |amean  a4| = |5.472  5.40| = 0.072 v= = 0.052 m/s

100
a5 = |amean  a5| = |5.472  5.35| = 0.122 From formula (ii),
From formula (ii),
Δv  0.1 1 
PL

0.158  0.068  0.032  0.072  0.122 =±   

amean = v  5.2 100 
5
0.452  1 1  19
= ±   = ± 650
=  52 100 
5
= 0.0904 m = ± 0.029 m/s
Ans: The speed is 0.052 m/s and its maximum
M

iii. From formula (iii), relative error is ± 0.029 m/s.

0.0904 [Note: Framing of numerical is modified to make it
Relative error =
5.472 specific and meaningful.]
= 1.652  10–2
SA

*Q.76. If the formula for a physical quantity is

(after rounding off to correct significant a4 b 3
digits) X= and if the percentage error in
–2 c1/ 3 d1/ 2
= 1.66  10
= 0.0166 the measurements of a, b, c and d are 2%,
3%, 3% and 4% respectively. Calculate
 Percentage error = 1.66  10–2  100 = 1.66%
percentage error in X.
Ans: i. The mean value is 5.472 m.
Solution:
ii. The mean absolute error is 0.0904 m.
iii. The relative error is 0.0166. a4 b3
Given: X =
iv. The percentage error is 1.66% c d1/2
1/3

[Note: Answer to relative error is rounded off using Percentage error in a, b, c, d is respectively
rules of significant figures and of rounding off.] 2%, 3%, 3% and 4%.
18
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Chapter 1: Units and Measurements

Now, Percentage error in X *Q.79. If the length of a cylinder is l =
 Δa Δb 1 Δc 1 Δd  (4.00 ± 0.001) cm, radius r = (0.0250 ±
= 4 + 3 + +   100% 0.001) cm and mass m = (6.25 ± 0.01) g.
 a b 3 c 2 d 
Calculate the percentage error in the
 
=  4  2    3  3    3     4    100%
1 1
determination of density.
 3  2  Solution:
= [8 + 9 + 1 + 2]  100% = 20% Given: l = (4.00 ± 0.001) cm,
*77. Find the percentage error in kinetic energy r = (0.0250 ± 0.001) cm,
of a body having mass 60.0 ± 0.3 g moving m = (6.25 ± 0.01) g

T
with a velocity 25.0 ± 0.1 cm/s. To find: percentage error in density
Solution: Formulae:
ΔV 2Δr Δl

N
Given: m = 60.0 g, v = 25.0 cm/s,
i. Relative error in volume, = +
m = 0.3 g, V r l
v = 0.1 cm/s ….( Volume of cylinder, V = r2l)
To find: Percentage error in E

TE
Formula: Percentage error in E Δρ Δm ΔV
ii. Relative error = +
 m v  ρ m V
= 2  100%
 m v  ….[ Density () =
mass  m 
]
Calculation: From formula, volume  V 
Percentage error in E iii. Percentage error = Relative error  100 %

N
 0.3 0.1  Calculation:
=  2  100% From formulae (i) and (ii), 
 60.0 25.0 
= 1.3% Δρ Δm 2Δr Δl
 = + +
Ans: The percentage error in energy is 1.3%.
+Q.78.In an experiment to determine the volume
O ρ m r l
0.01 2  0.001 0.001
of an object, mass and density are recorded =  
as m = (5 ± 0.15) kg and ρ = (5 ± 0.2) kg m–3 6.25 0.0250 4.00
C
respectively. Calculate percentage error in = 0.08185
the measurement of volume. From formula (iii),
Solution: Δρ
% error in density = ×100
Given: M = 5 kg, M = 0.15 kg,  = 5 kg/m3, ρ
 = 0.2 kg/m3 = 0.08185  100
E

To find: Percentage error in volume (V) = 8.185%

M Ans: Percentage error in density is 8.185%.
Formulae: i. V=

PL

+Q.80. The acceleration due to gravity is

V determined by using a simple pendulum of
ii.  100% length l = (100 ± 0.1) cm. If its time period is
V
Calculation: Using data, T = (2 ± 0.01) s, find the maximum
percentage error in the measurement of g.
M 0.15 Solution:
= = 0.03
5
M

M Given: l = 0.1 cm, l = 100 cm, T = 0.01 s,

  .2 T=2s
and = = 0.04 To find: Percentage error
 5
From formula (i), Formulae: i. T = 2 l
SA

V g
M  
 = + g  100
V M  ii. Percentage error =
….(Using result from error in division) g
V Calculation: From formula (i),
 = 0.03 + 0.04 = 0.07 T2 = 42l/g .…(Squaring both sides)
V
From formula (ii), l
 g = 42 2
V T
 100% = (0.07  100)% = 7% g  l 2T
V  = +
Ans: The percentage error in the determination of g l T
volume is 7%. ….(Using result from error in division)
19
 

Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Physics

From formula (ii),
Example: the sum of the numbers
 l 2T  536.32 g, 127.2 g and 0.301 g by mere arithmetic
Percentage error =     100
 l T  addition, is 663.821 g. But the least precise
 0.1 2  0.01  measurement (127.2 g) is correct to only one
=     100
 100 2  decimal place. The final result should, therefore,
be rounded off to 663.8 g.
= (0.001 + 0.01)  100 = 1.1 %
Ans: Percentage error in measurement of g is 1.1%. Multiplication and Division:
In multiplication or division, the final result

T
1.9 Significant figures should retain as many significant figures as there
are in the original number with the least
Q.81.*Describe what is meant by significant figures. significant figures.

N
State the rules for determining significant Example: if the speed of light is given as
figures. 3.00  108 m s1 (three significant figures) and
Ans: Significant figures: one year (1 y = 365.25 d) has 3.1557  107 s (five
i. Significant figures in the measured value of a

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significant figures), the light year
physical quantity is the sum of reliable digits (3.00  108  3.1557  107) is 9.47  1015 m
and the first uncertain digit. (three signicant figures).
OR
The number of digits in a measurement about
Q.82. Find the number of significant figures in
which we are certain, plus one additional digit,
the following numbers.
the first one about which we are not certain is

N
i. 25.42 ii. 0.004567
known as significant figures or significant digits.
iii. 35.320 iv. 91.000
ii. Larger the number of significant figures obtained
in a measurement, greater is the accuracy of the
O Ans:
measurement. The reverse is also true. No. of significant
No. Number Reason
iii. If one uses the instrument of smaller least count, figures
the number of significant digits increases. i. 25.42 4 Rule no. i.
Rules for determining significant figures: ii. 0.004567 4 Rule no. iii.
C
i. All the non-zero digits are significant, for iii. 35.320 5 Rule no. iv.
example if the volume of an object is iv. 91.000 5 Rule no. iv.
178.43 cm3, there are five significant digits
which are 1,7,8,4 and 3. *Q.83.Write down the number of significant
ii. All the zeros between two nonzero digits are figures in the following: 0.003 m2, 0.1250
E

significant, eg., m = 165.02 g has 5 significant g cm–2, 6.4  106 m, 1.6  10–19 C,
digits. 9.1  10–31 kg.
iii. If the number is less than 1, the zero/zeroes on the Ans:
PL

right of the decimal point and to the left of the No. of significant
first nonzero digit are not significant e.g. in Number Reason
figures
0.001405, the underlined zeros are not significant.
0.003 m2 1 Rule no. iii.
Thus the above number has four significant digits.
iv. The zeros on the right hand side of the last 0.1250 g cm2 4 Rule no. iv.
nonzero number are significant (but for this, 6.4  106 m 2 Rule no. i.
M

the number must be written with a decimal 1.6  1019 C 2 Rule no. i.
point), e.g. 1.500 or 0.01500 both have 4 9.1  1031 kg 2 Rule no. i.
significant figures each.
On the contrary, if a measurement yields
SA

Enrich Your Knowledge

length L given as L = 125 m = 12500 cm =
125000 mm, it has only three significant digits.
NCERT Corner
Rules for obtaining significnt figures
upon performing arithmetic operations:
Addition and Subtraction:
In addition or subtraction, the final result should
retain as many decimal places as there are in the
number with the least decimal places.
Rules for rounding-off the numbers:
While rounding-off numbers in measurement,
following rules are applied.
i. If the digit to be dropped is smaller than 5,
then the preceding digit should be left
unchanged. eg. 7.34 is rounded-off to 7.3.
ii. If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5,
then the preceding digit should be raised by 1.
eg. 17.26 is rounded-off to 17.3

20
20
 

Chapter 1: Units and Measurements

4
iii. If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by =  3.142  (1.07)3
digits other than zero, then the preceding 3
digit should be raised by 1. = 5.132113475 cm3
eg. 7.351, on being rounded-off to first In multiplication or division, the final result
decimal becomes 7.4. should retain as many significant figures as
iv. If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed there are in the original number with the least
by zero, then the preceding digit is not significant figures.
changed if it is even.  Volume in correct significant figures

T
eg. 3.45, on being rounded-off becomes 3.4.
= 5.13 cm3
v. If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed
by zeros, then the preceding digit is raised *Q.87.The length, breadth and thickness of a

by 1 if it is odd. eg. 3.35, on being rounded-
off becomes 3.4.
Q.84. *Describe what is meant by order of
N
rectangular sheet of metal are 4.234 m,
1.005 m and 2.01 cm respectively. Give the
area and volume of the sheet to correct

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significant figures.
magnitude.
Solution:
Explain with suitable examples.
Ans: Order of magnitude: Given: l = 4.234 m, b = 1.005 m,
The magnitude of any physical quantity can be t = 2.01 cm = 2.01  102 m = 0.0201 m
expressed as A × 10n where ‘A’ is a number To find: i. Area of sheet to correct
such that 0.5 ≤ A < 5 then, ‘n’ is an integer significant figures (A)

N
called the order of magnitude. ii. Volume of sheet to correct
Examples: significant figures (V)
i. Speed of light in air = 3 × 108 m/s Formulae: i. A = 2(lb + bt + tl)

ii.
order of magnitude = 8
O
Mass of an electron = 9.1 × 10 31 kg
ii. V=lbt
Calculation: From formula (i),
= 0.91  10–30 kg A = 2(4.234  1.005 + 1.005 
C
 order of magnitude = –30 0.0201 + 0.0201  4.234)
 A = 8.721 m2
Solved Examples In correct significant figure,
A = 8.72 m2
E

Q.85. Add 7.21, 12.141 and 0.0028 and express the From formula (ii),
result to an appropriate number of V = 4.234  1.005  0.0201
significant figures. = 0.085528917 m3
PL

Solution: In correct significant figure (rounding

7 . 21 off),
 12.141 V = 0.086 m3
 0 .0028
Ans: i. Area of sheet to correct significant
Sum  19.3538
figures is 8.72 m2.
M

In the given problem, minimum number of

ii. Volume of sheet to correct significant
digits after decimal is 2.
figures is 0.086 m3.
 Result will be rounded off upto two places of
[Note: The given solution is arrived to by
decimal.
considering a rectangular sheet.]
SA

Ans: Corrected rounded off sum is 19.35.

*Q.86. The diameter of a sphere is 2.14 cm. Q.88. The mass of a box measured by a grocer’s
Calculate the volume of the sphere to the balance is 2.3 kg. Two gold pieces of masses
correct number of significant figures. 20.15 g and 20.17 g are added to the box.
What is (i) the total mass of the box? (ii) the
4 3
Ans: Volume of sphere = πr difference in the masses of the pieces to
3 correct significant figures? (NCERT)
3
4  2.14  Solution:
=  3.142   
3  2  i. Total mass of the box
 d = (2.3 + 0.02017 + 0.02015) kg
….  r = 
 2 = 2.34032 kg
21
 

Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Physics

Since, the last number of significant figure is i.e., b = [L2]
2, therefore, the total mass of the box = 2.3 kg L2
ii. Difference of mass = (20.17  20.15) = 0.02 g  We can write equation as E 
a
Since, there are two significant figures so the
L2 L2
difference in masses to the correct significant Or a  = 2 = [L0M1T2]
figures is 0.02 g. E [L MT 2 ]
Ans: i. The total mass of the box to correct
Q.92. What is the difference between 6.0 and
significant figures is 2.3 kg.
6.00? which is more accurate?
ii. The difference in the masses to correct

T
Ans: 6.0 indicates the measurement is correct up to
significant figures is 0.02 g.
first decimal place, whereas 6.00 indicates that
*Q.89. Nuclear radius R has a dependence on the the measurement is correct up to second

N
mass number (A) as R =1.3 × 10–16A1/3 m. decimal place. Thus, 6.00 is a more accurate
For a nucleus of mass number A = 125, value than 6.0.
obtain the order of magnitude of R
Q.93. A child walking on a footpath notices that
expressed in metre.

TE
the width of the footpath is uneven. He
Ans: R = 1.3  1016  A1/3 m reported this to his school principal and the
For A = 125 complaint was forwarded to the municipal
R = 1.3  1016  (125)1/3 officer.
= 1.3  1016  5 i. What is the possible error encountered?
= 6.5  1016 ii. What is the relative error in width of
= 0.65  1015 m

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footpath if width of footpath in 10 m length
 Order of magnitude = 15 are noted as 5 m, 5.5 m, 5 m, 6 m and 4.5 m?
*Q.90.A large ball 2 m in radius is made up of a Ans:
i. The error encountered is personal error.
O
rope of square cross section with edge
length 4 mm. Neglecting the air gaps in the ii. Mean value of widths
ball, what is the total length of the rope to w1  w2  w3  w4  w5
wmean =
the nearest order of magnitude? 5
C
Ans: Volume of ball = Volume enclosed by rope. 55.55 6  4.5
4 =
 (radius)3 = Area of cross-section of rope 5
3 26
 length of rope. = = 5.2 m
5
E

4 3 Mean absolute error of widths

πr
 length of rope l = 3 w1 w2 w3 w4 w5
A wmean =
5
PL

Given: r = 2 m and
Area = A = 4  4 = 16 mm2 0.2  0.3 0.2  0.8 0.7
=
= 16  106 m2 5
4  3.142  23 3.142  2 = 0.44 m
 l=   106 m
3  16  106 3  w mean 0.44
Relative error = = = 0.084
 2  106 m. w mean 5.2
M

 Total length of rope to the nearest order of The relative error in width of footpath is 0.084.
magnitude = 106 m = 103 km
Q.94. A factory owner kept five identical spheres
Apply Your Knowledge between two wooden blocks on a ruler as
SA

shown in figure. He called all his workers

and told them to take reading, to check
Q.91. Write the dimensions of a and b in the relation
their efficiency and knowledge.
b  x2 Spheres Wooden block
E=
a
Where E is energy, x is distance and t is
time.
b  x2
Ans: The given relation is E 
a
As x is subtracted from b,
 dimensions of b are x2 ;
cm
22
22
 

Chapter 1: Units and Measurements

i. What is the area of central sphere? Ans: Here, V = 100 ± 2 volt and I = 10 ± 0.5 ampere
ii. What is the absolute error in reading of Expressing limits of error as percentage error,
diameter of second sphere? We have
Ans: 2
i. From above diagram radius of central sphere is V = 100 volt ±  100% = 10 volt ± 2%
100
r = 1 cm
0.5
 Area = r2 = 3.14  (1)2 = 3.14 cm2 and I = 10 ampere ±  100%
The area of central sphere is 3.14 cm2. 10
ii. Mean value of all reading of diameters = 10 ampere ± 5%

T
d1  d2  d3  d4  d5 2  2  2  2  2 V
dmean = =  R=
5 5 I

N
10  % error in R = % error in V + % error in I
= = 2 cm = 2% + 5% = 7%
5
Absolute error in reading of second sphere. Q.96. Internet my friend (Textbook page no.12)

d2 = |dmean d2| = 2  2 = 0
The absolute error in reading of diameter of
second sphere is zero.
Q.95. A potential difference of V = 100 ± 2 volt,
when applied across a resistance R gives a
current of 10 ± 0.5 ampere. Calculate
TE
i. videolectures.net/mit801f99_lewin_lec01/
ii. hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/
hframe.html
[Students can use links given above as reference and
collect information about units and measurements.]

N
percentage error in R given by R = V/I.

Quick Review
O
Fundamental quantities
 Length  Mass  Time
FPS
C
 Current  Temperature
Derived  Amount of substance  Luminous intensity
CGS

measured give rise to System of MKS

Physical Quantities Units units
E

using
SI
possess Derived Fundamental  metre (Length)
PL

Dimensions  kilogram (Mass)

Significant figures &
 second (Time)
lead to order of magnitude
 ampere (Current)
Dimensional Should be done  kelvin (Temperature)
need
analysis considering  mole (Amount of substance)
Measurement Accuracy, Precision, Knowledge  candela (Luminous intensity)
M

of quantities require of uncertainty in measurement

ideally should Instrumental

be devoid of
SA

Systematic Personal error

types
Errors Errors due to imperfection
in experimental
estimated as Random

Absolute error Mean absolute error Relative error Percentage error Combination
an = a mean  a n a1  a2  ........  an a mean a mean of errors
 a m ean = × 100%
n a mean a mean
n
1
= ai
n i1
23
 

Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Physics

Various prefixes to express a physical

Important Formulae
quantity:

1. Measure of physical quantity: Power of Power

Prefix Symbol Prefix Symbol
M = nu 10 of 10
where, n = numerical value, u = unit Tera T 1012 micro  106
Giga G 109 nano n 109
2. Relation between numerical value and size Mega M 106 angstrom Å 1010
of unit: 103 1012

T
Kilo k pico p
n1u1 = n2u2 milli m 103 femto f 1015
3. Conversion factor of a unit in two system of

N
units: Exercise
a b c
 M1   L1   T1 
n=       1.1 Introduction
 M2   L2   T2 

TE
1. Define unit of physical quantity.
ds Ans: Refer Q.3. (i).
4. Plane angle: d =
r
1.2 System of Units
dA
5. Solid angle: d = 2. Define F.P.S system.
r2

N
Ans: Refer Q.4.
b 3. Define C.G.S system.
6. Parallax angle:  = Ans: Refer Q.4.
D
7. Diameter of planet/star: d =  D.
O 4. Compare plane angle and solid angle.
Ans: Refer Q.7.
8. Average value or mean value:
1.3 Measurement of Length
C
a1  a2  a3  ..  an 1 n
amean =
n
= a
n i 1 i 5. Explain the method to determine the distance of
a planet from the Earth.
9. Absolute error: Ans: Refer Q.19.
= Average value  Measured value
E

1.4 Measurement of Mass

| an | = | amean  an |
6. What is atomic mass unit (amu)? Why is
10. Mean absolute error: element carbon used to define it?
PL

a1  a2  ...  an 1 n

Ans: Refer Q.27 (v) and Q.28.
amean =
n
=
n
 ai
i 1
1.5 Measurement of time
a mean
11. Relative (fractional) error: = 7. Why was solar day rejected as a unit of time?
a mean
Ans: Refer Q.29.
M

a mean
12. Percentage error: = 100 % 1.6 Dimensions and Dimensional Analysis
a mean
8. What are the dimensions of power?
SA

13. If Z = A  B, then maximum error: Ans: [L2M1T3]

Z =  (A + B)
9. What are the dimensions of frequency?
A Ans: [L0M0T1]
14. If Z = AB or Z = then,
B 10. Find the conversion factor between S.I. and
ΔZ  ΔA ΔB  CGS units of force using dimensional analysis.
=±  +  Ans: Conversion factor = 105 i.e., 1 N = 105 dyne.
Z  A B 
11. Find the dimensional correctness of
15. If Z = Am  Bn, then error in measurement: kinematical equations:
Z mA nB v = u + at
= +
Z A B Ans: Refer Q.35.
24
24
 

Chapter 1: Units and Measurements

b. If a1, a2, a3,…………an are ‘n’ number Q.64. Activity (Textbook page no.10)
of readings taken for measurement of a Perform an experiment using a Vernier
quantity, then their mean value is given callipers of least count 0.01cm to measure
by, the external diameter of a hollow cylinder.
a 1  a 2  ........  a n Take 3 readings at different positions on the
amean = cylinder and find (i) the mean diameter (ii)
n
the absolute mean error and (iii) the
1 n percentage error in the measurement of
 amean = ai
n i 1 diameter.

T
ii. Absolute error: Ans: Given: L.C. = 0.01 cm
a. For a given set of measurements of a To measure external diameter of hollow
cylinder readings are taken as follows:

N
quantity, the magnitude of the difference
between mean value (Most probable Vernier
value) and each individual value is Main Scale Observed
called absolute error (a) in the Mean

TE
Scale Reading reading
measurement of that quantity. Read- Read-
Reading (VSR) (MSR+
ing ing
b. absolute error = |mean value  measured (M.S.R.) (Coinciding VSR)
value| (cm)
cm div  L.C.) cm
a1 = | amean  a1 | cm
Similarly, a2 = | amean  a2 |, _______ _______
1.

N
. . . a1
2. _______ _______ a2 amean
. . .
. . .
O 3. _______ _______ a3
. . . a1 + a 2 + a 3
an = | amean  an | i. The mean diameter = amean =
3
Δa1 + Δa 2 + Δa 3
iii. Mean absolute error: ii. Absolute mean error amean =
C
For a given set of measurements of a same 3
quantity, the arithmetic mean of all the absolute a mean  a1 + a mean  a 2 + a mean  a 3
 amean =
errors is called mean absolute error in the 3
measurement of that physical quantity. Δ amean
iii. Percentage error = ×100
a1  a2  ........  an
E

1 n amean
 a m ean = =  ai
n n i 1
[Note: The above table is made assuming zero error
iv. Relative error: in Vernier callipers. If calliper has positive or
PL

The ratio of the mean absolute error in the negative zero error, the zero error correction needs
measurement of a physical quantity to its to be introduced into observed reading.]
arithmetic mean value is called relative error.
a m e a n Types of zero error Corrected reading
Relative error = Negative: The
amea n
instrument possesses –ve
M

v. Percentage error: zero error when zero Original/observed

The relative error represented by percentage mark on Vernier scale is reading + zero error.
(i.e., multiplied by 100) is called the ahead of the main scale
percentage error. zero.
SA

a mean Positive: The instrument

Percentage error = × 100%
a mean possesses +ve zero error
Original/observed
when zero mark on
reading – zero error.
[Note: Considering conceptual conventions question Vernier scale is behind
is modified to define percentage error and not mean the main scale zero.
percentage error.]
[Note: Students can scan the adjacent
Q.63 What does a = amean ±  amean signify? QR code to get conceptual clarity
Ans: a = amean ± amean signifies that the actual value about how to read Vernier callipers
of a lies between (amean   amean) and
with the aid of a linked video.]
(amean +  amean).
15
 

Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Physics

11. [L1M1T1] is an expression for _______.
Multiple Choice Questions (A) force (B) energy
(C) pressure (D) momentum
1. A physical quantity may be defined as
12. Dimensions of sin  is
(A) the one having dimension.
(A) [L2] (B) [M]
(B) that which is immeasurable.
(C) [ML] (D) [M0L0T0]
(C) that which has weight.
(D) that which has mass. *13. [L1M1T–2] is the dimensional formula for
(A) velocity (B) acceleration

T
2. Which of the following is the fundamental unit? (C) force (D) work
(A) Length, force, time
(B) Length, mass, time *14 Dimensions of kinetic energy are the same as

N
(C) Mass, volume, height that of
(D) Mass, velocity, pressure (A) force (B) acceleration
(C) work (D) pressure
3. Which of the following is NOT a fundamental

TE
quantity? 15. Accuracy of measurement is determined by
(A) Temperature (A) absolute error
(B) Electric charge (B) percentage error
(C) Mass (C) human error
(D) Electric current (D) personal error

N
*4. Which of the following is not a fundamental 16. Zero error of an instrument introduces _______.
unit? (A) systematic error (B) random error
(A) cm (B) kg (C) personal error (D) decimal error
(C) centigrade (D) volt
5.
O
The distance of the planet from the earth is
17. The diameter of the paper pin is measured
accurately by using _______.
measured by _______. (A) Vernier callipers
(A) direct method (B) micrometer screw gauge
C
(B) directly by metre scale (C) metre scale
(C) spherometer method (D) a measuring tape
(D) parallax method *18. The error in the measurement of the sides of a
rectangle is 1%. The error in the measurement
6. The two stars S1 and S2 are located at
E

of its area is
distances d1 and d2 respectively. Also if d1  d2
(A) 1%
then following statement is true.
(B) 1/2%
(A) The parallax of S1 and S2 are same.
(C) 2%
PL

(B) The parallax of S1 is twice as that of S2

(D) None of the above.
(C) The parallax of S1 is greater than
parallax of S2 19. The number of significant figures in
(D) The parallax of S2 is greater than 11.118  106 is
parallax of S1 (A) 3 (B) 4 (C) 5 (D) 6
M

7. Which of the following is NOT a unit of time? 20. 0.00849 contains ______ significant figures.
(A) Hour (B) Nano second (A) 6 (B) 5 (C) 3 (D) 2
(C) Microsecond (D) parsec
21. 3.310  102 has ______ significant figures.
*8. Light year is a unit of (A) 6 (B) 4 (C) 2 (D) 1
SA

(A) time (B) mass

22. The Earth’s radius is 6371 km. The order of
(C) distance (D) luminosity
magnitude of the Earth’s radius is
9. An atomic clock makes use of _______. (A) 103 m (B) 109 m
7
(A) cesium-133 atom (C) 10 m (D) 102 m
(B) cesium-132 atom 23. ________ is the smallest measurement that
(C) cesium-123 atom can be made using the given instrument
(D) cesium-131 atom (A) Significant number
10. S.I. unit of energy is joule and it is equivalent to (B) Least count
(A) 106 erg (B) 107 erg (C) Order of magnitude
(C) 10 erg7
(D) 105 erg (D) Relative error

26
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 

Chapter 1: Units and Measurements

Answers to Multiple Choice Questions 2. The main scale of a vernier callipers has n
divisions/cm. n divisions of the vernier scale
1. (A) 2. (B) 3. (B) 4. (D) coincide with (n – 1) divisions of main scale.
5. (D) 6. (D) 7. (D) 8. (C) The least count of the vernier callipers is,
9. (A) 10. (C) 11. (D) 12. (D) [NEET (Odisha) 2019]
13. (C) 14. (C) 15. (B) 16. (A) 1 1
(A) cm (B) cm
17. (B) 18. (C) 19. (C) 20. (C) n(n  1) (n  1)(n  1)
21. (B) 22. (C) 23. (B) 1
1

T
(C) cm (D) cm
Hints to Multiple Choice Questions n n2
(n 1)
Hint: 1 V.S.D. = M.S.D.
A=lb

N
18. n
ΔA Δl Δb L.C. = 1 M.S.D.  1 V.S.D.
 = + = 1% + 1% = 2%
A l b (n 1)
= 1 M.S.D.  M.S.D.

TE
n
Competitive Corner 1
= M.S.D.
n
1. In an experiment, the percentage of error
occurred in the measurement of physical 1 1
=  cm
quantities A, B, C and D are 1%, 2%, 3% and n n

N
4% respectively. Then the maximum 1
percentage of error in the measurement X,  L.C. = 2 cm
n
1
A2 2 3. A student measures time for 20 oscillations of
B
where X = 1 , will be:[NEET (UG) 2019]
C 3 D3
O a simple pendulum as 30 s, 32 s, 35 s and
31 s. If the minimum division in the measuring
(A) –10 % (B) 10 % clock is 1 s, then correct mean time in second
3 is [MHT CET 2019]
C
(C)  % (D) 16 %
 13  (A) 32 + 3 (B) 32 + 1
1 (C) 32 + 2 (D) 32 + 5
A2
Hint: Given: X = B2 303235 31
1 Hint: Mean (t) =  32
C 3 D3 4
E

 A  t1  t 2  t 3  t 4
Error contributed by A = 2    100   Mean error (t) =
 A  4
= 2  1% = 2% 2  0  3 1 6
PL

= = = 1.5
1  B  4 4
Error contributed by B =    100 
2  B  Hence rounding off,
1 t =  2 s
 2% = 1%
=  t  t = 32  2 s
2
M

1  C 
4. A student measured the diameter of a small
Error contributed by C =    100  steel ball using a screw gauge of least count
3  C 
0.001 cm. The main scale reading is 5 mm and
1 zero of circular scale division coincides with
=  3% = 1%
SA

3 25 divisions above the reference level. If screw

 D  gauge has a zero error of – 0.004 cm, the
Error contributed by D = 3    100  correct diameter of the ball is
 D 
[NEET (UG) 2018]
= 3  4 = 12% (A) 0.521 cm (B) 0.525 cm
 Percentage error in x is given as, (C) 0.053 cm (D) 0.529 cm
x Hint: Least count of screw gauge = 0.001 cm
 100 = (error contributed by A) +
x = 0.01 mm
(error contributed by B) + (error contributed Main scale reading = 5 mm,
by C) + (error contributed by D) Zero error = – 0.004 cm
= 2% + 1% + 1% + 12% = – 0.04 mm
= 16% Zero correction = +0.04 mm
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 

Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Physics

Observed Mainscale Hint: Let the physical quantity formed of the
  (Division  least count) dimensions of length be given as,
reading reading
z
Observed reading = 5 + (25  0.01) = 5.25 mm x
 e2 
y
Corrected Observed zero
[L] = [c] [G]   ….(i)
   40 
reading reading correction Now,
Corrected reading = 5.25 + 0.04 Dimensions of velocity of light [c]x = [LT1]x
= 5.29 mm = 0.529 cm Dimensions of universal gravitational constant
6. The density of the material in the shape of a [G]y = [L3T2M1]y

T
cube is determined by measuring three sides of  e2 
z
3 2 z
the cube and its mass. If the relative errors in Dimensions of   = [ML T ]
 40 

N
measuring the mass and length are
respectively 1.5% and 1%, the maximum error Substituting these in equation (i)
in determining the density is: [L] = [LT1]x [M1L3T2]y [ML3T2]z
[JEE (Main) 2018] = Lx + 3y + 3z My + z Tx  2y  2z

TE
(A) 4.5% (B) 6% Solving for x, y, z
(C) 2.5% (D) 3.5% x + 3y + 3z = 1
mass m
 y + z = 0
Hint: Density () =
Volume l 3 x + 2y + 2z = 0
…(for cube V = l3) Solving the above equation,
Percentage relative error in density will be, 1 1

N
x = 2, y = , z =
 m l 2 2
100 = 100  3 100 1
 m l 1  e2  2
= 1.5 + (3  1)  L = 2 G 
= 1.5 + 3 = 4.5%
O 8.
c  0 
The following observations were taken for
 2 2

5. Let x =  a b  be the physical quantity. If the determining surface tension T of water by
 c  capillary method:
C
percentage error in the measurement of diameter of capillary, D = 1.25  10–2 m
physical quantities a, b and c is 2, 3 and 4 rise of water, h = 1.45  10–2 m.
percent respectively then percentage error in Using g = 9.80 m/s2 and the simplified relation
the measurement of x is [MHT CET 2018] rhg
103 N/m, the possible error in surface
E

(A) 7% (B) 14% T=

2
(C) 21% (D) 28%
2 2 tension is closest to: [JEE (Main) 2017]
ab (A) 0.15 % (B) 1.5 %
Hint: Given: x =
PL

c (C) 2.4 % (D) 10 %

Percentage error is given by, Hint: D = 1.25  10–2 m; h = 1.45  10–2 m
x 2a 2b c The maximum permissible error in D
  
x a b c = D = 0.01  10–2 m
= (2  2) + (2  3) + 4 The maximum permissible error in h
= h = 0.01  10–2 m
M

= 4 + 6 + 4 = 14
x g is given as a constant and is errorless.
 %  14% rhg dhg
x T= 103 N/m =  103 N/m
7. A physical quantity of the dimensions of 2 4
SA

e2 T d h
length that can be formed out of c, G and  % error  
40 T d h
is [c is velocity of light, G is universal T d h
  100   100   100
constant of gravitation and e is charge]: T d h
[NEET (UG) 2017]  2 2

1/2 1/2
=  0.01  102  0.01  102   100
1  e2   e2   1.25  10 1.45  10 
(A) G  (B) c2 G  100 100
c2  4πε0   40  = 
1/2 125 145
1  e2  1 e2 T
(C)   (D) G  = 0.8 % + 0.7 % = 1.5 %
c2  G40  c 4 0 T
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28
 

Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Physics

Q.65. What is meant by the term combination of A
errors? Q.69. Show that if Z =
B
Ans: Derived quantities may get errors due to
individual errors of fundamental quantities, ΔZ ΔA ΔB
= +
such type of errors are called as combined Z A B
errors. Ans: Errors in divisions:
A
Q.66. Explain errors in sum and in difference of i. Suppose, Z = and measured values of A
measured quantity. B

T
Ans: Errors in sum and in difference: and B are (A ± A) and (B ± B) then,
i. Suppose two physical quantities A and B have A ± ΔA
Z ± Z =
measured values A ± ΔA and B ± ΔB, B ± ΔB

N
respectively, where ΔA and ΔB are their mean
absolute errors.   Z  A 1 ±  ΔA / A 
 Z 1  =
ii. Then, the absolute error ΔZ in their sum,  Z  B 1 ±  ΔB/ B 

TE
Z = A+B
A 1±  Δ A / A 
Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) + (B ± ΔB) = ×
B 1±  Δ B / B 
= (A+B) ± ΔA ± ΔB
 ± ΔZ = ± ΔA ± ΔB, ΔB
As, << 1, expanding using Binomial
iii. For difference, i.e., if Z = A – B, B
Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) – (B ± ΔB) theorem,

N
= (A – B) ± ΔA ΔB  ΔZ  ΔA   ΔB
 ± ΔZ = ± ΔA ΔB,
Z 1 ±  =Z 1 ±   1  
 Z   A   B 
iv. There are four possible values for ΔZ, namely  A 
…. 
(+ΔA – ΔB), (+ΔA + ΔB), (–ΔA –ΔB),
(–ΔA+ΔB). Hence, maximum value of
O 
=Z 
B 

absolute error is ΔZ = (ΔA+ΔB) in both the Z ΔA B A B

 1± =1±   
cases. Z A B A B
C
v. Thus, when two quantities are added or ΔA  B
subtracted, the absolute error in the final result Ignoring term  ,
A B
is the sum of the absolute errors in the
individual quantities. Z ΔA  B
=± 
Z A B
E

*67. If the measured values of two quantities are

Z
A ± A and B ± B, A and B being the This gives four possible values of as
mean absolute errors. What is the Z
PL

maximum possible error in A ± B?  ΔA ΔB   ΔA ΔB   ΔA ΔB 

+  , + + ,    and
Ans: Maximum possible error in (A ± B) is  A B  A B  A B 
(A + B).  ΔA ΔB 
  
Q.68. Explain errors in product of measured  A B 
quantity. Z  ΔA ΔB 
 Maximum relative error of =  +
M

Ans: Errors in product: 

Z  A B 
i. Suppose Z = AB and measured values of A
and B are (A ± ΔA) and (B ± ΔB) then, ii. Thus, when two quantities are divided, the
Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) (B ± ΔB) maximum relative error in the result is the sum
of relative errors in each quantity.
SA

= AB ± AΔB ± BΔA ± ΔAΔB

Dividing L.H.S by Z and R.H.S. by AB we get Q.70. Explain errors due to power (index) of
 ΔZ   ΔB ΔA  ΔA   ΔB   measured quantity.
1 ±  = 1± ± ±  
 Z   B A  A   B   Ans: Errors due to the power (index) of
Since ΔA/A and ΔB/B are very small, product measured quantity:
is neglected. Hence, maximum relative error i. Suppose
ΔZ ΔA ΔB Z = A3 = A × A × A
in Z is = + ΔZ ΔA ΔA ΔA
Z A B then, = + +
ii. Thus, when two quantities are multiplied, the Z A A A
maximum relative error in the result is the sum ii. Hence the relative error in Z =A3 is three times
of relative errors in each quantity. the relative error in A.
16
16