PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ENDODONTIC INSTRUMENTS

Reamers and files are by far the most widely used hand instruments. Traditionally, this
group of instruments has been made from stainless steel and comprises two basic
designs, the K-type instruments (K-files and K-reamers) and the Hedstrom file-Clinical
Endodontics Leif Tronstad

Two techniques for manufacturing these instruments have been developed

(Torabinejad)

 Ground-Twisted

One technique consists of first grinding, then twisting. Raw wire is ground into tapered
geometric blanks: square, triangular, and rhomboid .The blanks are then twisted
counterclockwise to produce helical cutting edges. These are K-type files and reamers.
K-type files have more twists per millimeter of length than the corresponding size of K-
type reamer. Both have a pyramidal tip (75 ± 15 degrees) that is produced by grinding
after twisting. One differentiates between reamers and files based on the production
process of hand files, and thus on longitudinal and cross-sectional shape. File is usually
made from a rectangular blank, whereas the reamer has a triangular cross section.
Because of its fewer flutes and triangular cross section, the K-reamer is a much more
flexible instrument than the K-file.

 Machined

Another technique involves machining (grinding) the instrument directly on a lathe; an

example is the Hedstrom-type file .All nickel-titanium instruments are machined.

Some manufacturers produce K-type files using the machined (lathe-grinding) process
This change from the grinding and twisting manufacturing process results in different
physical and working properties from the original K-type file. For instance, the
machined file has less rotational resistance to breakage than a ground-twisted file of the
same size.

COMPONENTS OF A FILE

Taper It is expressed as the amount of file diameter increases each millimeter along its
working surface from the tip towards the file handle.

SIGNIFICANCE: The ability to determine cross-sectional diameter at a given point on a

file can help the clinician to determine the file size in the point of curvature and the
relative stress being placed on the instrument.

 Constant taper with variable tip size Eg. Profile and K3

 Common tip size with varying Taper E.g Quantec, Race, System GT
 No Taper E.g Lightspeed
 Multiple or Reverse Taper E.g Protaper
Core - It is the cylindrical center part of the file having its circumference outlined and
bordered by the depth of the flutes  Significance :The flexibility and resistance to
torsion is partially determined by the core diameter.

Flute- It is the groove in the working surface used to collect soft tissue and dentin chips
removed from the walls of the canal. The effectiveness of the flute depends on its depth,
width, configuration, and surface finish. A progressively larger distance between flute
space and blade is required so as to avoid any compaction of debris and also provides
an effective channel for its removal

The depth of flute of the small instrument is approximately the same as for the larger
instrument but it results in excess susceptibility to failure, the larger instrument has
adequate flexibility and adequate resistance to torsion failure.

Cutting edge: The surface with the greatest diameter that follows the groove (where
the flute and land intersect) as it rotates, forms the leading (cutting) edge, or the blade
of the file

Significance : The cutting edge forms and deflects chips from the wall of the canal and
cut or snags soft tissue. Its effectiveness depends on its angle of incidence and
sharpness.

Radial land/ marginal width is a flat cutting surface present between two
grooves/flutes. The land touches the canal walls at the periphery of the file and reduces
the tendency of the file to screw into the canal, Reduces transportation of the canal.
Reduces the propagation of microcracks on its circumference, Supports the cutting
edge, and Limits the depth of cut.

Disadvantages: Clogging of the instruments, Friction and heat build-up, Inefficient

cutting

Radial landed Non landed

Relief: To reduce frictional resistance, some of the surface area of the land that rotates
against the canal wall may be reduced to form the relief. Wide lands can be very useful
in small diameter files as it increases rigidity and enables the file to negotiate
curvatures when canal enlargement is minimal.
When lands present in the files are too wide for effective canal enlargement then the
files can be used very effectively for removing gutta percha from the canal.

Helix Angle

The angle formed by the cutting edge with the long axis of the file.

The smaller the pitch, the shorter the distance between corresponding points, more
spirals the file will have greater the helix angle . The result of a constant pitch and
constant helical angles is a “thread-in” or “sucking down” of file within the canal. Helix
angle can be constant or accelerating (changes along the length of a file). Accelerating
helix angles decreases the screw in effect when most of the working surface of a file is
engaged and it can decrease the torsion stress on a file.

Pitch -The pitch of the file is the distance between a point on the leading edge and the
corresponding point on the adjacent leading edge. It may be the distance between
corresponding points within which the pattern is not repeated. Most files have a
variable pitch, that changes along the working surface. Helps in removing debris
collected in the flute from the canal.

Rake Angle : is the angle formed by the leading edge and the radius of the file when the
file is sectioned perpendicular to its long axis. If the angle formed by the leading edge
and the surface to be cut is acute, the rake angle is said to be negative or scraping . Most
conventional endodontic files utilize a negative or “substantially neutral” rake angle.

Positive rake angles will cut more efficiently. Eg;, hedstrom files, second generation
rotary files and most dental burs. An overly positive rake angle will result in digging and
gouging of the dentin. This can lead to separation of the instrument.

However rake angle may not same as the cutting angle. The cutting angle or effective
rake angle is a better indication of the cutting ability of a file and is obtained by
measuring the angle formed by the cutting (leading) edge and the radius when the file is
sectioned perpendicular to its cutting edge.

If the flutes of the file are symmetrical the rake angle and cutting angle will be
essentially the same. Only when the flutes are asymmetrical ,the rake angle and cutting
angle will be different. In some instances, as with some Quantec files, a file may have a
blade with a negative rake angle and a positive cutting angle. Both angles may change as
the file diameters change and may be different for file sizes.

negative rake angle-profile positive rake angle-K3

MATERIAL

Traditional metals have included stainless or carbon steel. carbon steel-these alloys
contain less than 2.1% carbon. Compared to stainless steel, many carbon steel
instruments have greater hardness and hence cut somewhat more efficiently ; they are
similar in other respects. However, carbon steel is little used because it is more
susceptible to corrosion by autoclaving and irrigating solutions.

Stainless steel contain 18% chromium,8-10% nickel and0 .12% carbon (traces of
manganese [Mn], chromium [Cr], and molybdenum [Mo] may be added to achieve
specific properties). Stainless steel instruments are relatively inflexible making them
prone to fracture and distortion, which renders them less adaptable to canal curvatures.

New metal alloys have been incorporated to attempt to improve the quality of files.
Nickel-titanium instruments are composed of approximately 55% nickel and 45%
titanium, which can vary by manufacturer. Besides specific elemental content, during
the manufacturing process variables are manipulated, such as temperature or heating
and cooling phases, resulting in instruments with significantly different properties.

Advantages

 NiTinol files have 2-3 times more flexibility then stainless steel.
 Superior fracture resistance in clockwise and counter clockwise torsion.
 NiTinol can retain the shape of the curved canal and does not straighten like
stainless steel.
 Ni-Ti undergoes large amounts of elastic deformation when compared to
Stainless steel.

Disadvantages

 Cutting efficiency of NiTinol is only 60% than that of matching S.S. file.
 Does not give any signs of fatigue before they fracture.
 More expensive.

PROPERTY NITI STAINLESS STEEL

Density 6.45 8.03
Biocompatability Excellent Fair
Elastic modulus 48 GPa 193GPa
Recovered elongation 8% 0.8%
Torquebility Excellent Poor
Tensile strength 1240MPa 760MPa
Flexibility, sharpness, and corrosion resistance are properties related to metal and design.

FLEXIBILITY

Materials researchers and manufacturers hold various theories about file properties,
such as “flexibility may be increased by increasing length or decreasing cross-sectional
diameter” and “a more acute cutting angle can mean more efficient substance removal
by a blade.

By changing the cross-sectional design from square to triangular or rhomboid and

decreasing the number of flutes per millimeter, greater flexibility is gained.

Blank nickel-titanium wire is even more flexible. Nickeltitanium alloy possesses a

modulus of elasticity that is one-fourth to one-fifth that of stainless steel, allowing a
wide range of elastic deformation. An advantage of this increased flexibility is that a file
follows the canal curvature with less deformation (transportation) during enlargement. A
disadvantage of the increased flexibility is the inability to precurve the file for introduction into
canals of posterior teeth when there is a decreased interocclusal opening.

CUTTING EFFICIENCY

All stainless steel instrtiments had a greater cutting efficiency than nickel-titanium
instruments. cutting efficiency of nickeltitanium files may be reduced with clinical usage
compared with stainless steel because of the greater elasticity.

In the group of fiexible stainless steel instruments, the K-Flexofiles and the K-
Flexoreamers showed the greatest cutting efficiency

Some recent studies focused on the impact of physical properties of K-files on their
cutting efficiency. Working characteristics should not be the only criteria in selection of
endodontic instruments, but the reactivity of the metal in the working environment
should also be considered.

BENDING PROPERTIES

There were no consistent differences between conventional stainless steel reamers and
K-files. Stainless steel reamers and K-files displayed a greater resistance to bending
than stainless steel Hedstrom files.

In the group of stainless steel instruments, the flexible Stainless steel instrtiments
displayed 20- 40% less resistance to bending than convetitional stainless steel reamers
and files, which showed the greatest resistance to bending .

Nickel-titanium instruments showed far less resistance to bending than all other
instrtiments. For example, these instruments displayed 50- 75% less resistance to
bending than corresponding conventional stainless steel instrtiments
TORSIONAL PROPERTIES

In the group of conventional stainless steel instruments, the Hedstrom files on average
fractured after one to two revolutions. The average angular deflection of conventional
reamers and K-files was greater than that of Hedstrom files, and they fractured after
two to three revolutions. K-files mostly reached greater angular deflection than reamers
of the same brand. Most Hedstroem files showed lower values than reamers and K-files
of the same brand.

• The average angular deflection of flexible stainless steel instruments was similar to
that of conventional reamers and K-files. The flexible stainless steel instruments
displayed less torque than the conventional stainless steel instruments..

• Nickel-titanium instruments (Hedstroem files, K files) reached about the same angular
deflection as corresponding stainless steel instruments. Their average torque was less
than with the corresponding stainless steel instruments.

J Tepel and Edgard Schafer, Endodontic hand instruments: Cutting efficiency,

instrumentation of curved canals, bending and torsional properties Endodontics &
dental traumatology October 1997

NITI ENDODONTIC INSTRUMENTS

The greatest innovation in endodontic instrumentation in root canals that would

present considerable difficulty for stainless steel times is probably the introduction of
nickel titanium rotary instruments . These instruments are entirely fabricated by a
machining process,. The widespread popularity of NiTi rotary instruments arises from
the relatively low elastic modulus of the nickeltitanium alloy, which permits use of these
instruments in curved canals .

In the early 1960s, a nickel–titanium alloy was developed by William F. Buehler for the
space programme at the Naval Ordnance Laboratory in Silver Springs, Maryland, USA.
The thermodynamic properties of this intermetallic alloy were found to be capable of
producing a shape memory effect when specific, controlled heat treatment was
undertaken.

Orthodontics began using NiTi in the late 1970’s . Dr. Harmeet D Walia , Brantley, and
Gerstein made no 15 file from orthodontic wire, first reported investigatn of the NiTi
alloy in endo in 1988 had 2-3 times the elastic flexibility and greater resistance to
torsion fractures

Nitinol- an acronym for the elements from which the material was composed; ni for
nickel, Ti for titanium and nol from the Naval Ordnance Laboratory.

Metallurgy of nickel–titanium alloys .The nickel–titanium alloys used in root canal

treatment contain approximately 56% (wt) nickel and 44% (wt) titanium. In some NiTi
alloys, a small percentage <2% wt of nickel can be substituted by cobalt.
Atomic structure of Ni-Ti- Ni-Ti alloy is present in Austenitic phase: Body centred
cubic Higher temperature Lower stresses Martensitic phase: Monoclinic Lower
temperature Higher stress R phase: Rhomboidal structure Intermediate between
transition

The crystal structure of NiTi alloy at high temperature ranges (100°C) is a stable,
austenite phase . When it is cooled through a critical transformation temperature range
(TTR), the alloy shows dramatic changes in its modulus of elasticity (stiffness), yield
strength and electric resistivity as a result of changes in electron bonding.

By reducing or cooling the temperature through this range, there is a change in the
crystal structure which is known as the martensitic transformation; the amount of this
transformation is a function of the start (Ms) and finish (Mf) temperature. The
phenomenon causes a change in the physical properties of the alloy and gives rise to the
shape memory characteristic.

The transformation occurs by a shear type of process to martensitic or daughter phase,

which gives rise to twinned martensite a closely packed hexagonal lattice. Almost no
macroscopic shape change is detectable on the transformation, unless there is
application of an external force.

The martensite shape can be deformed easily to a single orientation (detwinned

martensite), when there is a ‘flipping over’ type of shear. The NiTi alloy is more ductile
in the martensitic phase than the austenite phase.

The deformation can be reversed by heating the alloy above the TTR (reverse
transformation temperature range or RTTR). The alloy resumes the original parent
phase with a stable energy condition.

STRESS-INDUCED MARTENSITIC TRANSFORMATION

The transition from the A to M phase can also occur by application of stress, such as
occurs during root canal preparation. In most metals, when an external force exceeds a
given amount, mechanical slip is induced within the lattice causing permanent
deformation; however, with NiTi alloys a stress-induced martensitic transformation
occurs, rather than slip.

Formation of R-phase is favoured by the presence of dislocations and precipitates in the

NiTi alloy.

R-phase possesses lower shear modulus than martensite and austenite, and the
transformation strain for R-phase transformation is less than one-tenth of that of
martensitic transformation.
SHAPE MEMORY

A phenomenon that can recover permanent strains when they are heated above a
certain temperature. (specific thermodynamic property)

Transformation between austenite and martensite occurs by a twinning process at the

atomic level, and the reversibility of this twinning is the origin of shape memory

Transition temperature

Pure substance -- definite melting point

In NiTi alloys, martensitic transformation occur within the temperature range (TTR) –
Eg: Thermal NiTi: 25 C- 82 C.

The cooling and heating curves do not overlap. This difference (40- 60C) is called
hysteresis

Composition and metallurgical treatments have dramatic impacts on these transition

temperatures.

NiTi can have 3 different forms: martensite, stress-induced martensite (SE), and
austenite. When the material is in its martensite form, it is soft and ductile and can
easily be deformed. SE NiTi is highly elastic. Austenitic NiTi is quite strong and hard

SUPERELASTICITY

Superelasticity is a phenomenon wherein the stress remained nearly constant despite

the strain change within a specific range. Alloys such as nickel- titanium, that show
superelasticity, undergo a stress-induced martensitic transformation from a parent
structure, which is austenite.

On release of the stress, the structure reverts back to austenite, recovering its original
shape in the process. Deformations involving as much as a 10% strain can be completely
recovered in these materials, as compared with a maximum of 1% in conventional
alloys.

Other alloys with superelastic properties are the alloys of copper-zinc, copper-
aluminum, or titanium-niobium.

STRATEGIES IN THE ALTERATION OF NITI ALLOY

In recent years, new forms of NiTi have been developed by modifying the alloy either by
correcting the surface defects or variations in metal processing and file manufacturing.

Alteration in the surface of the alloy: Most fatigue failures nucleate from the surface,
especially in the presence of high stress amplitude or surface defects. Attempts to
enhance the surface of NiTi instruments, resistance to cyclic fatigue, and cutting
efficiency have resulted in a variety of strategies

Plasma immersion ion implantation: Plasma immersion ion implantation (PIII) was
first introduced in the late 1980s by Conrad et al. and Tendys et al. During PIII, the
specimen is placed in a chamber and immersed in the plasma; then a highly negative
pulsating voltage is applied to the sample. Briefly, ion implantation is a line-of-sight
process in which ions are extracted from plasma, accelerated, and bombarded into a
device.

Oxide formation on NiTi/titanium oxide coating: It is known that Ti has a higher

affinity with oxygen, when compared to Ni. Therefore, with increased exposure time at
moderate temperatures, the oxide formed is composed mainly of TiO2 with a slow
formation and growth.

Aun DP et al. studied the influence of TiO2 layer on the mechanical behavior of the
endodontic instruments, as well as its corrosion resistance in NaOCl solution.The coated
instruments showed a better performance in fatigue life after corrosion. They concluded
that this characteristic should be maintained for the strained samples, since the TiO2
layer can support relatively large deformations.

Hence, a route to coat endodontic instruments with a flexible TiO2 protective layer via
dip-coating sol-gel technique has been shown to improve the cutting efficiency,
corrosion behavior and fatigue resistance.

Thermal nitridation: The nitriding method known as powder immersion reaction

assisted coating (PIRAC) produces TiN on NiTi. The modified surface consists of a thin
outer layer of TiN and a thicker Ti2Ni layer underneath.

Nitriding at 300°C is not recommended as the SE character of the instrument may be

lost. The instruments nitrided at 250°C are preferred for clinical application. The
placement of a TiN layer on commercial rotary NiTi instruments significantly increases
the corrosion resistance of files placed in contact with 5.25% NaOCl

Cryogenic treatment(CT): Deep dry cryogenic methods have been used to increase the
wear, abrasion, corrosion resistance, microhardness and to improve the strength of
metals. It has been seen to affect the entire cross section of the instrument rather than
just the surface with no change in the elemental crystalline composition of the alloy.

It involves suspending the metal over a supercooled bath containing liquid N (-

196a°C /-320°F) and then allowing the metal to slowly warm to room temperature.
There are two mechanisms involved.

First is more complete martensite transformation from the austenite phase following CT
and second is the precipitation of finer carbide particles within the crystalline structure.
 Controversy exists about which mechanism to be the main one. According to Kim et
al.cryogenically treated instruments had significantly higher microhardness.
Vinothkumar et al showed that CT significantly increased the cutting efficiency of NiTi
instruments but it was not effective on the wear resistance.

Electropolishing / reverse plating:

Electropolishing was introduced by FKG (La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland) in 1999..

Electropolishing (EP) is a standard surface treatment process employed as a final finish

during manufacturing of NiTi instruments. In this process, the surface chemistry and
morphology are altered while surface imperfections are removed as dissolved metal
ions. Typically, the instrument is immersed in a temperature- controlled bath of
electrolyte and serves as the anode when it is connected to the positive terminal of a
direct current power supply, and the negative terminal is attached to the cathode.

As the current passes the surface of metal oxidizes and dissolves in the electrolyte. At
the cathode, a reduction reaction occurs, which normally produces hydrogen.
Electrolytes used most often are concentrated acid solutions with a high viscosity, such
as mixtures of sulfuric acid/phosphoric acid

Owing to a gain in total energy caused by the differences in the enthalpy of Ti and Ni
oxides forming, the preferential oxidation of Ti on NiTi surface always occurs.
Therefore, depending on the electrolytes and regimes employed, bare NiTi surfaces are
built from Ti oxides with Ni concentrations from 2% to 7%. In the process, the corrosion
resistance of the metal is enhanced along with improved surface characteristics.

Race system, the EndoSequence instruments (Brasseler, Savannah, GA, USA) undergo
electrochemical treatment.

 In 2007, Tulsa Dental developed a new NiTi alloy known as M-Wire, composed
of Nitinol 508 (55.8% Ni by weight, Ti completing the balance), which undergoes
unique thermal treatments at various temperatures, done before the instruments
are machined., Contains all 3 crystalline phases, including deformed and
microtwinned martensite, R-phase, and austenite, while maintaining
pseudoelasticity. Compared to instruments fabricated from conventional NiTi
alloys, instruments made from M-Wire alloy have higher cyclic fatigue resistance
and improved mechanical properties. Example are ProTaper NEXT system
,ProFile Vortex system etc.

 In 2008 SybronEndo introduced a series of mechanical NiTi instruments

subjected to a special heat treatment after completion of the machining process,
which creates an additional phase change in the crystal structure of the alloy to
improve flexibility and strength, besides accommodating some of the internal
stress caused by machining. This phase of the NiTi alloy (the R phase) is an
 intermediate phase between martensite and austenite, and occurs during
martensitic transformation when cooling to the R phase, as well as from the R
phase to martensite. The K3XF and Twisted File (TF) systems, both
manufactured by Sybron Endo, receive this treatment..

 In 2010, instruments manufactured with CM-Wire (controlled memory)

thermal treatment technology were introduced by DS Dental (Johnson City, TN,
USA). After machining of Nitinol SE508, a heating and cooling process gives the
alloy control over the shape-memory effect, allowing the instruments to be pre-
bent, which confers greater fatigue resistance and flexibility, contributing to a
more centered canal preparation and lower rates of transportation.These
instruments also contain less nickel (52%) than conventional SE alloys (54% to
57%), which improves the mechanical properties of the alloy.Eg;hyflex CM files.

 In 2012, Dentsply Sirona introduced a new heat treatment process for NiTi CM
alloys, whereby instruments are repeatedly heat-treated and then cooled, which
results in a surface color (CM Blue/Gold ) corresponding to the thickness of the
layer of titanium oxide. The Vortex Blue (Dentsply Sirona), Reciproc Blue (VDW),
ProTaper Gold (Dentsply Sirona), and WaveOne Gold systems are manufactured
using this technology. In the NiTi Blue Wire alloy, the thickness of the titanium
oxide layer is 60-80 nm, whereas in the NiTi Gold alloy, this thickness is 100-140
nm.

 Recently in 2015 a special NiTi alloy known as MaxWire (Martensite-Austenite

Electropolishing-Flex, FKG) was developed for the manufacture of instruments
in the XP-endo family (FKG). As a result of the alloy treatment, at temperatures
equal to or greater than 35°C, it shifts from the martensitic to the austenitic
phase, giving the instrument a semi-circular shape that allows it to project
against the walls of the root canal when rotating, performing eccentric rotary
motion. Thus, instruments are able to adapt to the morphology of the root canal
system, expanding or contracting as they advance along the working length.

 More recently, in 2016, the same (Coltene/ Whaledent, Cuyahoga Falls, OH)
introduced the Hyflex EDM system, also made from NiTi CM 495 alloy, but
manufactured using sparkerosion technology, widely used in engineering. This
electrical discharge machining, or EDM, is a noncontact thermal erosion
process employed in the manufacture of electrically conductive materials which
uses controlled electric discharges in the presence of a dielectric fluid. This
process “melts” the surface of the nickel titanium alloy, partially evaporating
small portions of the metal and leaving behind an eroded surface. The
 instrument is then heat-treated at temperatures between 300 and 600°C for 10
minutes to 5 hours, before or after ultrasonic cleaning and an acid bath. The EDM
manufacturing method seems to optimize the fracture strength of the
instrument, by increasing cyclic fatigue resistance by more than 700% at room
or body temperature.

Nickel–titanium instruments in endodontics: a concise review of the state of the art,

Critical Review Endodontic Therapy Giulio Gavini 2018

Effects of Heat Sterilization on Properties of Nickel-Titanium Instruments.

The issue of influence of sterilization of the instruments on their properties is still

uncertain, with the literature not reaching a consensus, but it seems not to be an
important factor in the fracture of NiTi instruments. Repeated sterilization cause
changes in torsion and bending properties, and also affect cutting efficiency- Silvaggio
and Hicks and Canalda-Sahli et al.

Hilt et al. found no effects on the torsional properties, hardness, and microstructure of
NiTi files from the number of sterilization cycles and the type of autoclave sterilization.
sterilization causes relief of the residual stresses present in the as-received instruments
from the manufacturing process. Such residual stresses may contribute to the clinical
failure of the NiTi instruments. Recent Instruments composed of new thermal treated
alloy were more resistant to fatigue failure

DYNAMICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTION

When a particle or particles of a rigid body move in concentric circle round a common
centre,the motion is called rotational motion

Radian: it is defined as the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal in
length to radius of the circle. Eg. Theta in the diagram
The angular velocity of a rotating particle is defined as the time rate change of angular
displacement. Angular velocity=theta/time.

Angular acceleration of a rotating body is defined as the time rate change of angular
velocity. Angular acceleration=angular velocity/time

The rotational speed is expressed in revolution per minute, abbreviated as r.p.m. If N be

the r.p.m. then in 1minute there is N complete revolution. So ,for one complete rotation
it takes=60/N second

Importance of Speed

Speed refers not only to revolutions per minute but also to the surface feet per unit that
the tool has with the work to be cut. In endodontics, speed varies from 150-40,000 rpm
Greater the speed, more the cutting efficiency. But at higher speed, there are more
disadvantages such as : 1) loss of tactile sensation 2) breakage of instruments preceded
by flute distortion 3) change in anatomical curvature of canal 4) loss of control

Importance of Torque

Torque (also called a moment) is the term used about forces that act in a rotational
manner. According to Marzouk, torque is the ability of the handpiece to withstand
lateral pressure on the revolving tool without decreasing its speed or reducing its
cutting efficiency dependent upon the type of bearing used and the amount of energy
supplied to the handpiece.

Torque is another parameter that might influence the incidence of instrument locking,
deformation, and separation. Theoretically, an instrument used with a high torque is
very active and the incidence of instrument locking and consequently deformation and
separation would increase . Low torque cause cutting efficiency of the instrument, and
instrument progression in the canal would be difficult.

Conventional endodontic motors to recent motors use a wide range of speed of 150 rpm
- 40,00Orpm, which are either controlled by electrical or air-driven handpieces