FUNDAMENTALS

OF HEAT AND
MASS TRANSFER
 Heat and Temperature
Feeling and seeing temperature changes
 Temperature is a measure of the average internal
kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance.
 Heat is a measure of the internal energy that has
been absorbed or transferred from one body to
another.
Increasingthe internal energy is
called heating.
Decreasing the internal energy is
called cooling.
 Effect of Temperature Gradients

Heat is lost through fabric due to temperature

differences.
double the temperature difference=>double the rate
of heat loss

There is a linear relationship between MOST heat

losses and the difference between internal and
external temperatures
 Heat

 The relationship between temperature and heat

is:

Q = mcT
 Q = heat in calories
 m is the mass in kilograms
 T is the change in Temperature in degrees Celsius
 c is the specific heat in Joules per gram ° Celsius
 Units of Heat
A calorie (cal) is the amount of heat required
to raise 1 gram of water 1° Celsius

A Calorie or Food Calorie is 1000 cal

(kilocalorie).

A Btu (British thermal unit) is the amount of

heat required to raise 1 pound of water by 1°
Fahrenheit
Specific Heat and Heat
Capacity

 Thespecific heat of a substance is the number of

Joules necessary to raise the temperature of one
gram by 1° Celsius
A material with a high specific heat has a large
heat capacity (the ability to store thermal energy).
 An object with a high specific heat/ heat capacity
also has a high thermal inertia meaning it will heat
up and cool down at a slow rate.
Water has the one of the highest specific heat
values and therefore has a high heat capacity.
Heat also depends on Mass
 Ifboth objects were heated for several hours they
will have the same temperature.
 However, the larger array will store nine times more
thermal energy than the same one.
Example
 Energyused to take a bath: How much energy is
required to heat 200 kg of water from 20°C to 50°C?
• Answer: Q = (200kg)(4,180)(50-20°C)
 25,000,000 J

• Note that heat depends upon mass.

• The more water (mass), the more energy
required to heat the water to a particular
temperature.
How Hot is the Pizza?
To better illustrate the idea of heat capacity, consider this
scenario:
Your pizza has just been taken from the oven and
you're hungry. The crust is not too hot to handle
when you pick it up. You're confirmed in your belief
that it's at the perfect temperature when you
touch the crust to your tongue. It feels warm, but
not uncomfortably hot. So chomp! And

Oww! Your mouth is burned by the pizza sauce.

How can this be? Obviously, both the crust and
the sauce are at the same temperature ... after all,
they were heated together in the same oven.
How Hot is the Pizza?
 Even
though they were both at the same
temperature, the sauce (because it contains more
water) contains more thermal energy.

 Because of this, more thermal energy is required to

raise the sauce to the same temperature as the
crust. When you put the pizza in your mouth, both
the sauce and crust lose heat until they reach the
same temperature as your mouth. The (water
containing) sauce has much more heat to
surrender and that's why it burns so much.
 Latent heat
During change of state:

The energy given out/absorbed

is called latent heat

means ‘hidden’
 steam
condensation vaporization

releases latent
heat of
vaporization water

solidification
fusion

ice
 steam
condensation vaporization

absorbs latent
heat of
vaporization
water

solidification fusion

ice
 steam
condensation vaporization

releases water
latent heat
of fusion
solidification fusion

ice
 steam
condensation vaporization

water
absorbs
latent heat
solidification fusion of fusion

ice
 Radiation
Transfer of heat energy by electromagnetic waves generates
from thermal energy of surface atoms (i.e. light/electron/radio)
 Convection
 Heat differentials within the fluid
generally cause internal
movement known as
convection currents.

 As volume increases with

temperature, warmer areas of a
fluid have less mass than cold
areas.

 The force of gravity causes the

denser material to displace the
lighter material causing it to rise.

 The amount of convective heat

flow within the fluid depends on
the area of contact with the
solid, viscosity, velocity past the
solid, flow characteristics and
the overall temperature
difference between the two.
 Convection
Transfer of heat energy through a material by the bodily movement
of particles
 Conduction

 This form of heat flow results from the transfer of vibration

energy from one molecule to the next

 The closer together the molecules of the material the

greater the interference and the faster the heat transfer
rate

 The heat flow rate is referred to as the conductivity of a

material and tends to be greater in high density materials

 The rate of heat flow from one side of an object to another

or between objects that touch depends on the cross-
sectional area of flow, the conductivity of the material and
the temperature difference between the surfaces or
objects
 Conduction
Transfer of heat energy through a material without the
molecules changing their basic positions

HEAT FLOW
Solar Heat Gain Coefficient
 SHGCis expressed as a number between
0 and 1. The lower a window's solar
heat gain coefficient, the less solar
heat it transmits. The nationally
recognized rating method by the National
Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC) is for
the whole window, including the effects
of the frame.
The U Factor/U Value
 TheU-factor or U-value, is the overall heat
transfer coefficient that describes how
well a building element conducts heat
or the rate of transfer of heat (in watts)
through one square metre of a structure
divided by the difference in temperature
across the structure.
 The lower the U-value is, the better the
material is as a heat insulator.
Heat Conduction Equation

 QC/t = heat transferred per

unit of time
 k = thermal conductivity
 A = area
 T2 - T1 = temperature
difference
  = thickness
The constant k is called
the thermal conductivity.

Materials with large k are

called conductors; those
with small k are called
insulators.
 The Campfire
 If you hold one end of a burning stick (not the burning end!)
you will eventually feel it getting hotter. This is heat transfer by
conduction.

 If you hold your hand above the fire (but not too close!), it
will be warmed by convected air.

 If you are somewhere in the vicinity, you will

feel the side toward the fire getting warmer
due to infrared radiation.
 Thermal Mass
& Insulation

WHY DO WE NEED TO PROVIDE THERMAL MASS & INSULATION

IN OUR BUILDINGS???
Thermal Mass
Thermal mass refers to
materials that have the
capacity to store thermal
energy for extended periods
Applications
• Passive solar heating
• Passive cooling
• Commercial buildings -
passive - active (ice storage)

Functions:
• Moderates indoor
temperature fluctuations
• Reduces heat flow through
envelope
• Stores energy
• Reduces & shifts peak loads
Creates time lag for indoor
air temperature changes
and reduces temperature
swings

•thermal mass acts like a

sponge – absorbing surplus
heat during the day and
releasing the heat during the
evening
•however to work effectively
the release of heat in the
evenings needs to be
encouraged through flushing
of the air inside the building
Thermal Mass
Thermal Mass – Time Lag
 Time Lag for various materials.

Material and Thickness of Material Time Lag (hours)

Concrete 250mm 6.9
Double brick 220mm 6.2
Earth blocks 250mm 10.5
Clay Earth
covered building 2000 - 5000mm 65 – 165days
Thermal Mass – Time Lag

 The higher
the thermal
mass, the
greater the
TIME LAG.
Thermal Mass – Decrement Factor
 Thermal Mass – Time Lag
 Theinfluence of thermal mass on the periodic heat
flow resulting the variation of the outside
temperature to the inside temperature.
 The variation in delay the heat flow through the
building envelope due to the thermal mass is
known as a TIME LAG.
 Thethicker and more resistive the material, the
longer it will take for heat waves to pass through
(HIGH THERMAL MASS material), the longer its
‘TIME LAG’.
 Insulation decreases temperature swings
Ext

Int
What is INSULATION?

Lightweight material, frequently porous,

used to retard heat transfer
Thermal resistance / R-Value
insulating material's resistance to
 An
conductive heat flow is measured or
rated in terms of its thermal resistance
or R-value -- the higher the R-value, the
greater the insulating effectiveness. The R-
value depends on the type of insulation,
its thickness, and its density.
 Purpose of using insulation
1. Reduce heat transfer conserve heat in an
enclosure reduce supplemental heat required
reduce heat gain
2. Improve comfort more uniform temperature
reduce drafts reduce radiation effects
3. Prevent condensation
Factors in Selecting Insulation:

• R-value
• Ease of installation
• Location/area
• Fire resistance
• Cost ! ! ! ! !
 Additional Factors:

 Effects of moisture
 Effects of sunlight
 Settling characteristics
 Changes with temperature
 Rodents
 Corrosiveness ! ! ! ! !
 Principles for Insulation
• Three insulation mechanisms
• reflective
 Principles for Insulation
Three insulation mechanisms
• reflective
• resistive
 Principles for Insulation
Three insulation mechanisms
• reflective
• resistive
• capacitive
 Insulation
is installed inside and on the surfaces
of framed floors, walls, ceilings, and roofs.
 Various insulation
materials provide
differing R values.
 Increased insulation
thicknesses provide
greater R values. For
example, 3.5″ of
fiberglass insulation
has an R value of 11.
A pressurized hose is
used to blow loose
fill insulation
between the ceiling
joists.
A plywood rake is
convenient to
spread and level off
loose fill insulation
between ceiling
joists.
 Loose fill insulation can be blown between the
studs into wall cavities.
 Inthe blown-in-
blanket system,
loose fill insulation is
blown into a bag
made of retention
fabric, which has
been fastened to
the studs.
 Flexible batt and
blanket insulation
differ only in
length.
 Blanket and batt
insulation must
be properly
installed for
maximum
energy savings.
 Heat
loss occurs through full-basement, crawl-
space, and slab-at-grade foundations.
 Rigid foam insulation can be applied to the
exterior or interior of concrete foundation walls.
 Rigid foam insulation
is applied to the
upper surfaces of
the rafters. Tiling and
counter battens
and roofing felt are
installed prior to
installing roofing tile.
 Shinglesor
shakes can be
directly
fastened to the
cover board.
 Different
types of weatherstripping may be used
around doors and windows.
A steel-clad,
foam-
insulated exterior
door allows little
heat
transmission.
Note the
weatherstripping
and threshold
that have been
installed.
 Thisdouble-glazed
window has special
1/2″ sealed insulated
glass and an air
space to provide a
highly insulated unit.
 Energy efficiency is gained by using a variety of
insulation techniques and materials.
Thermal Insulation
Thermal Insulation
 Restrict Heat Transfer
 Avoid Thermal Bridges
• geometry
• material
• thermography
Thermal Insulation
 Restrict Heat Transfer
 Avoid Thermal Bridges
 Continuity of Insulation
 BUILDING :
• Consist of structures and fabrics.
• React to environment : climate – air,
moisture, wind, humidty, ect

• Each structure and fabric has its own properties:

i. Different reaction in dealing with HEAT FLOWS.
ii. Will cause different result in their CONDUCTIVITY
(k-VALUE), RESISTIVITY (1/k) &
RESISTANCE (R).
iii. Needs different types of THERMAL INSULATION
and produce different U-VALUEs.
 BUILDING :

• Each structure and fabric has its own properties:

iii. Different characteristic in terms of thermal mass –
determine its TIME LAG and DECREMENT
FACTOR.
iv. Different value in determining its contribution
towards HEAT GAIN/HEAT LOSS to/from
building.
 U-VALUE?????????
 represents
the air-to-air transmittance (U) of heat
of an element.
a measure of the heat flow through a building
element.
 Overallheat transmission coefficient (thermal
transmittance) of a structure. It gives the heat
flow through a structure in W per m2 and
temperature difference of 1 °C (W/ m2K).
SUMMARY
• Heat is the transfer of energy from one object to another
due to a temperature difference. Heat can be measured in
joules or in calories.
• Specific heat of a substance is the energy required to
change the temperature of a fixed amount of matter by 1° C.
• In an isolated system, heat gained by one part of the system
must be lost by another.
•Phase changes require energy even though the temperature
does not change.
• Heat of fusion: amount of energy required to melt 1 kg of
material.
• Heat of vaporization: amount of energy required to change 1
kg of material from liquid to vapor.
• Heat transfer takes place by conduction, convection, and
radiation.
• In conduction, energy is transferred through the collisions of
molecules in the substance.
• In convection, bulk quantities of the substance flow to areas of
different temperature.
• Radiation is the transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves.