Transmitter:

Usually, the data generated by a source are not transmitted directly in the
form in which they were generated. Rather, a transmitter transforms and
encodes the information in such a way as to produce electromagnetic signals
that can be transmitted across some sort of transmission system. So
transmitter modifies the base band (when the input data is converted in to
electrical waveform by input transducer the signal is referred to as base band
signal) signal for efficient transmission.

Transmission System:

This can be a signal transmission line or complex network connecting

source and destination.

Receiver:
The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system and converts it
into a form that can be handled by the destination device.

Destination:
It takes the incoming data from the receiver.

Analog and Digital transmission:

Analog data:
The term analog refers to information that is continuous. Analog signal has
infinite number of values in a range.

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Digital data:
The digital data refers to the information that has discrete status. Digital
signal can have only a limited number of values in its range.

Modulation:

Modulation is a process of placing the message signal over some carrier to

make it suitable for transmission over long distances.

De modulation:
Demodulation is the process of separating message signal from the
modulated carrier signal. The most common technique to change an analog
signal to digital data (digitization) is called Pulse code Modulation.
There are three processes involve in PCM.
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Encoding
Sampling:
The first step in PCM is sampling.

• The higher the sampling rate, the closer the recovered signal
approaches the original signal.
• Ideally, an infinite sampling rate would be desirable in terms of
reproducing the original signal.
• This is not practical, however, due to the bandwidth limitation on
the large amounts of data that would need to be transmitted.
• methods of sampling are

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 i. ideal sampling (pulses from analog signal are
sampled)
ii. natural sampling (done by high speed switch)
iii. flat-top sampling (sample and hold)

Sampling theorem
The sampling theorem is used to determine the minimum rate at which an
analog signal can be sampled without information being lost, when the
original signal is recovered.

1. the sampling frequency (fA) must be more than twice the

highest frequency(by Nyquist theorem) contained in the
analog signal (fS)

fA > 2fS.
If sampling rate is not maintained then the aliasing phenomenon
can occur.
2. sampling is some time called pulse amplitude modulation
3. We can sample only band-limited signal, signal with infinite
bandwidth cannot be sampled.
Quantization
Instead of transmitting the exact amplitude of the sampled signal, only
certain discrete value closest to the true one is transmitted1
1. Quantizing is a process by which analog samples (from pulse
amplitude modulated (PAM) signal) are classified into a number of
adjacent quantizing intervals.
2. Each interval is represented by a single value called the Quantized
Value.

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Quantizing is a process by which analog samples (from pulse amplitude
modulated (PAM) signal) are classified into a number of adjacent quantizing
intervals.

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 3. This process introduces an error in the magnitude of the samples
resulting in quantizing noise
4. However, once the information is in quantized form, it can be sent
over reasonable distance without further loss in quality through
regeneration of the binary levels involved to counter distortion.
5. types of quantization are
a. linear quantization
b. non linear quantization
Linear quantization:
1. The quantizing intervals are of equal size.
2. Quantization noise: the difference between the input signal and the
quantized output signal
3. Signal-to-quantized-noise ratio
4. S/N= 6n+1.76 dB