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Thin-Walled Structures: Full Length Article
Thin-Walled Structures: Full Length Article
Thin-Walled Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tws
A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T
Keywords: A new type of composite shear wall, composed of dual steel plates, vertical stiffening steel plates to connect the
Composite shear wall dual plates and concrete infilled in the vertical channels formed by these steel plates, is proposed. Fifteen
Seismic behaviour specimens were tested under horizontal cyclic loads, along with a constant vertical axial force, to investigate
Failure mode their seismic behaviour. Specimen failure mainly included three modes: severe local buckling at the corners of
Ductility
the flange plates and boundary channels, damage of the concrete occurring in the middle and bottom of the shear
Experimental study
wall and local buckling waves originating at the middle of the specimen. All the specimens exhibited a good
deformation capacity: the ultimate drift ratios of the specimens reached an average value of 4.55%, and the
ductility has an average value of 4.0. The test results indicated that the thickness of the shear wall and the
number of channels in the shear wall have a significant effect on the ductility of the specimens. However,
changing the number of channels in the walls has a negligible effect on the shear strength of the wall. Formulas
to predict the maximum shear strength and initial stiffness of the shear wall are proposed, and it is verified that
they can provide a satisfactory prediction for most specimens, with an error within 10%.
*
Corresponding author. Harbin Institute of Technology, Campus 2, Huanghe Road # 73, Nangang District, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, 150090, China.
**
Corresponding author. Key Lab of Structures Dynamic Behavior and Control of the Ministry of Education, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China.
E-mail addresses: wkk-hit@foxmail.com (K. Wang), dingykun@sohu.com (Y. Ding).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2019.106279
Received 30 December 2018; Received in revised form 26 June 2019; Accepted 27 June 2019
0263-8231/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
W. Zhang, et al. Thin-Walled Structures 144 (2019) 106279
A double steel plate composite shear wall consists of three parts, capacity were proposed based on a large amount of test data. Zhang, X
including two external steel plates, infilled concrete and connections. et al. [27] proposed a new composite shear wall and showed that the
The types of connections include batten plates, binding bars, stiffener shear wall had good seismic behaviour. Kurt et al. [28], Ozaki et al.
plates, etc. The composition of the steel and concrete could provide [29], and Alzeni et al. [30] presented the design formulas of the force
more strength and ductility to the wall, and the external steel plates and bending moment of a composite shear wall. Epackachi et al. [31]
could confine the infilled concrete to prevent the concrete from discussed the effect of different spacings for the tie bars and studs on the
cracking, which could enhance the performance of the concrete. The seismic performance of shear walls. Zhang, K et al. [32] provided a
infilled concrete can also delay the local buckling of the steel plates, design formula for the spacing of studs. Huang, Z et al. [33] conducted
which contributes to increasing the shear strength of the wall. Finally, an axial compression test of a composite shear wall and discussed the
the steel plate is used as the form during construction, which is bene- relationship between the axial compression force and bending. Seo, J
ficial for rapid construction. et al. [34] proposed the MBM design model, which had good accuracy
Researchers have conducted experimental and theoretical analyses compared with other experiment results. In addition, composite shear
of steel concrete composite shear walls. Wright et al. [17–21] first walls have been used in actual engineering projects, such as the central
proposed the steel concrete composite shear wall and investigated the hall of the National Museum of China [35]. However, some problems
performances of such a wall under different loading protocols. Ji et al. with this type of wall remain unresolved, as the above mentioned stu-
[22] studied the effects of the depth of the boundary elements, the axial dies have primarily focused on walls with reinforcements, which is not
force ratio and the reinforcement ratio in a composite shear wall. Theirs beneficial for construction. Some specimens have experienced welding
results indicated that the specimens had a better performance when the fracture due to welding quality problems, so the hysteretic behaviour of
extent of the boundary elements was 0.2 times the depth of the wall and the specimens cannot be adequately described.
the axial force ratio of the wall did not exceed 0.25. Eom et al. [23] Therefore, a new composite shear wall without reinforcement is
conducted experiments that included five single wall specimens and proposed, named the composite shear wall with stiffener steel plates
two coupled wall specimens, and showed that specimen failure was due and infilled concrete (CWSC), as shown in Fig. 2. The end of the spe-
to a fracture at the base and connecting beams. A cover plate located at cimen can be seen at the boundary of the wall. Fifteen specimens were
the base of the shear wall could prevent this fracture and the plastic tested to discuss the failure modes, hysteresis behaviour, ductility,
stress distribution in the steel and concrete could be used to predict the stiffness degradation and energy dissipation. Design formulas are also
shear strength of the wall. Zhang et al. [24] proposed a T-shaped proposed to evaluate the strength prediction and initial stiffness. The
composite shear wall that consists of channels. Their results indicated results of this work will provide a better understanding of the hysteretic
that the axial force ratio and number of channels in the wall had im- behaviour of the CWSC and lay a foundation for future research.
portant effects on the hysteretic behaviour. Nie et al. [25] proposed a
composite shear wall connected with batten plates, and values for the
ratio of the shear deformation contribution at the ultimate displace- 2. Experimental programme
ment to the strength prediction and the design requirements were
suggested. Recently, Wang et al. [26] classified the failure mode into 2.1. Specimen design
three types: bending damage, bending and shear damage and founda-
tion anchor damage. A hysteretic curve model and the shearing The shear wall in a high-rise building has a concrete thickness of
approximately 300 mm–1800 mm. The steel plate reinforcement ratio,
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W. Zhang, et al. Thin-Walled Structures 144 (2019) 106279
shear walls [36], as shown in Eq. (1). For a yield strength of 470 MPa,
the limiting spacing of the steel studs was 85 mm. The shear span ratio
of all the specimens was 0.75.
235
s≤ 40t
fy (1)
where s is the spacing of the steel studs, t is the thickness of the steel
plates, and fy is the field strength of the steel plates.
As shown in Fig. 5, the steel plates were extended into the RC beam
to prevent the specimens from pulling out. The reinforcement of the RC
beam was adequate to ensure the anchorage of the steel plates.
Table 1
Summary of the specimens.
Specimen Height of wall Cross section Axial force Spacing to thickness ratio for Steel plate thickness Compressive strength of concrete
(mm) (mm × mm) ratio stiffener plate (mm) (MPa)
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W. Zhang, et al. Thin-Walled Structures 144 (2019) 106279
were arranged to prevent the out-of-plane deformation of the specimen displacements of the bottom and the top RC beam, and four LVDTs
during the test. (LVDT-2,3,6,7) were used to measure the potential rotation from the RC
The arrangement of the LVDTs (Linear Variable Differential beams. Additionally, strain gages were placed to measure the strains of
Transformers) and the strain gages is illustrated in Fig. 8. The lateral the steel plate. The strain gages were located 40 mm and 1010 mm
and vertical loads were automatically recorded by actuators. Four above the base of the wall, which was the maximum possible de-
LVDTs (LVDT-1,4,5,8) were used to measure the horizontal formation according the simulation.
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W. Zhang, et al. Thin-Walled Structures 144 (2019) 106279
Table 2
Material properties of concrete.
Specimen Cubic compressive strength, Axial compressive strength,
fc MPa fc MPa
3. Experimental results
Table 3
Material properties of the web plate and stiffener plate.
No. Young's modulus, Es (MPa) Yield strength, fy (MPa) Ultimate strength, fu (MPa) fu/fy Elongation (%) Poisson's ratio
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W. Zhang, et al. Thin-Walled Structures 144 (2019) 106279
when the lateral force was in the rising stage. The tension field of the
web plate was broken when the butt weld fractured on the web plate.
The web plate lost its shear capacity and could not confine the infilled
concrete. Thus, the lateral force of the specimen could not increase
when the butt weld fractured, which was the reason why these speci-
mens had low shear capacities. For specimens CWSC-2b and -4b, the
lateral force was in either a stable stage or a declining stage when the
welding fractured, and therefore, the fracture could not affect the
hysteresis capacities of these specimens. The failure modes of the spe-
cimens are shown in Table 5, and the ratios of the remaining studs in
the other specimens are shown in Table 6.
The ratio of remaining studs is low when the specimen has a high
shear strength. The shear strength between the steel plate and the in-
filled concrete is higher than that of the steel studs, and thus, the steel
studs undergo fracture. This is the reason that the ratio of remaining
studs is low. When the failure mode of the specimen is a welding
fracture, the shear strength between the steel plate and infilled concrete
is lower than that of the steel studs, so the steel studs remain on the
Fig. 8. Specimen instrumentation. steel plate, and the ratio of remaining studs is high.
The welds are fractured due to the limitations of the factory. As
experiment, the steel web plate was partly cut away so that the shown in Fig. 12, the weld does not have complete penetration after the
damage of the internal concrete could be observed. The shear studs test is finished.
were almost fractured from the web plate. Crushed concrete was Although the boundary elements undergo yielding and local buck-
found at the base of and in the middle of the wall, as shown in ling in the test, the hysteresis loops of the specimens are not pinched.
Fig. 9(e)~(g). The non-fractured studs (remaining studs) accounted The specimens therefore lose their strength capacity when the web
for 6.25% of the total studs, as shown in Fig. 10. plates undergo severe local buckling and tensile shear damage.
In addition to the similar failure modes to CWSC-1c, other speci- 3.2. Force-displacement response
mens have some specific features of their own.
For CWSC-1a, -2c, -3a, -3b, -4b, -5b, and -5c, local buckling was The lateral force-displacement curves of the specimens are shown in
observed when the drift ratio reached 0.75%. Table 4 and Fig. 13. The hysteresis curves of all specimens are found to
For CWSC-3c, when the drift ratio reached 4.55%, a slight hor- exhibit a rounded shape with a slight pinch. The following conclusions
izontal fracture was observed at the base of the web plate. can be drawn:
For CWSC-2a, -2b, -2c, -3a, -3b, -4b, -4c, -5a, and-5c, an obvious
vertical weld fracture was observed at the middle of the web plate, as 1. Specimens CWSC-1b, CWSC-1c, CWSC-2b, CWSC-3c, CWSC-4a,
shown in Fig. 11(a). The drift ratios of the vertical weld fractures that CWSC-4b, and CWSC-5b can be observed to have more hysteresis
occurred were different, as presented in Table 4. The welding quality loops than the other identical specimens. The other specimens
could not be guaranteed when a manual butt weld was used to connect showed that the welding fracture occurring before the maximum
the thin plates, and therefore, the cracking times of this weld on these strength was reached was due to the fabrication of the specimens,
specimens are quite different. For specimens CWSC-2a, -2c, -3a, -3b, and the uncompacted concrete in the corner of the wall of CWSC-1a
-4c, -5a, and -5c, the butt weld fractured at the middle of the web plate significantly affected the strength capacity and the shape of the
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W. Zhang, et al. Thin-Walled Structures 144 (2019) 106279
wall, which weakens the integrity of the infilled concrete. The me-
chanical performance of the wall is changed from shear failure to
bending and shear failure with an increase in the number of chan-
nels. Therefore, the hysteresis loops of the specimens with more
channels are more stable and abundant.
3. A comparison among CWSC-1c, CWSC-4b and CWSC-5b, which all
had the same wall width, shows that the hysteresis loops will be
more stable with further cycles when the wall thickness is increased.
It was expected that both of the cycles would occur and that the
ductility of CWSC-5b should be greater than that of CWSC-1c, but
the result is actually the opposite, as shown in Table 4 and Fig. 13.
The foundation beam cracked when the drift ratio reached 2.94%,
and test was therefore stopped to ensure safety.
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W. Zhang, et al. Thin-Walled Structures 144 (2019) 106279
The damage process of the specimens can be divided into elastic and One explanation for this finding is that the concrete can provide a
inelastic behaviour, with a gradually degrading stiffness and a failure stronger lateral resistance upon increasing the thickness of the wall,
stage. The ratios of the maximum strength Pm in the positive direction thereby preventing the steel plate from undergoing premature da-
to that in the negative direction for each specimen are between 0.99 mage when increasing the shear strength of the wall.
and 1.19, indicating that the specimens have a stable strength capacity 3. When the wall thickness increases from 105 mm to 120 mm, an in-
between the positive direction and negative direction during cyclic crease of 14.3%, the average maximum strength increases by only
loading. The hysteretic behaviour as well as the impacts of the con- 2.89%. When the wall thickness increases from 120 mm to 135 mm,
figuration details for the specimens are as follows: an increase of 12.5%, the average maximum strength increases by
only 2.41%. Thus, increasing the wall thickness is not considered an
1. The yield strength Py is approximately 77% of the maximum effective way to improve the average maximum strength of the wall.
strength for all specimens. The drift ratios of the yield strength are
between 0.65% and 1.39%, with an average value of 0.85%. The
ultimate drift ratios are between 2.56% and 4.55%, with an average 3.3. Strength degradation
value of 3.33%. This finding indicates that under a high axial
compressive strength, the specimens have a good deformation ca- The strength degradation ratio (ηi) is defined as the ratio of the
pacity. maximum strength in the last cycle to that in the first cycle at the same
2. More compartments on the wall being divided by the stiffener plates displacement level, as given in Eq. (3):
has a minimal effect on the average maximum strength, but the Pin
average maximum strength improves as the wall thickness increases. ηi =
Pi1 (3)
Table 4
Summary of the test results.
Specimen Loading Initial stiffness Yield strength Yield drift maximum strength Drift at maximum Drift at weld Ultimate drift Ductility μ
direction (kN/mm) Py (kN) (rad) Pm (kN) strength (rad) fracture (rad) (rad)
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W. Zhang, et al. Thin-Walled Structures 144 (2019) 106279
Table 5
Failure modes of all specimens.
Specimen Average failure drift (rad) Failure mode
CWSC-1a 1.47% Local buckling at the web plate and flange plate; Concrete crushing at the corner
CWSC-1b 3.39% Local buckling at the web plate and flange plate; Concrete crushing at the corner
CWSC-1c 3.78% Local buckling at the web plate and flange plate; Concrete crushing at the corner
CWSC-2a 1.41% Local buckling at the web plate; Concrete crushing at the corner; Weld fracture at the web plate and flange plate
CWSC-2b 2.71% Local buckling at the web plate and flange plate; Concrete crushing at the corner; Weld fracture at the web plate
CWSC-2c 1.75% Local buckling at the web plate and flange plate; Concrete crushing at the corner; Weld fracture at the web plate
CWSC-3a 2.25% Local buckling at the web plate and flange plate; Concrete crushing at the corner; Weld fracture at the flange plate
CWSC-3b 2.39% Local buckling at the web plate and flange plate; Concrete crushing at the corner; Weld fracture at the web plate
CWSC-3c 4.45% Local buckling at the web plate and flange plate; Concrete crushing at the corner; Slight fracture at the base of the web plate
CWSC-4a 2.64% Local buckling at the web plate and flange plate; Concrete crushing at the corner
CWSC-4b 3.28% Local buckling at the web plate and flange plate; Concrete crushing at the corner; Weld fracture at the web plate
CWSC-4c 1.79% Local buckling at the web plate and flange plate; Concrete crushing at the corner; Weld fracture at the web plate
CWSC-5a 1.28% Local buckling at the web plate and flange plate; Concrete crushing at the corner; Weld fracture at the web plate
CWSC-5b 3.20% Local buckling at the web plate and flange plate; Concrete crushing at the corner
CWSC-5c 2.20% Local buckling at the web plate and flange plate; Concrete crushing at the corner; Weld fracture at the web plate
Ki
ξ=
K0 (5)
j
where Fi is the maximum strength of the jth cycle at displacement i and
d ij is the recorded displacement of the jth cycle at displacement i.
The stiffnesses and stiffness degradations of the specimens are
shown in Fig. 17 and Fig. 18, respectively. The following conclusions
can be drawn:
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W. Zhang, et al. Thin-Walled Structures 144 (2019) 106279
Fig. 13. Lateral force versus top displacement curves for all the specimens.
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W. Zhang, et al. Thin-Walled Structures 144 (2019) 106279
to the foundation beam cracking. Therefore, CWSC-5b has the po- similar to that of the other specimens, while it is larger than that of the
tential to exhibit a higher ductility. other specimens when the ultimate displacement is reached. This
finding indicates that a composite wall with more channels can improve
3.6. Energy dissipation capacity the energy dissipation capacity by improving the ultimate displace-
ment. As shown in Table 8, upon increasing the length to width ratio of
The energy dissipation capacity is an important index for evaluating a single tube, the constraint of the steel plate on the concrete is wea-
the seismic behaviour of a structure [24]. The energy absorbed by the kened, and the value of the equivalent damping coefficient is lower.
specimens can be calculated from the areas surrounded by the force- Thus, decreasing the length to width ratio of a single tube can effec-
displacement hysteresis curves, as shown in Fig. 20. The equivalent tively increase the energy dissipation capacity of the specimens.
damping coefficient he is defined by Eq. (7). The he-displacement curve
of the specimens is shown in Fig. 21.
3.7. Strain analysis
S(ABC + CDA)
he =
2πS(OBE + ODF) (7) Observations of the initial local buckling are difficult, so strain
gauges are used to judge the occurrence of local buckling. Before the
S(ABC + CDA) is the area surrounded by the hysteresis curve, and
local buckling, the vertical strain of the steel plate increases with the
S(OBE + ODF) is the sum of the areas of triangles OBE and ODF.
stress. After buckling, the steel plate undergoes a stress mutation in the
The equivalent damping coefficient increases gradually with the
buckling direction, and a vertical tensile stress is generated [44] that
horizontal displacement. Before the specimens yield, the coefficient is
can indicate the occurrence of local buckling. The Mises stress σm can
maintained at a relatively low level, between 0.05 and 0.1. During the
be calculated according the fourth strength theory [45]. In the paper,
stage between the yield strength and the maximum strength, the
the elastic modulus of the steel plate is E=199,900 MPa, the Poisson
equivalent damping coefficient increases, ranging from 0.1 to 0.2. In
ratio of the steel plate is v=0.274, and the shear modulus is
the final stage after the maximum strength, the equivalent damping E
G = 2(1+v) = 78454MP a .
coefficient is generally over 0.2. This value is higher than that of the
steel plate reinforced concrete shear walls [15] and the reinforced Note that the Mises stress is not accurate when the stress exceeds the
concrete shear walls [43], as shown in Table 7. It can be concluded that yield stress because the elastic modulus is then changed. The positive
the specimens have strong energy dissipation capacities. Mises stress in the position reaches a yield earlier than the negative
Fig. 21 demonstrates that with the same number of channels in the stress because the concrete bears part of the strength.
wall, the equivalent damping coefficient of CWSC-5b is larger than that Test points 4 and 6 undergo local buckling when the drift ratio
of the other specimens. Thus, increasing the thickness of the wall can reaches −0.5%, as shown in Fig. 22. The test point yields when the drift
effectively improve the energy dissipation capacity. Under the same ratio reaches 1.25%, as shown in Fig. 23. Therefore, the web plate
wall thickness, the equivalent damping coefficient of CWSC-3c is undergoes local buckling before compression yielding.
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W. Zhang, et al. Thin-Walled Structures 144 (2019) 106279
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W. Zhang, et al. Thin-Walled Structures 144 (2019) 106279
To study the initial stiffness of the shear wall, the shear wall is
simplified with the following assumptions: 1. The deformation of the
shear wall section conforms to the assumption of a plane section. 2. The
steel plate and concrete are considered to be in the elastic stage, and
their damages are not considered [46].
The initial stiffness of a specimen K0 is defined as the slope of the
initial stage in the force-displacement curve. The initial stiffnesses of
the specimens are listed in Table 9.
When a composite shear wall is under a horizontal load, the initial
stiffness K0 is composed of Km and Kv in parallel, as shown in Eq. (11).
1 1 1
Fig. 15. Definition of the yield strength. = +
K0 km Kv (11)
4. Formulation for the shear strength and initial stiffness The initial stiffness of a composite shear wall Km corresponding to a
prediction flexural deformation is shown in Eq. (12) [47],:
p⋅Esc Isc
Km =
4.1. Prediction of the shear strength h3 (12)
where p is the end-fixed factor of the specimens; EscIsc is the flexural
The shear strength is essential in structural design. The shear
rigidity of the composite shear wall, where EscIsc=EsIs+0.2EcIc [48]; Es
strength of the specimens is calculated by the superposition principle,
and Ec are the elastic modulus of the steel and concrete, respectively; Is
which sums the capacities of the concrete and steel plate [26], as shown
and Ic are the moment of inertia of the steel and the concrete, respec-
in Eqs. (8)~(9).
tively; and h is the height of the specimen.
In Eq. (8), Vc is the shear strength of the concrete; α is a parameter
The initial stiffness of the composite shear wall Kv corresponding to
that characterizes the contribution of the concrete; β is a parameter that
the shear deformation is shown in Eq. (13) [49],:
characterizes the contribution of the compressive axial force; fc is the
compressive strength of the concrete; b and h0 are the thickness and Gsc Asc
Kv =
depth of the wall section, respectively; and N is the compressive axial k. h (13)
force applied to the specimens. In Eqs. (8)~(9), Vs is the shear strength
where k is the sectional influence coefficient (k=1.2 when the section is
of steel; γ is a parameter that characterizes the contribution of the steel
rectangular); GscAsc is the shear rigidity of the composite shear wall,
plate; and fs and As are the yield strength and cross-sectional area of the
where GscAsc=q·Esc(As+Ac); q is the ratio of the shear modulus to the
steel plate, respectively.
elastic modulus in the composite shear wall, which is determined by a
Vc = α⋅fc bh 0 + β⋅N (8) test and whose value ranges from 0.269 to 0.417 [50] in a concrete-
filled steel tube; and As and Ac are the cross sectional areas of the steel
Vs = γ⋅fs As (9) and the concrete, respectively.
Thus, the initial stiffness of the composite shear wall K0 is shown in
V = Vc + Vs = 0.0421⋅fc bh 0 + 0.1⋅N + 0.471⋅fs As (10) Eq. (14):
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W. Zhang, et al. Thin-Walled Structures 144 (2019) 106279
Table 7
The equivalent damping coefficient of other shear walls.
Specimen Maximum drift ratio (rad) Equivalent damping coefficient he
Table 8
The equivalent damping coefficients of the CWSCs.
Specimen Maximum drift length to width Equivalent damping
ratio (rad) ratio of single tube coefficient he
Fig. 20. Equivalent damping coefficient calculation diagram.
CWSC-1C 4.00% 1.46 24.9%
CWSC-2B 3.00% 1.94 22.0%
characteristics. The following conclusions were drawn: CWSC-3C 4.50% 1.17 32.3%
CWSC-4B 3.00% 1.67 23.9%
CWSC-5B 3.00% 1.30 23.7%
1. Similar failure damage of the specimens is seen in severe local
buckling at the corner of the flange plates and the boundary chan-
nels, crushed concrete at the base and middle of the shear wall, and
local buckling waves originating from the middle of the specimen.
2. The specimens exhibit a good deformation capacity and ductility, as
the ultimate drift ratios of the specimens range from 2.56% to 4.55%
with an average value of 3.33% and the ductility ranges from 2.81 to
6.15 with an average value of 4.0.
3. The influence of the thickness on the hysteresis behaviour of the
specimens is significant. The increase in the thickness could enhance
the maximum strength, ductility and energy dissipation capacity,
but it simultaneously decreases the stiffness degradation ratio.
Increasing the wall thickness is not an effective way to improve the
average maximum strength of the wall.
4. A composite shear wall exhibits more plentiful hysteresis loops
when more channels are constructed by employing more stiffener
plates while keeping the other constructional details the same. It can
also increase the ductility and energy dissipation capacity but does
not clearly affect the maximum strength.
5. Simplified formulas were proposed to evaluate the maximum shear
strength and initial stiffness of the specimens, which can provide a
satisfactory prediction of the test results of most specimens. Fig. 22. Vertical strain of CWSC-1c.
In this paper, it was acceptable that the boundary elements first Acknowledgments
yielded in the shear wall, even if the performance was not better than
that of a shear wall with intensive boundary elements. Further research The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the
on this problem will be conducted in the future. National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51108125).
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Table 10
The end-fixed factor p of the specimens.
CWSC-1c CWSC-2b CWSC-3c CWSC-4b CWSC-5b
Fig. 24. Comparison of the maximum shear capacity between the experiment
and calculation.
Table 9
Initial stiffnesses of the specimens.
Specimen Height of Thickness of wall Width of Initial stiffness
wall h/mm b/mm channel c/mm K0/kN/mm Fig. 28. Relationship between initial stiffness and h/c.
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17