Environ Geochem Health (2019) 41:2425–2442
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-019-00292-9 (0123456789().,-volV)
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ORIGINAL PAPER
Evaluation of the raw water quality: physicochemical
and toxicological approaches
Raylane Pereira Gomes . Junilson Augusto de Paula Silva . Marcos Celestino Carvalho Junior .
Winnie Castro Amorin Alburquerque . Paulo Sergio Scalize . Arlindo Rodrigues Galvão Filho .
Débora de Jesus Pires . José Daniel Gonçalves Vieira . Lilian Carla Carneiro
Received: 31 October 2018 / Accepted: 3 April 2019 / Published online: 13 April 2019
Ó Springer Nature B.V. 2019
Abstract Environmental degradation has increased,
mainly as a result of anthropogenic effects arising
from population, industrial and agricultural growth.
Water pollution is a problem that affects health, safety
and welfare of the whole biota which shares the same
environment. In Goiânia and metropolitan region, the
main water body is the Meia Ponte River that is used
for the abstraction of water, disposal of treated
wastewater and effluents. In addition, this river
receives wastewater from urban and rural areas. The
Electronic supplementary material The online version of
this article (https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-019-00292-9) con-
tains supplementary material, which is available to authorized
users.
R. P. Gomes  W. C. A. Alburquerque
Graduate Program in Biology of Host-Parasite
Relationships, Institute of Tropical Pathology and Public
Health, Federal University of Goiás, Rua 235 - s/n - Setor
Leste Universitário, Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil
J. A. de Paula Silva  D. de Jesus Pires
State University of Goiás, Campus Morrinhos, Rua
quatorze - 327 - Jardim América, Morrinhos, Goiás,
Brazil
M. C. Carvalho Junior
School of Electrical, Mechanical and Computer
Engineering, Federal University of Goiás, Avenida
Universitária, Quadra 86, Lote Área, 1488 - Setor Leste
Universitário, Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil
aim in this present study was to evaluate the quality of
raw water by some physical, chemical and toxicolog-
ical tests. The physicochemical results found high
levels of turbidity, conductivity, aluminum, phospho-
rus and metal iron, manganese, copper and lithium
when compared to the standards of the Brazilian
legislation. The values found of toxicity demonstrated
a high degree of cytotoxicity and genotoxicity.
Therefore, it was concluded that the Meia Ponte River
has been undergoing constant environmental degra-
dation, causing the poor quality of its waters. Thus,
measures for the prevention and recovery should be
adopted for the maintenance of the Meia Ponte River.
P. S. Scalize
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Federal
University of Goiás, Avenida Universitária, Quadra 86,
Lote Área, 1488 - Setor Leste Universitário, Goiânia,
Goiás, Brazil
A. R. Galvão Filho
School of Exact Sciences and Computing, Pontifical
Catholic University of Goiás, University Square, 2-102 -
Setor Leste Universitário, Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil
J. D. G. Vieira  L. C. Carneiro (&)
Institute of Tropical Pathology and Public Health, Federal
University of Goiás, Rua 235 - s/n - Setor Universitário,
Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil
e-mail: carlacarneirolilian@gmail.com
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Keywords Anthropogenic  Environmental
degradation  Water pollution  Metal  Cytotoxicity 
Genotoxicity
Introduction
Water quality monitoring is intended to detect risks
inherent to water consumption by the population. The
risks arise due to the wide variety of chemical
products, as for example, toxic metals, fertilizers and
pesticides released into rivers that are potentially
harmful to health (Naresh et al. 2013; Sikder et al.
2013). For the monitoring, physical and chemical
parameters are used to obtain the levels of watersheds
pollution, allowing a diagnosis and forecasts for future
conservation and preservation (Mustapha et al. 2013;
Carvalho et al. 2015).
The nature of a river is reported through the
influence of spatial, environmental and climatic fac-
tors, weathering, erosion, pollution, disposal of urban
and agricultural areas, sewage, industrial and domestic
effluents, dissolved and suspended load that can be
deposited in different places along the river (Ku-
marasamy et al. 2014; Carvalho et al. 2015).
The main pollutants present into the rivers are
pesticides, herbicides, heavy metals, colors, phenolic
compounds, nitrosamines, personal care products,
pharmaceuticals, medicines and compounds of endo-
crine disruption (Chowdhury and Balasubramanian
2014; Prado et al. 2015). Among these pollutants,
heavy metals can highlight by having a slow decom-
position in natural conditions, toxic potential, bio-
magnification and bioaccumulation, being
incorporated in food chains (Varol 2013; Tang et al.
2013).
The bioavailability of heavy metals is related to the
presence of their free ions and their chemical speci-
ation factors that make them responsible for the high
toxicity (Magdaleno et al. 2014). Some heavy metals
may be essential to wildlife and human health;
however, depending on its concentration, they may
be toxic, being responsible for oxidative stress in cells,
neurological injuries, DNA mutations and metabolic
changes (Caserta et al. 2013). Raising the concentra-
tion of heavy metals in the environment can disturb the
aquatic ecosystem, affecting the entire biodiversity of
the ecosystem and eliminating or reducing the native
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Environ Geochem Health (2019) 41:2425–2442
species as well as increasing the incidence of human
diseases (Saha et al. 2017; Kibria et al. 2016). River
systems carry heavy metals in a short time for several
kilometers due to their hydrological gradient (Patel
et al. 2018). Thus, the physicochemical analyses can
help us to verify the presence and/or absence and
quantify the toxic elements, but they are not sufficient
to assess the actual quality of the water. The biological
consequences are not assessed directly, requiring more
tests for the corroboration and verification of the
effects that the toxic elements can cause (Botelho et al.
2013; Singh et al. 2014).
The toxicity tests are fundamental tools to assess
the quality of water, since the physicochemical
traditional analysis is not able to distinguish between
substances that can affect biological systems (Tedesco
and Laughinghouse 2012; Singh et al. 2014). How-
ever, toxicity analyses do not override chemical
analyses. To verify the toxicity of environmental
sources, a variety of techniques and bioassays may be
performed which increases the scientific basis for
assessment of ecological risk (Serpa et al. 2014),
integrating the biological effects of all polluting
compounds, considering the bioavailability, syner-
gism or antagonism (Ghosh et al. 2017).
Bioassays can be used for monitoring aquatic
environment. For example, to verify the survival rate
of the organisms through acute toxicity tests, it uses
microcrustaceans such as Artemia salina (Mohamed
et al. 2014; Xu et al. 2015; Fels et al. 2016). A. salina is
a species of brine shrimp which have small body size,
elongated body, covered by a thin and flexible
exoskeleton of chitin, reproduces by parthenogenesis
and has a high fertility rate. These microcrustaceans
have characteristics of adaptability to a wide range of
salinity, harsh environments, temperature and differ-
ent sources of nutrient, and they are considered non-
selective filter feeders and sensitive to toxic sub-
stances (Nostro et al. 2015; Libralato et al. 2016). The
use of A. salina becomes appropriate and feasible for
the toxicological and ecotoxicological tests because it
has as main advantages the natural tolerance and the
intrinsic characteristics of the species. Others advan-
tages considered important are fast, cost-effectiveness,
availability of hatching eggs of artemia during the
whole year, easy handling and maintenance in labo-
ratory conditions, not requiring a large space (Lu et al.
2012; Mohamed et al. 2014; Libralato et al. 2016).
Environ Geochem Health (2019) 41:2425–2442
Another bioassay, that involves higher plants, can
be used to assess the environmental contamination
(Udiba et al. 2015; Batista et al. 2016; Rodrigues 2016;
Hara and Marin-Morales 2017), such as the use of
onion plant (Allium cepa), being considered a good
system test (Netto et al. 2013). The A. cepa test is an
excellent model using plant test system in vivo, since
the roots are placed to grow in direct contact with the
substance of interest to be analyzed, allowing the
observation on the damage caused. Then, the data
obtained can be extrapolated to the entire biodiversity
animal and vegetable (Tedesco and Laughinghouse
2012). Other benefits of using this system are low cost,
easy handling, short term, few and large chromosomes
(2n = 16), several cell division and the enzyme
oxidase, being this last one crucial to detect pro-
mutations, high sensitivity and a good correlation with
other tests (Masood and Malik 2013; Düsman et al.
2014; Bianchi et al. 2015).
These advantages make easier the observation of
mutations that alter the cell cycle as a result of the
action of chemical, environmental and radioactive
compounds (Rodrigues 2016). The changes produced
by the toxic elements on the A. cepa allow to estimate
the cytotoxicity and genotoxicity through meristem
growth, chromosomal aberrations and/or nuclear dis-
orders (Pohren et al. 2013; Magdaleno et al. 2014;
Khallef et al. 2015). Mitotic index (MI) is another
indicator of cell proliferation that allows to evaluate
the cytotoxicity level of the substances when com-
pared to the negative control (NC) (Silveira et al.
2016).
The Meia Ponte River is one of the main water
resources of Goiás State, Brazil. Its source is located in
the Serra dos Brandões, in the Itauçu City, forming a
part of the watershed of the Paranaı́ba River. Located
in the South Central Region of the State, through an
extension of 293 miles, this River occupies the
equivalent to 4% of total area of Goiás, and its
riverbed crosses 39 cities. In this region, the climate is
hot and humid, with two well-defined seasons—dry
weather during the winter season and rainy weather
during the summer season (Calil et al. 2012; Oliveira
et al. 2013; Veiga et al. 2013).
The Meia Ponte River is a wellspring for abstrac-
tion of surface water for public supply and also for the
dilution of effluents in several cities along Goiás State
(BRASIL 2013). The peak of their pollution is in the
Goiânia City, being related to the mineral extraction,
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agriculture and urban/industrial pollution. This River
receives a large load of pollution that affects on both
water quantity and water quality (Brandelero et al.
2013; BRASIL 2013).
The Brazilian legislation that establishes the water
classification norms and the environmental guidelines
for the framework of water bodies is the 357 resolu-
tion, from March 17, 2005, of the National Environ-
ment Council (CONAMA). As reported by the
resolution, the freshwater can be classified into special
class, Class 1, Class 2, Class 3 or Class 4, assuming
each of these classes’ specific purposes, being classi-
fied according to standards and conditions set out in
the legislation itself. Based on legislation, the river
Meia Ponte is classified from class 2 in the source to
the city of Goiânia, class 3 after the city of Goiânia to
municipality of Piracanjuba and after that session is
again classified with class 2 (BRASIL 2013). Class 2 is
intended for public water supply after conventional
treatment of drinking water, aquatic community
protection, recreational uses by primary contact,
irrigation of plants, seeds, vegetables, gardens, parks
and sports courts, allowing some direct contact by
people, aquaculture and fishing activity. Class 3 is
intended for human consumption, after conventional
or advanced treatment, for the irrigation of tree, cereal
and forage crops, for amateur fishing, recreation of
secondary contact and watering of animals.
According to the World Health Organization,
environmental health refers to all physical, chemical
and biological external factors that affect a person’s
behavior, integrating the analysis, evaluation, control
and prevention of environmental factors that can affect
health (WHO 2019). The aim of this study was to
determine the current physicochemical quality and
toxicity of samples of superficial raw water of the
Meia Ponte River, Goiás State, Brazil, evaluating the
level of pollution and the impact on environmental
health.
Materials and methods
Study area and water sampling
The study was conducted upstream of the Meia Ponte
River basin, Goiás State, Brazil, in six sampling points
corresponding approximately 121 km in length of the
riverbed (Fig. 1, Table S1). The samples were
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Fig. 1 Map to show the designated sampling points location of
surface water from the Meia Ponte River, Goiás State, Brazil.
A Location of the Meia Ponte River basin in the Goiás State.
collected twice during the rainy season and twice
during the dry period, between July 2015 and August
2016. The samples of raw water shallow were
collected at points studied according to the protocol
proposed by Environmental Company of the State of
São Paulo (CETESB 2012).
Physicochemical analyses
The physicochemical analyses of samples of surface
water were performed according to Standard Methods
for the Examination of Water and Wastewater and the
American Water Works Association (AWWA 1998).
The samples of superficial raw water for parameters
such as pH, turbidity, conductivity and organic matter
were performed up to 24 h after collection. In addition,
the organic matter analysis was performed by the
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Environ Geochem Health (2019) 41:2425–2442
B Municipalities members of the Meia Ponte River basin. C Six
sampling points on the upstream of the Meia Ponte River basin
(P01, P02, P03, P04, P05 and P06)
permanganometry technique in acid medium, follow-
ing the recommendations of Baccan et al. (1979).
A filtering and an acidification by nitric acid
(HNO3), containing 0.8 mL of HNO3 under 100 mL
of water, were performed for the analysis of dissolved
inorganic compounds. Nevertheless, only an acidifi-
cation by nitric acid (HNO3), containing 0.5 mL of
HNO3 under 500 mL of water, was performed for the
analysis of total inorganic compounds. These samples
were digested by the addition of HNO3 and concen-
trated in heater blankets, reducing its volume in ten
times for greater precision of quantification by diag-
nostic analysis. After the analysis, the stoichiometric
calculations were performed. In addition, the 710-ES
inductively coupled plasma optical emission spec-
trometers (ICP-OESs), operated in accordance with
the recommendations of its manufacturer, VARIAN,
Environ Geochem Health (2019) 41:2425–2442
were used for the quantification of inorganic com-
pounds. This equipment quantified 17 inorganic
compounds: aluminum (Al), barium (Ba), beryllium
(Be), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), cobalt (Co), copper
(Cu), chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), phosphorus (P),
lithium (Li), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), silver
(Ag), uranium (U), vanadium (V) and zinc (Zn).
Ecotoxicological analysis
Artemia salina test
For the ecotoxicity testing, the A. salina as a test
organism for bioassay was performed according to the
methodology proposed by Meyer et al. (1982), with
some modifications. The toxic potential of the water
samples was determined by the ability to inactivate the
movements or to kill the organism in A. salina test.
The A. salina cysts were purchased in commercial
establishments from Goiânia City, in Goiás State, and
they were placed in a salt solution that was prepared by
adding 3.5 g of marine salt in 1 L of natural mineral
water. Thereafter, the solution was placed in an
aeration and incubation system in a greenhouse at
25 °C, with photoperiod of 23 and 50 min of exposure
to light, among intervals of 10 min in the dark. A total
of 30 mg of cysts were added to this system, which
were incubated for a period of 48 h. After the hatching
of the nauplii, the aeration was completed and the
system kept at rest for 15 min. This short-term
exposure was necessary for the deposition of non-
hatching cysts and of shells of hatched cysts. The
nauplii were collected by flowing the solution, and
they were used in the toxicology test.
Ten A. salina nauplii were placed into tubes
containing crude water samples diluted with distilled
water at concentrations of 100%, 50%, 25% and
12.5%. The inoculated tubes were incubated in a
germination chamber, with constant luminosity, at
30 °C for 24 h. The test was performed in triplicate
and, after the incubation period, the number of dead or
immovable nauplii was counted to determine the
percentage of mortality of the larvae in each evaluated
concentration, according to the equation below:
Percentage of mortality
¼ ðnumber of dead or immovable ð1Þ
nauplii/total number of A: salinaÞ  100
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Allium cepa test
Allium cepa healthy bulbs were purchased commer-
cially in Morrinhos City, Goiás, Brazil. The assay with
test organisms from A. cepa was performed according
to Rank and Nielsen (1994), with some adaptations.
This test is performed only for the last two sample
collections.
The dried external scales of A. cepa bubos were
removed by circular incision of the central parench-
yma of the crown, without damaging the root. Tap
water was used for about 20 min to clean these bulbs.
Then glass cups were covered externally with foil to
block the passage of light. In this way, only the central
parenchyma of the crown was in contact with the water
samples. Five onion bulbs were used for each sample
analyzed. A similar process was used to perform the
negative control, using distilled water. To encourage
the root growth of the bulbs, they were placed in
contact with the water samples for 7 days. The volume
absorbed in each water sample during roots growth
was filled daily with more water from its respective
sample that was stored at 4 °C.
After growth, the roots immersed in the samples
were measured and then fixed in Carnoy’s fixative 3:1
(ethanol:acetic acid, v/v) for 12 h. After the fixation,
the roots were washed in distilled water for 5 min and
they prepared slides for staining. The root tips were
stained and heated for 1 min in orcein dye at a
concentration of 2% orcein and 45% acetic acid. Then,
the roots were placed on slides covered by coverslips,
and one drop of the acetic orcein dye was added
between the slide and coverslip. Subsequently, the
roots were crushed easily under gentle pressure. The
observation of the slides was performed under an
optical microscope with a 100 9 objective to count
5000 cells, identifying the mitotic index (MI) and the
number of cells with chromosomal alterations (CAI).
The calculation of MI and CAI occurred according to
the following equations (Christofoletti et al. 2013):
MI ¼ ðnumber of dividing
ð2Þ
cells/total number of observed cellsÞ  100
CAI ¼ ðnumber of cells with chromosome
aberrations/total number of observed cellsÞ  100
ð3Þ
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Statistic
The results obtained in this study were compared with
Brazilian environmental legislation, referring to class
2 (CONAMA 2005). The STATISTICA software 7.0
version (StatSoft 2012) was used to perform the
statistical test such as the Pearson’s correlation and the
Mann–Whitney U test were used to analyze the
physicochemical results and data obtained from the
A. cepa system. Principal component analysis (PCA)
to evaluate the relationships of the data to find groups
that have similar behaviors, we used the MATLAB
Statistics Toolbox (Statistical Toolbox, MATLAB
R2013b, The MathWorks, Natick, USA). Some
parameters were excluded because of their low
detection and did not meet the requirements for this
analysis.
Results and discussion
Physicochemical parameters
According to the analysis carried out in the superficial
raw water of the collection points of the Meia Ponte
River, the physicochemical parameters such as tem-
perature, pH, turbidity, conductivity and organic
matter are shown in Table 1 and their respective
means, standard deviation and Mann–Whitney U test
are in Table S2.
The temperature data were mean and standard
deviation were 22.0833 ± 1.2401 °C for the dry
period and 24.25 ± 1.8402 °C for rainy season,
respectively, with p value = 0.0088 (Table S2) indi-
cating that there is a difference between dry and rainy
season. The study by Hannah and Garner (2015)
indicates the importance of water temperature as a
variable of water quality by scientists. In this way, the
temperature is a good parameter to describe water
quality of the Meia Ponte River; however, it is not yet
described by the Brazilian legislation. According to
DeWeber and Wagner (2014) and Johnson et al.
(2014), the water temperature is determinant for the
state of the aquatic ecosystem of a river, interfering in
its quality, because its variation can affect abiotic and
biotic factors. Furthermore, solar radiation and
groundwater discharge from the water cycle and
tributary flows are the main parameters that influence
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Environ Geochem Health (2019) 41:2425–2442
the water temperature of a river. Other factors that
alter and modulate water temperature are riparian
vegetation, geological, hydrological, topographical
and climatic characteristics, as well as anthropogenic
actions (Sahu et al. 2013; Johnson et al. 2014).
Therefore, the lack of riparian vegetation around the
Meia Ponte River may be interfering the water
temperature parameter, as well as the anthropogenic
influence and the others already mentioned. Never-
theless, further studies would be necessary to confirm
this interference.
The pH values indicated a variation of 7.03–8.13
among the sampling points in the four evaluated
periods, with p value = 0.0051 (Table S2) indicating
that there is statistically significant difference between
dry and rainy periods for this parameter. The results
found by Hanh et al. (2010) indicated that pH values
during the dry season were significantly higher than
those of the rainy season in the Nhue and day sub-river
systems in Vietnam, indicating that these results were
due to dilution during the rainy season. These data
were contrary to this study, which may indicate some
point pollution.
The turbidity values indicated a great variation
between dry and rainy periods. Accordingly, the mean
and standard deviation for turbidity was
10.1733 ± 5.8616 NTU for the dry period and
175.7083 ± 187.1658 NTU for rainy season, respec-
tively, with p value = 0.0000 (Table S2) indicating
that there is a difference between dry and rainy season
concerning turbidity. Being that all the points of
collection 2 and points P02, P03 and P04 of collection
3 presented elevated values when compared with the
legislation of CONAMA number 357/2005, which has
as reference value 100 NTU. Turbidity affects the
visual appearance of rivers and it changes the cost for
water treatment, in addiction high turbidity rates may
be related to sedimentation and erosion (Carvalho
et al. 2015). Whence, it can be inferred that the visual
aspects of erosion observed in the collections may be
influencing the turbidity of the Meia Ponte River at the
sampling points.
Although CONAMA legislation does not establish
limits for conductivity values, CETESB (2009) indi-
cated that values above 100 lS/cm of this parameter
correspond to the presence of pollutants in water.
Therefore, only the points P03, P04, P05 and P06 from
collection 2 and P03 and P04 from collection 3 are in
Environ Geochem Health (2019) 41:2425–2442 2431

Table 1 Results of the physicochemical parameters of surperficial raw water of the Meia Ponte River—Goiás
Collection/period Sampling Water pH Turbidity Conductivity Organic
point temperature (°C) (NTU) (lS/cm) matter (mg/L)

CONAMAN no. 357—Class 2 Not listed Not listed 6.00–9.00 100 Not listed Not listed
Collection 1—dry period P01 19.50 7.76 5.38 230.30 3.80
(August/2015) P02 22.00 7.40 26.50 168.10 6.80
P03 21.50 7.46 8.06 300.30 4.60
P04 21.00 7.64 6.37 134.00 2.50
P05 22.00 7.72 12.00 148.20 2.70
P06 22.50 7.81 9.23 146.90 2.70
Collection 2—rainy period P01 21.50 7.27 120.00 147.90 2.53
(December/2015) P02 22.50 7.03 121.00 166.00 5.27
P03 22.00 7.25 179.00 94.72 3.03
P04 23.00 7.37 181.00 74.79 3.01
P05 23.00 7.31 755.00 84.00 3.50
P06 23.50 7.27 179.00 90.52 3.33
Collection 3—rainy period P01 26.00 8.13 34.50 169.80 0
(February/2016) P02 26.50 7.81 115.00 103.10 1.81
P03 26.00 7.61 124.00 97.19 1.22
P04 26.00 7.41 109.00 89.40 1.45
P05 26.00 7.33 95.00 104.10 1.23
P06 25.00 7.38 96.00 101.70 0.84
Collection 4—dry period P01 21.00 7.93 7.14 223.80 2.99
(September/2016) P02 23.00 7.50 15.6 317.80 8.67
P03 22.00 7.78 7.36 174.00 8.28
P04 23.00 7.83 7.26 142.80 6.52
P05 23.50 8.05 6.98 137.90 6.78
P06 24.00 7.91 10.20 128.50 8.15
The highlighted values are above those established by CONAMA no. 357/2005, referring to the classification of class 2 of freshwater

accordance with this level of conductivity. For the
conductivity, the mean and standard deviation were
187.7167 ± 65.6463 lS/cm for the dry period and
110.2683 ± 32.2152 lS/cm for the rainy season,
respectively, with p value = 0.0018 (Table S2) indi-
cating that there is a difference between the dry and
rainy season for the parameter analyzed.
In addition, the lowest values of organic matter
were found at points P01 and P06 of collection 3, and
this parameter had a variation of 0–8.67 mg/L among
the collections, having a mean and standard deviation
of 5.3742 ± 2.4056 mg/L for the dry period and
2.2683 ± 1.4490 mg/L for the rainy season, respec-
tively, with p value = 0.0047 (Table S2) indicating
that there is a difference between dry and rainy season.
CONAMA number 269 357/2005 does not establish
standard for comparison of organic matter data. On the
other hand, the increase in organic matter indicates
contamination of the water bodies and degradation of
the water quality (Yang et al. 2013, Carvalho et al.
2015).
The evaluation of the concentrations of inorganic
compounds in the raw water samples of the Meia
Ponte River is shown in Table 2. The high aluminum
concentration (Al) found in the water samples of the
Meia Ponte River may be due to the Al-based
compounds used in the water treatment complexation
process are later introduced into the river (Xu et al.
2016), or due to the soil of the Cerrado has saturation
of this element (Loss et al. 2012).

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Copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), nickel
(Ni) and zinc (Zn) are essential metals for living
organisms; however, excessive amounts of these
contaminants may exert toxic effects on aquatic
organisms and change biological functions of
osmoregulation, growth, reproduction and digestive
metabolism (Reza and Singh 2010; Lebrun et al.
2014). The high level of Cu in water samples can be
attributed to water contamination through domestic
and/or industrial sewage and the drainage of surface
water into cultivated areas (Reza and Singh 2010;
Islam et al. 2015). Human activities increase the
accumulation of Cu in the aquatic environment,
affecting biodiversity and disrupting ecosystem func-
tioning (Lebrun et al. 2014). These factors may have
influenced the increase in this element in collection 4,
being this contamination provoked punctually or not.
The concentrations of Fe found in river waters are
linked to the organic matter, soil composition and
plants which transfer Fe from the soil to the surface
water (Poitrasson et al. 2014). The Fe element can be
introduced into the waters by anthropogenic influence
of residual water, leaching and pollution (Huang et al.
2015), being one of the explanations of its elevation in
almost all analyzed points. Phan et al. (2018) also
found high concentrations of Fe in relation to water
legislation in the province of Mondolkiri, and as this
study attributed that this increase may be associated
with the geological characteristics of the study area.
The high dosages of P element found are a major
concern because this element can increase water
eutrophication and cause problems to taste and odor
of drinking water, fish death and biodiversity loss
(Varol et al. 2012). However, further studies would be
required to evaluate these consequences in the Meia
Ponte River. According to Freire et al. (2013), the high
total concentration of P stimulates the deterioration of
water induced by misuse and anthropogenic pollution.
This statement may justify the high dosages of P
observed in this study. The great elevation of P in
water bodies is due to the use of this element in
agriculture (Powers et al. 2016). The river basins used
by human suffer over time a large accumulation of P
due to low recycling, lack of incentive for recovery,
high exploitation and imbalance of their cycles
(Powers et al. 2016).
The concentration of Li element was higher at the
point P02 of collection 4, being the only one that
exceeded the standards imposed by Brazilian
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Environ Geochem Health (2019) 41:2425–2442
legislation for this compound, representing possible
point pollution by Li. According to a review of the
literature by Aral and Vecchio-Sadus (2008), one of
sources of Li in the environment is contamination by
improper battery disposal. The study also evidences
the toxicity, teratogenicity, mutagenicity and carcino-
genicity of Li, which in high concentration can cause
harm to living being. Therefore, the above-permitted
concentration of Li is related to contamination by
electronic products in the Meia Ponte River.
The pollution by Mn element occurs as a result of it
being naturally found in the environment. It also has
ease of mobilization, and much of that element and its
compounds are associated with the industry. At high
concentrations, compounds with the manganese are
toxic and can cause harm to human health (Li et al.
2014). Mn element is the second most abundant metal
in water courses and difficult to remove during water
treatment (Peng et al. 2016).
Flood and drought periods are responsible for the
availability of water and the quantitative and qualita-
tive impacts of surface water (Delpla et al. 2009). The
inorganic parameters were compared between dry and
rainy season of this study, in order to verify whether
there was a statistically significant difference in the
results found. The statistic test showed most inorganic
parameters Al, Ba, Cd, Pb, Cu, Cr, P, Mn, Ni and V
presented a statistical difference (Table S2), indicating
that there is a difference between dry and rainy season.
Suggesting that the rain and dry climate interfere in the
physicochemical parameters and, consequently, in the
water quality of the Meia Ponte River. However, some
inorganic parameters Co, Fe, Li, Ag, U and Zn did not
present statistical difference significant did not present
difference between the two analyzed periods, obtain-
ing p value higher than 0.05. The Be element was not
detected in any of the samples and sampling points.
Analyzing Table S2 in relation to the socks of the
dry and rainy period may suggest that in the rainy
season the highest values were found for the param-
eters pH, conductivity, organic matter, P and Li
mainly. In the period of drought, the parameter that
stood out in comparison with the rainy season was the
turbidity.
The regulation of water quality (setting limits or
targets for constituent concentrations) can be affected
by climate change, increasing the temperature from 1
to 2 °C is significant for a series of relevant ecological
attributes in a river basin (Dyer et al. 2014). The
 Table 2 Analysis of the concentration of inorganic compounds in the superficial raw water of the Meia Ponte River—Goiás
Metals (mg/L) Sampling Ala Ba Be Cd Pb Coa Cu Cr Fea P Li Mn Ni Ag U V Zn
points

CONAMA 357—Class 2 0.1000 0.7000 0.0400 0.0010 0.0100 0.0500 0.0090 0.0500 0.3000 0.1000 2.5000 0.1000 0.0250 0.0100 0.0200 0.1000 0.1800
Collection 1—dry P01 NA 0.0561 ND ND 0.0050 ND NA 0.0008 NA 0.2049 ND 0.0353 0.0033 ND 0.0123 0.0015 ND
period (August/ P02 NA 0.0682 ND ND 0.0034 ND NA 0.0014 NA 0.8811 ND 0.1024 0.0030 ND ND 0.0012 0.0897
2015)
P03 NA 0.0660 ND 0.0001 0.0027 ND NA 0.0009 NA 0.3931 ND 0.0477 0.0014 ND ND 0.0022 0.0447
P04 NA 0.0683 ND ND 0.0023 ND NA 0.0006 NA 0.0858 ND 0.0062 0.0010 0.0002 0.0120 0.0015 ND
P05 NA 0.0739 ND ND 0.0016 ND NA 0.0009 NA 0.0677 ND 0.0180 0.0011 0.0002 ND 0.0018 ND
P06 NA 0.0656 ND 0.0002 0.0027 ND NA 0.0012 NA 0.0642 ND 0.0286 0.0020 0.0002 ND 0.0015 ND
Collection 2—rainy P01 0.0911 0.0507 ND 0.0001 0.0024 0.00121 0.0010 0.0043 0.1611 0.0616 0.0053 0.0556 0.0039 ND ND 0.0084 0.0069
Environ Geochem Health (2019) 41:2425–2442

period P02 0.2495 0.0673 ND ND 0.0035 0.0016 0.0015 0.0038 0.4461 0.3957 0.0044 0.1794 0.0038 ND ND 0.0066 0.0204
(December/2015)
P03 0.2876 0.0723 ND 0.0002 0.0034 0.0013 0.0019 0.0067 0.7693 0.2002 0.0045 0.1347 0.0039 ND ND 0.0114 0.0155
P04 0.3667 0.0696 ND 0.0001 0.0013 0.0013 0.0016 0.0049 0.9938 0.0992 0.0044 0.1098 0.0025 ND ND 0.0086 0.0055
P05 0.6872 0.1011 ND 0.0003 0.0040 0.0042 0.0016 0.0250 1.2996 0.1937 0.0053 0.3779 0.0088 0.0003 ND 0.0331 0.0267
P06 0.4138 0.0950 ND 0.0005 0.0023 0.0035 0.0017 0.0224 1.3133 0.1644 0.0051 0.3993 0.0076 0.0004 ND 0.0325 0.0213
Collection 3—rainy P01 1.6570 0.0485 ND 0.0001 0.0074 0.0007 0.0034 0.0044 1.2915 0.1468 ND 0.0490 0.0036 0.0001 ND 0.0010 0.0589
period (February/ P02 2.1322 0.0768 ND ND 0.0047 0.0015 0.0037 0.0084 3.1216 0.1915 ND 0.1906 0.0056 ND ND 0.0067 0.0500
2016)
P03 2.5621 0.0851 ND 0.0001 0.0065 0.0019 0.0041 0.0103 4.0179 0.1620 ND 0.2258 0.0053 ND ND 0.0092 0.0270
P04 1.8645 0.0825 ND ND 0.0032 0.0019 0.0037 0.0094 3.2829 0.1718 ND 0.2343 0.0053 ND ND 0.0074 0.0192
P05 1.7046 0.0825 ND ND 0.0044 0.0025 0.0033 0.0091 3.3111 0.1858 ND 0.3441 0.0051 0.0002 ND 0.0073 0.0267
P06 NA 0.6219 ND ND 0.0036 0.0005 NA 0.0029 NA 0.1255 ND 0.0542 0.0031 ND ND ND 0.0219
Collection 4—dry P01 0.2370 0.0335 ND ND ND 0.0070 0.0800 ND 0.5932 0.4543 1.3830 0.1242 ND ND ND 0.0020 0.0295
period P02 0.1375 0.0480 ND ND ND 0.0074 0.0304 ND 2.7860 0.6271 2.6977 0.0862 ND ND ND 0.0012 0.0317
(September/2016)
P03 0.1605 0.0484 ND ND ND 0.0084 0.0256 ND 0.5678 0.4464 0.1684 0.0838 ND ND ND 0.0027 0.0297
P04 0.1132 0.0449 ND ND ND 0.0076 0.0260 ND 0.5670 0.3971 0.1418 0.0302 ND ND ND 0.0008 0.0144
P05 0.1105 0.0509 ND ND ND 0.0086 0.0196 ND 1.7360 0.3717 0.0867 0.0566 ND ND ND 0.0006 0.0166
P06 0.1122 0.0400 ND ND ND 0.0090 0.0192 ND 1.8540 0.3571 0.8750 0.0342 ND ND ND 0.0001 0.0108

The parameters did not analyzed were due to technical problems involved in the processing of the samples, being impossible to repeat any one. Highlighted values are above the
limits established by CONAMA no. 357/2005 referring to class 2 classification of freshwater
ND not detected, NA not analyzed
a
Concentration of dissolved compounds
2433

123
2434
effects of climate change are related to the quantity
and quality of freshwater (Dyer et al. 2014; Fant et al.
2017), mainly due to the increase in temperatures and
changes in flow patterns (Fant et al. 2017). According
to Luo et al. (2013), in a hydrographic basin in
California (USA), the hydrological cycle and water
quality are very sensitive to climate changes, espe-
cially the seasonality. It is suggested that climate
change interfere in the water quality of a river.
Possibly being these changes observed between the
parameters of the dry and rainy season that have
differences found in this study. Therefore, the runoff
rains are one of the factors that affect the water quality
of the Meia Ponte River, changing the concentrations
of pollutants present in the water. In addition, other
types of pollution should be considered such as point
pollution, which can affect the concentrations of these
parameters, thus interfering in this comparison. For
these reasons, further studies should be conducted to
see whether the climate can influence the Meia Ponte
River basin.
The results show strong positive and negative
correlations between the physicochemical parameters
of the river water (Table S3). While concentrations of
Al and Fe dissolved, Pb and Mn were positively
correlated with temperature, the inverse was observed
with the conductivity and U parameters (p \ 0.05).
The water temperature parameter is a factor that
changes the availability of the pollutants (Fonseca
et al. 2013). This may suggest that the temperature is
influencing these parameters.
The pH had a positive correlation only with Cu
parameter, and a negative correlation with turbidity, Cr,
Mn, Ni and V parameters (p \ 0.05). The solubility of
metals is interconnected with pH due to its interference in
the biological, physical and chemical processes exerted
on the aqueous system (Khan et al. 2013; Sahu et al.
2013). The pH values found in the samples are in
accordance with the Brazilian legislation (CONAMA
2005). The pH must be maintained at the points analyzed
so that the biological and physicochemical processes
occur naturally; the water flow and nature are responsible
for this maintenance. (Sikder et al. 2013).
Turbidity indicates the level of suspended particles
in the water, favoring microbial multiplication and
complex formation (Miner et al. 2016). It was
observed a great variation of turbidity between the
samples, having a positive correlation with Cd, Cr Mn,
Ni, Ag and V parameters, and a negative correlation
123
Environ Geochem Health (2019) 41:2425–2442
only with conductivity (p \ 0.05). This indicates that
the metallic complexes may be positively influencing
turbidity in the water samples of the Meia Ponte River.
Higher conductivity may be related to a higher ion
charge in water. The conductivity presented a negative
correlation for temperature, Cr, Mn and Ni parameters
and presented a positive correlation for organic matter,
V and P parameters (p \ 0.05). In accordance with
Table S3, the highlighted correlations represent values
of inorganic compounds that were above the estab-
lished by the legislation.
The organic matter has a negative correlation with
dissolved Al, Pb and Ni parameters and a positive
correlation with conductivity, P, Co and Li parameters
(p \ 0.05). In addition, the inorganic compound P was
only related as positive correlation for conductivity,
organic matter, Cu, Co, Li and Zn parameters
(p \ 0.05). The correlation found between P and
organic matter may be related to the P parameter found
in higher concentrations through the deterioration of
nutrients induced by organic matter decomposed in the
water body (Santos et al. 2015).
The concentration of metals in water can be altered
by dissolution, precipitation, adsorption, resuspen-
sion, complexation and desorption, affecting their
availability in the environment (Chen et al. 2018;
Islam et al. 2015). There were 28 positive correlations
and 8 negative correlations between the metals
analyzed (Table S3), presenting a strong correlation
between the elements. According to Sikder et al.
(2013), the strong correlation between the metals can
occur in the water body due to the interaction between
the different metals. Therefore, the samples points of
the Meia Ponte River also have a strong correlation
between the metals analyzed.
The PCA analysis was performed between the
physical and chemical parameters of the water sample
collection sites of the Meia Ponte River. The variance
of the sums of PCA was 68.7753%. Components 1 and
2 explained 49.17% and 19.60% of the total variation,
respectively (Fig. 2). The variances found are weak
but indicate an association between the parameters.
For there to be a notable relationship between the
parameters, the level of significance must be greater
than 0.05 (Mishra et al. 2018), which was found in this
study.
The parameters Zn, Fe, Al and Pb are associated
with water temperature; Li, Cu, P and Co are
Environ Geochem Health (2019) 41:2425–2442
Fig. 2 Graphic of principal
component analysis (PCA)
for physicochemical results,
showing the relationship
between the parameters
associated with organic matter and conductivity. Cd,
V, Cr, Mn, Ba and Ni associate with turbidity.
Cao et al. (2018) found similar variance attributed
to component 1 (51.2%) in PCA, and a close
association between Fe, Mn and Al elements com-
pared to our results. Peter et al. (2017) shows the PCA
graph for its physical–chemical analysis of the water
of the Rhône River in Europe in it the parameter pH
presented the distance between the arrows, greater in
relation to the other parameters presented, which is
also found in our study in Fig. 2. It is suggested that
this fact is associated with the fact that the pH in the
Person correlation (Table S3) does not have a signif-
icant correlation positively with any of the analyzed
parameters, thus behaving inversely to the other
parameters.
Patel et al. (2018) evaluated the contamination by
metals in water and sediments of the Swarnamukhi
River basin in India. In their analysis of principal
components, they indicated that a significant positive
high carp of Cr and Pb would indicate that the process
2435
and its availability of these elements are similar in the
river system. Accompanying this reasoning, this may
indicate in the results of this study that for example,
Zn, Fe, Al and Pb are associated with the same
pollution factor.
Pollution by chemical elements is a major threat to
living organisms and aquatic ecosystems (Magdaleno
et al. 2014). The contamination of water bodies by
metals is worrying because the metallic elements are
difficult to remove, inhibitors of activity of biodegra-
dation, no degradable, bioaccumulated and toxic to
humans and other living organisms (Chauhan et al.
2015). For these reasons, concentrations of metals are
established by the legislation. In addition, irrigation
with water contaminated by metals are the main
sources of metals in the soil, which can cause plant
contamination by metals causing carcinogenic-rich
potentials and not carcinogenic to the public (Islam
et al. 2018). For this reason, it is essential to monitor
metals in water and river sediments, as demonstrated
here.
123
2436 Environ Geochem Health (2019) 41:2425–2442

Table 3 Average percentage of mortality of Artemia salina exposed to different dilutions of the raw superficial water samples of the
Meia Ponte River—Goiás
Collection/period Dilutions of raw Sampling points (percentage of mortality rate—%)
water samples (%)
P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06 Mean/standard
deviation

Collection 1—dry period 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 ± 0
(August/2015) 50 11.76 39.28 15.15 0 3.33 0 11.59 ± 14.94
25 16.67 13.79 3.33 3.44 0 0 6.21 ± 7.21
12.50 6.25 13.33 9.67 6.67 0 0 5.99 ± 5.28
Collection 2—rainy period 100 100 100 100 100 100 96.67 99.78 ± 1.35
(December/2015) 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 ± 0
25 93.33 100 96.67 100 96.67 100 97.78 ± 2.72
12.50 100 93.33 93.33 100 96.67 100 99.23 ± 3.28
Collection 3—rainy period 100 60 60 53.33 43.33 43.33 3.33 43.89 ± 21.23
(February/2016) 50 70 40 56.67 30 10 10 36.67 ± 24.44
25 96.67 3.33 73.33 73.33 13 3.33 43.83 ± 41.86
12.50 60 53.33 20 36.66 33.33 16.67 36.67 ± 17.38
Collection 4—dry period 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 ± 0
(September/2016) 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 ± 0
25 100 96.67 100 100 100 100 99.45 ± 1.36
12.50 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 ± 0
Negative control did not have a mortality rate

Toxicological parameters The metallothioneins are proteins responsible for the

Artemia salina test
The results are shown in Table 3, indicating the
dilution of the water samples tested and the percentage
of mortality found. In collection 1, the raw water
samples resulted in the death of all test organisms,
while in the diluted water samples, the mortality rate
declined. In collections 2 and 4, the water samples in
the dilutions tested caused a high percentage of
mortality of the test organisms. In collection 3, there
was a large variation in mortality in relation to the
dilutions tested. A high toxicity rate was observed in
the samples analyzed at all points, differing from the
Brazilian legislation CONAMA number 357/2015 that
establishes the water samples cannot have toxicity
(Table 3).
For Mohamed et al. (2014), the Cd and Fe elements
activate the antioxidant enzymes in A. salina to
minimize the oxidative stress caused by heavy metals,
increasing also the concentration of metallothioneins.
detoxification of metals. The increase in metals can
reduce the production of total proteins, causing
disturbances on the system and changes in the
functions of A. salina, then, leading to death of the
test organism. Falis et al. (2014) also indicated that
metals and pesticides affect the survival of A. salina,
and they are considered toxic to this test organism.
Therefore, the high mortality rates of A. salina
obtained in this study may be related to the concen-
trations of analyzed metals (Table 2), which, although
present in low concentrations, were able to induce
toxicity to this test organism, causing its death,
mainly, in the collection 2 and 4.
Neto et al. (2016), when conducting a water
drainage study in a mine in Brazil, obtained toxicity
to the test organism A. salina and suggested that the
toxicity occurred by the presence of metallic ions
found in the analyzed samples, such as Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu
and Al. The results of the researchers may also suggest
that the toxicity found in water samples from the Meia

123
Environ Geochem Health (2019) 41:2425–2442 2437

Table 4 Characterization of the genotoxicity and cytotoxicity of water samples from the Meia Ponte River—Goiás
Collection/period Sampling Average root growth Percentage of growth MI CAI
points [cm (mean ± standard according to the (%) (%)
deviation)] control (%)

Collection 3—rainy period NC 3.73 ± 1.24 100 83.60 16.40

(February/2016) P01 1.84 ± 1.01 49.33 43.76 56.24
P02 1.43 ± 1.10 38.34 80.96 19.04
P03 1.89 ± 0.66 50.67 78.76 21.24
P04 1.54 ± 0.88 41.28 72.20 27.80
P05 1.97 ± 1.17 52.81 55.00 45.00
P06 1.15 ± 0.52 20.83 44.92 55.08
Collection 4—dry period NC 3.90 ± 0.76 100 89.18 10.82
(September/2016) P01 4.35 ± 1.01 111.53 NCC NCC
P02 1.98 ± 1.29 50.76 54.38 45.62
P03 1.12 ± 0.61 28.71 92.78 7.22
P04 3.58 ± 0.79 91.79 75.50 24.50
P05 3.56 ± 0.62 91.28 62.98 37.02
P06 2.98 ± 0.64 76.41 63.48 36.52
NC negative control, NCC not count cells

Ponte River is related to the metals detected with high
values in this study: Fe, Mn, Al and Cu (Table 2).
Chemical elements such as metals, even at low
concentrations, can cause toxicity. Other pollutants
and the presence of potential stressors, such as
pesticides and complex substances that have not been
analyzed in this study, may also be related to the
percentage of mortality of A. salina obtained in this
study, requiring further studies for this verification.
Allium cepa test
Table 4 shows the data for genotoxicity and cytotox-
icity of the water samples and distilled water as a NC.
In collection 4, it was not feasible to count the cells at
point P01, being practically impossible to identify the
stages of the cell cycle, because all the cells were very
compromised. It is suggested that the presence of
unidentified stressors would induce spontaneous
mutations in a high concentration, causing the cells
to compromise this collection. However, its root
growth was higher when compared to the control,
which can be another adverse effect of the unidentified
stressor agent. When comparing the rainfall collection
points with the controls, the root growth was statis-
tically different (p value = 0.00004, U = 87 and
degrees of freedom = 1); however, no statistically
significant difference was obtained for drought
collection. A statistically significant difference was
obtained between rainy and dry season
(p value = 0.00001, U = 633.50 and degrees of free-
dom = 1). The decrease in root growth is related to
apical meristem activity and cell elongation during
differentiation (Liman et al. 2015). In addition to
relying on cell mitosis and DNA damage, root growth
can induce genotoxicity in plant cells, affecting the
cell division process, and consequently, reducing root
growth (Qin et al. 2015). The decrease in root growth
observed in almost all the results may indicate a
growth retardation due to the presence of substances in
the water samples, leading to produce cytotoxic effects
on cell division along the exposition of the meristem-
atic cell roots of the water samples from the Meia
Ponte River.
The ability to induce cytotoxicity and genotoxicity
can be verified by comparing the root growths and the
MI and CAI observed in relation to the NC. The
difference observed by the decrease in MI and the
increase in CAI may indicate that there were cytotoxic
and genotoxic effects for the points observed in the
water samples of the Meia Ponte River.
The increase or decrease in MI by cytotoxic
substances can cause inhibition of mitotic activity,
being an indicator of the monitoring of environmental
pollution levels (Liu et al. 2013; Gomes et al. 2014).
The decrease of 22% or more in the MI, in relation to

123
2438
the negative control, can generate lethal effects for the
test organism used. The decrease of less than 50% may
cause sublethal effects, called cytotoxic limit value
(Liu et al. 2013). It is observed that in collection 3, at
points P01, P05 and P06, the decrease of more than
22% was obtained in relation to the control used in the
study, indicating possible lethal effects for the test
organism. Consequently, the consumption of water
from the Meia Ponte River can cause harm to the
population, because it does not comply with the
standards established by Brazilian legislation. The
same results were obtained in collection 4 for points
P03, P05 and P06.
The difference obtained between the results of
collection 3 and collection 4 can infer that the water
samples from collection 3 had a higher amount of
pollutants and compounds capable of inducing cyto-
toxicity and genotoxicity in the test organism used in
this study. Furthermore, the research conducted by
Barreto et al. (2014) showed the water quality of a
section of the Catolé Grande River, in Bahia State, was
affected by the change in water flow during the dry and
rain periods due to the presence of total solids
(contaminants, for example) along the river.
The Al parameter is a toxic compound for many
plants at micromolar concentrations, since the toxicity of
Al is manifested mainly by the inhibition of root growth,
and the nucleolus can also be affected (Qin et al. 2013).
Cu is an essential element for plants; however, its excess
causes disturbances. The study by Qin et al. (2015)
indicated that concentrations of 2 lM and 8 lM ionic
Cu were able to induce CAI and decrease MI, becoming
the toxic effect more aggravating when increasing
concentrations and time of exposure.
The study by Jiang et al. (2014) found that, by the A.
cepa test, the Pb element affected the nuclear cycle
associated with mitotic disturbance, nucleolus toxicity
and inhibition of root growth. Therefore, it is
suggested that the effects found in the reduction of
root growth, decrease in the MI and increase in the
CAI in the water samples of the Meia Ponte River
could be induced by the concentrations of toxic metals
found. However, further studies should be performed
for the verification and verification of the dosage of
inorganic compounds and the toxic effects in the test
organism A. cepa.
The cellular damage caused by the A. cepa test may
be related to both the parameters analyzed in this study
and the inorganic parameters (metals), and it may also
123
Environ Geochem Health (2019) 41:2425–2442
be related to other types of pollutants not addressed in
this study. As an example, agrochemicals, industrial
pollutants and atmospheric pollutants from the water
runoff and biotic factors present in water can cause
cellular alterations and at the same time occur in
plants, fish, animals and humans (Singh et al. 2014).
The contaminants present in water may react
directly and indirectly with biomolecules, causing
mutagenesis, carcinogenesis, teratogenesis, chromo-
somal aberrations, cell cycle disorders, apoptosis and
DNA fragmentation (Tedesco and Laughinghouse
2012; Pohren et al. 2013; Khallef et al. 2015). During
the cellular count of CAI, it was possible to recognize
these reactions with the results observed in this study,
evidencing that the presence of contaminants in the
water samples can induce serious damage to health.
Chromosomal, mitotic and nuclear abnormalities
can be identified when compared to control in their
regular mitotic phases, presenting a divergent or
abnormal shape (Figure S1). The chromosomal abnor-
malities found in this study are: apoptosis, trinucleate
cells, delayed metaphase and anaphase, delayed
chromosome, prophase with apoptosis, trinucleate
cell, irregular metaphase, irregular anaphase, chromo-
somal loss, chromosome breakdown and chromosome
break (Figure S2).
Late chromosomes in anaphase are due to mitotic
spindle damage. The occurrence of delayed chromo-
somes may be related to the presence of heavy metals
in the water samples. Costa et al. (2015) observed this
type of aberration in the analysis of the genotoxic
effects of the chromium element in A. cepa. These data
suggest that there were genotoxic and mutagenic
activities in the meristematic cells of the onion root
exposed to the water samples of the Meia Ponte River.
Conclusion
As stated in the physical–chemical parameters of this
study, five of them should be highlighted. First, the
water temperature varied between dry and rainy
periods. Second, the pH remained within what is
recommended by CONAMA legislation number
357/2005. Third, the turbidity in the rainy periods
exceeded the maximum values allow in the legislation.
Next, the conductivity remained high during the both
of periods. Finally, among the heavy metals evaluated,
Fe, Al, Mn, Cu and Li elements were above the
Environ Geochem Health (2019) 41:2425–2442
maximum values allowed by the legislation. In
addition, although some of these elements are essential
to life, except the Li element, high concentrations of
these metals can cause problems for the population
and the environment. Likewise, the high P dosages
found are a major concern because this element can
increase water eutrophication, cause taste and odor
problems, cause fish death and biodiversity loss.
Therefore, a correlation between some physical–
chemical parameters was suggested as well as sea-
sonal interference.
All water samples indicated toxicity with a high
mortality rate of A. salina. The evaluation of the
cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of the A. cepa test
evidenced alterations in root growth, MI and CAI in all
the water samples of the evaluated points. The A.
salina test and the A. cepa test are good bioindicators
for evaluating aquatic ecotoxicity. Therefore, the
water of the Meia Ponte River is found with pollutants
capable of causing high toxicity.
The genotoxic activity found in the River Meia
Ponte is attributed to a mixture of pollutants found in
the water samples. Because this mainly genotoxic
activity cannot be attributed to isolated or specific
compounds, but rather to the interaction of mixture
and chemical interactions of the sample.
In conclusion, the quality of a river should be
constantly monitored because it is important to control
the preservation of the aquatic environment, especially
if it is used for abstraction for public supply. The
awareness of the population is fundamental to the
preservation of water environments, since water is an
indispensable natural resource for maintaining life in
all aspects. The management of the Goiás State must
constantly undertake actions of prevention, recovery
and maintenance of the Meia Ponte River.
Acknowledgements This study was supported by the
Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education
Personnel (CAPES). My sincere acknowledgments to the
Sanitation Company of Goiás State (SANEAGO). The authors
thank you the CAPES (Coordination of Improvement of Higher
Level Personnel), by student scholarship.
Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no
conflict of interest.
2439
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