CARBOHYDRATES

Polysaccharides
DEFINITION

Polysaccharides:

are long carbohydrate molecules of repeated monomer units joined

together by glycosidic bonds.

= > They range in structure from linear to highly branched.

=> these macromolecules can have distinct properties from their
monosaccharide building blocks. They may be amorphous or even
insoluble in water.
 There are two types of Polysaccharides :
Homopolysaccharide Heteropolysaccharides
Or Or
Homoglycan Heteroglycans.

When all the when more than

monosaccharides in a one type of monosaccharide is
polysaccharide are the same present
type.
Examples include :
Storage Structural
Polysaccharides Polysaccharides

Starch Cellulose

Glycogen Chitin
 1) STARCH

Starches are glucose polymers in which glucopyranose units are

bonded by alpha-linkages.

Starches are insoluble in water.

They can be digested by hydrolysis, catalyzed by enzymes called

amylases, which can break the alpha-linkages (glycosidic bonds).

Humans and other animals have amylases, so they can digest

starches.
 It is made up of a mixture of

Amylopectin Amylose
a branched consists of a
molecule made linear chain of
of several several
thousand hundred
glucose units glucose
(80–85%) molecules
(15–20%)
major sources of starch in the human diet.
 Chemical reactions
A-Molisch's reaction: Procedure & observation as all
carbohydrates.
Comment:
1-hydrolysis of starch by conc H2So4 to simple sugars (glucose)
& dehydration to HMF.
2-Condensation between HMF and 2 molecules of alcoholic
alpha naphthol.
B- Reactions for reducing sugars:
Fehling's test, Benedict's test, Barfoed's test, Moor's test &
Osazone 's test: No result
Comment:
Due to the absence of free carbonyl group (non reducing sugar)
C) IODINE TEST:
Procedure:
To a solution of starch add 1 drop of diluted iodine solution.
Observation:
Disappear on Reappears
Blue heating on cooling
Color

N.B: The reaction should be neutral or acidic NOT alkaline because the
alkali reacts with iodine and will interfere with the test.

Comment:
-Blue color is due to adsorption of I2 molecules on amylose chain giving
starch- I2 Complex.
- Disappearance of the color is due to physical desorption of iodine
(destruction of complex).
-Reappearance of blue color is due to due to readsorption of I2 molecules on
amylose chain giving I2-starch complex.
D) SALTING OUT (PRECIPITATION BY NH4SO4
Procedure:
-To a solution of starch in a test tube, add an equal volume of
saturated solution ammonium sulfate and shake well.

Observation:
Heavy white creamy ppt.

Comment:
Amm. Sulphate has higher affinity to water than starch so it
removes H2O molecules surrounding starch, leading to
precipitation of starch.
E) HYDROLYSIS OF STARCH BY ACIDS:
Procedure:
 To 20 ml of the starch solution into a small beaker, add 5 ml of conc HCl
and mix thoroughly.

 Divide into 5 equal portions and place these into test tubes.

 Immerse the tubes in boiling water and note the time.

 Keeps the water-bath boiling during the experiment

 Remove one of the tubes at 2, 5, 10, 15 and 20 minutes from the time
they were placed in the water bath.

 In each case pour one-half of the fluid into a tube.

 Carry out the iodine test on one portion and neutralize the other portion
with 30% NaOH and test with Benedict.
Observation & comment:
Time I2 Reaction Benedict's Reaction Comment

2 Blue No change Starch

5 Bluish violet Greenish yellow color Amylodextrin

10 Reddish violet Brownish color Erythrodextrin

Reddish brown
15 Reddish brown Achrodextrin
precipitate

20 Yellowish brown Red precipitate Maltose + glucose

Note:
-The experiment indicates that the starch is hydrolyzed by boiling with acid into a
reducing substance (glucose)

-There are intermediate substances (like erythrodextrin, achrodextrin) which give

various colors with iodine.
2) DEXTRIN
 Dextrins are a group of low-molecular-weight carbohydrates
produced by the hydrolysis of starch or glycogen (mixture of
amylodextrin, erythrodextrins and achrodextrins).

 Dextrins are mixtures of polymers of D-glucose units linked by

α-(1→4) or α-(1→6) glycosidic bonds.

 Dextrins can be produced from starch using enzymes like

amylases, as during digestion in the human body.

 Dextrins are white, yellow or brown powders that are partially or

fully water-soluble, yielding optically active solutions of low
viscosity.
 SOLUBILITY:

 Shake a little of commercial dextrin with some cold

water.

Boil the solution


An opalescent solution
becomes perfectly
is formed.
translucent.
 Chemical reactions
A-Molisch's reaction: Procedure & observation as all carbohydrates.
Comment:
1-hydrolysis of dextrin by conc H2So4 to simple sugars (glucose) &
dehydration to HMF.
2-Condensation between HMF and 2 molecules of alcoholic alpha naphthol.
B- Reactions for reducing sugars:
1-Fehling's test:
Observation: little red ppt after prolonged heating.

Comment: Achrodextrins contains traces of maltose and glucose (little

reducing properties )which reduce Cu+2 ,Cu2O because Cu+2 has high
oxidation potential in highly alkaline medium.

Benedict's test, Barfoed's test, Moor's test & Osazone 's test: No result
Comment:
Due to the absence of free carbonyl group (non reducing sugar)
 C) IODINE TEST
Procedure:
-5 ml of dextrin solution add 1 drop of iodine solution.

Observation:
violet color

Comment:
Due to the formation of dextrin –I2 complex
D) SALTING OUT TEST:

Procedure:
 Saturate 5 ml of dextrin solution by boiling with an excess of
ammonium sulfate.

Observation:
White ppt of erythrodextrin.

Comment:
 Due to higher affinity of NH4SO4 to H2O than dextrins.