Lesson 1 writing as skill; importance

Writing" is the process of using symbols (letters of the alphabet, punctuation and
spaces) to communicate thoughts and ideas in a readable form. "Writing" can also refer
to the work/career of an author, as in: "Shakespeare didn't make much money
from writing."

Writing equips us with communication and thinking skills. Writing expresses who we

are as people. Writing makes our thinking and learning visible and
permanent. Writing fosters our ability to explain and refine our ideas to others and
ourselves.

Tips for good writing:

Make simple, short & precise sentences that are easy to read & understand.

Stay away from the excessive stuffing of words.

Avoid the use of jargon while paying attention to grammar & spellings.

Do not use repetitive sentences as it may confuse the reader.

Instead of passive form, always use the active voice of the verb.

Don’t delay in writing instead get it done now.

Review your previous work & examine how you’ve grown up your skills till now.

Brush up on the basic principles of writing skills by starting writing anything roughly.

Try to imitate your favorite writers & authors.

Outline, edit, simplify & improve your writing tasks.

Take your time to analyze what all you’ve read.

Develop your skills & abilities by reading more & more.

Accept your mistakes as first attempts are always wrong.

Join a workshop, meet up, consult adults or else take a writing class.

Write something every day.

Ask your friend to read what you’ve written and also provide you with feedback.
Do good research on the topic you need to write.

Do the practice of writing daily.

These are some characteristic traits of good writing skills. These abilities not only help
students in their school academic life but also aides many business people like
newspaper editors excelling in their field.

Writing, form of human communication by means of a set of visible marks that are

related, by convention, to some particular structural level of language.

Writing skills allow you to communicate clearly with others and create useful resources
for the workplace. Even professions that don't focus on writing require written
communication skills, from the initial application to daily tasks and record-keeping.

What are writing skills?

Writing skills include all the knowledge and abilities related to expressing ideas through
the written word. The ability to clearly communicate ideas through writing is in high
demand for employers in any industry. Well-written documents, emails and posts can
persuade customers to purchase a product or convince investors to partner with a
company.

Technical knowledge about writing conventions, style guides and formatting for different
situations are also an important part of writing skills. Knowing what situations call for
different styles of writing and being able to set an appropriate tone over text are both
important writing skills that any person can use at work.

Why are writing skills important?

Writing skills are important because they allow people to get a point across without
being physically present. Many employers get their first impression of future employees
through the writing skills they display in their resume, cover letter and email
communications.

Writing skills influence the quality of your work and how others perceive your
professionalism, which can have a direct effect on your ability to get an interview and
excel at work. Writing skills are transferrable, so developing a strong understanding of
writing processes allows you to maintain clear communication and accurate
documentation in any workplace.

Examples of writing skills

Professional writing is a complex process that involves different skills for planning,
drafting and editing. Great writers must be able to quickly learn new concepts and
translate ideas into original content.

Some areas of writing are highly specialized and require extensive knowledge in a
single area, like scientific or legal writing. Others use broad soft skills to relate to an
audience through creative writing or blogging. Some of the best writing skills include:

1.   Research

Research allows writers to find accurate information and best practices related to writing
in a particular style or about a particular piece of content. Writers often have to write
about subjects that they are not familiar with, so finding quality sources quickly is an
important skill.

2.   Outlining

Outlining is creating a plan for the structure and flow of a piece of writing. Good writing
needs to have a logical structure in order to make sense to a reader. Your ability to
organize sentences and paragraphs in the most compelling way influences how others
perceive you and understand the point of your writing.

3.   Editing

After writing the first draft of your piece, you need to be able to edit. From checking an
email for spelling errors to re-writing a grant proposal, all writing should undergo some
level of editing. Editing involves reading your own writing from another perspective and
considering how well it suits your goals. When editing your own work, think about your
word choice and tone, removing any irrelevant phrases.

4.   Reading comprehension

Reading comprehension skills help you respond to prompts, reply to messages and
learn about new content. People use reading comprehension skills to assess the tone
and main idea of a piece of writing. Having good reading comprehension also helps you
edit your own work by determining if your point comes across from the perspective of a
reader.

5.   Time management

Time management is key when writing anything beyond a simple message or email.
You should be able to spend your time efficiently when writing and accurately plan for
how long it will take to write and edit your piece. Many writers over-edit their work and
end up wasting time without improving the quality of their writing, so a good writer must
recognize when to step away from a piece of writing.
Tips on improving writing skills

While some people are naturally talented at writing, anyone can develop their writing
skills over time. Once you understand the different types of writing skills, you can focus
on how you use them in the workplace and improve over time. Identify your strongest
writing skills and develop strategies to improve those skills to a professional level:

1.   Take grammar quizzes.

Even the most experienced writers have trouble with grammar, and taking grammar
quizzes or playing games online is a great way to hone your knowledge of spelling and
sentence structure.

2.   Know your audience.

Practice writing one prompt for different audiences and notice how your tone shifts.
Before you begin writing, consider what your audience values and how you can use
your word choice and sentence structure to appeal to them.

3.   Read your writing aloud.

Read your writing aloud during the editing process to catch any errors that you might
not have noticed otherwise. Reading aloud also helps you hear any awkward phrasing
and get an idea of your overall tone and effectiveness.

4.   Vary your sentence structure.

As you write, try to vary your sentence structure to give your writing rhythm. A mix of
short and long sentences with different literary devices can keep the reader interested
and create a natural flow that guides them through your writing.

5.   Practice daily.

Even if you don't have to write every day at work, practice writing in some way every
day. Focus your time on the types of writing where you most need to improve. Give
yourself writing prompts and challenge yourself to try out different skills.

6.   Read regularly.

One of the best ways to improve your writing is to read a variety of writing styles daily.
The more exposure you have to quality writing, the better you will be able to produce
great writing yourself. Reading helps you understand how to apply the writing skills you
have learned.
If you use email to schedule your interview, use your writing skills to send professional,
clear messages with no spelling or typing errors. After the interview, send a thoughtful,
brief thank you message to your interviewer to reiterate your interest in the position.

Lesson 2: techniques in writing

Lesson 2

Every writer wishes to make their points clearly to their readers, with pieces of writing
that are easy to read and have logical links between the various points made.
This coherence, this clarity of expression, is created by grammar and vocabulary (lexis)
through cohesion. This is the "glue" that joins your ideas together to form a cohesive
whole.

Writing Process
Getting Started with Prewriting

 Freewriting--This is a technique that can help you at any stage in the writing
process, but it is particularly helpful at the beginning. Put simply, freewriting is
just writing without stopping. It is used to generate ideas and get over any bumps
where you can't figure out what to write. The best way to use this technique is to
focus on your topic and just write whatever comes to mind. You can always
erase later.
 Organization--Most writers use some kind of organization technique to help
them complete their work. One way to organize is to use an outline that tells you
where to start your writing and subtopics you'll cover at each step along the way.
When you make an outline first, you don't have to sit and tap your pencil trying to
figure out what's next. Another way to organize is to keep a calendar with your
writing goals, milestones, or deadlines. Calendar reminders keep you on track
and keep you writing.

Doing the Work of Writing

 Three act story telling--Many writers use this technique to sketch out the plot. It
is basically breaking your story or writing into a beginning, middle, and end.
Some prefer to think of it like a three act play. Act one is the setup and
introduction of characters. Act two is the complication. Act three is the resolution.
You can use these three parts to help you with nearly any writing, even if it is
non-fiction. Just think of the characters as your research and details. Introduce
the main components. Address any complications or questions. Finish with your
final answers to the problem your non-fiction work addresses.
Rewriting for Improvement

 Revision--Take the word revision literally. This is where you go back and 'look
again' at your writing. Is there a part that doesn't sound quite right? Could you
improve particular sections? Do certain chapters or paragraphs need to be
rearranged? Revision is your chance to take your early draft and make it say
what you really mean. It's not just looking for spelling, grammar, or punctuation
errors.

A writing technique is a style an author uses to convey their message in a manner that
is effective and meaningful to their audience. Understanding the different types of
writing techniques is important to professionals because you will need to change your
style of writing to make a connection with your audience.

Types of writing techniques

1. Descriptive writing style

Descriptive writing immerses the reader into a story by creating a vivid picture of
characters, settings and events in their mind. Writers who use a descriptive writing style
often use literary tools like similes and metaphors in their writing. The purpose of the
descriptive writing style is to make the reader feel like they are experiencing the events
for themselves. Most descriptive writing isn’t very long. Examples include poems,
personal journals and lyrics.

2. Narrative writing style

Narrative writing expands upon the descriptive writing style and tells an entire story with
a beginning, middle and end. Narrative writing style follows a clear storyline and plot,
such as a fictional novel, screenplay or memoir. Writers who use a narrative writing
style often use literary tools like foreshadowing and flashbacks in their writing.

3. Persuasive writing style

Persuasive writing is used to convince or influence the reader to believe or do what the
writer wants them to do. The persuasive writing style requires the writer to combine
research and logical reasoning with an emotional connection that persuades the reader
to adopt the writer’s personal opinions and beliefs.

4. Expository writing style

Expository writing is used to inform, explain or describe something to the reader. The
expository writing style is one of the most common types of writing and answers
questions the reader has, such as what, why and how. When using an expository
writing style, the writer needs to separate their opinion from the facts they are sharing.

Tips for using writing techniques

 Determine what your message is. Knowing the message you are trying to
convey to the reader and the purpose of your writing will help you choose the
writing technique that will be most effective for your piece.

 Know your audience. You will also need to consider who your audience is and
which writing technique they will respond the most effectively to.

 Try combining writing styles. Many pieces of writing combine two or more

writing techniques to convey a message effectively.

 Use appropriate literary devices. Literary devices—like similes, metaphors,

alliteration, personification, foreshadowing and flashbacks—are powerful tools
writers can use to improve their writing. Expand your knowledge about different
types of literary devices and know which ones work best with each writing
technique.

Lesson 2a

The term “word formation” refers to the processes through which new words are
created. 

Processes of Word Formation

"Apart from the processes that attach something to a base (affixation) and processes
that do not alter the base (conversion), there are processes involving the deletion of
material. ... English Christian names, for example, can be shortened by deleting parts of
the base word (see (11a)), a process also occasionally encountered with words that are
not personal names (see (11b)). This type of word formation is called truncation, with
the term clipping also being used."

(11a) Ron (-Aaron)

(11a) Liz (-Elizabeth)
(11a) Mike (-Michael)
(11a) Trish (-Patricia)
(11b) condo (-condominium)
(11b) demo (-demonstration)
(11b) disco (-discotheque)
(11b) lab (-laboratory)

"Sometimes truncation and affixation can occur together, as with formations expressing
intimacy or smallness, so-called diminutives:"

(12) Mandy (-Amanda)

(12) Andy (-Andrew)
(12) Charlie (-Charles)
(12) Patty (-Patricia)
(12) Robbie (-Roberta)

"We also find so-called blends, which are amalgamations of parts of different words,
such as smog (smoke/fog) or modem (modulator/demodulator). Blends based
on orthography are called acronyms, which are coined by combining the initial letters
of compounds or phrases into a pronounceable new word (NATO, UNESCO, etc.)
Simple abbreviations like UK or USA are also quite common."

Prefixes

We add prefixes before the base or stem of a word.

examples prefixes
monorail, monolingual mono- means ‘one’
multipurpose, multicultur
multi- means ‘many’
al
post-war, postgraduate post- means ‘after’
un- means ‘not’ or ‘opposite
unusual, undemocratic
to’
 

Suffixes

We add suffixes after the base or stem of a word. The main purpose of a suffix is to
show what class of word it is (e.g. noun or adjective).

examples suffixes
terrorism, sexism -ism and -dom are used to form nouns
-er and -or are used to form nouns to describe people who do
employer, actor
things
widen, simplify -en and -ify are used to form verbs
reasonable, -able is used to form adjectives
examples suffixes
unprofitable
unhappily, naturally -ly is a common suffix used to form adverbs
Conversion

Conversion involves the change of a word from one word class to another. For example,
the verbs to email and to microwave are formed from the nouns email and microwave:

Can you text her? (verb from noun text, meaning to send a text-message)

They are always jetting somewhere. (verb from noun jet)

If you’re not careful, some downloads can damage your computer. (noun from

verb download)

OK, so the meeting’s on Tuesday. That’s a definite. (noun from adjective)

It’s a very big if and I’m not at all sure we can afford it. (noun from conjunction, meaning
‘it’s not at all certain’)

All companies have their ups and downs. (nouns from prepositions)

We also use conversion when we change a proper noun into a common noun:

Has anybody seen my Dickens? (copy of a book by Dickens)

Compounding

When we use compounding, we link together two or more bases to create a new word.
Normally, the first item identifies a key feature of the second word. For example, the two
bases back and ache can combine to form the compound noun backache, and the two
bases post and card combine to form the compound noun postcard.

Compounds are found in all word classes. The most common types of compounds are:
Nouns: car park, rock band

Adjectives: heartbreaking, sugar-free, airsick

Verbs: oven-bake, baby-sit, chain-smoke

Adverbs: good-naturedly, nevertheless

It is sometimes difficult to know where to put hyphens in words that are compound ed. It
is also difficult to know whether to separate words (e.g. post box) or to join the words
(e.g. postbox). In such cases, it is best to check in a good learner’s dictionary.
Abbreviation

Abbreviation involves shortening a word. We do this in three main ways: clipping,

acronyms and blends.

We use clipping when we shorten or ‘clip’ one or more syllables from a word. We also
commonly clip proper names for people:

ad: advertisement, advert

lab: laboratory

Matt: Matthew

Acronyms are a type of abbreviation formed when the initial letters of two or more words
are combined in a way that produces consonant and vowel sequences found in words.
Acronyms are normally pronounced as words:

RAM: random access memory (RAM is a term used to describe a computer’s memory.)

Initials are similar to acronyms but are pronounced as sets of letters, not as words:

WHO: World Health Organisation, pronounced W–H–O

CD: compact disc, pronounced C–D

We form blends when we combine parts of existing words to form a new word:

blog: blend of web and log

motel: blend of motor and hotel

smog: blend of smoke and fog

Back-formation
We form words with back-formation when we remove part of a word, usually something
which we think is a suffix (or occasionally a prefix). We do this commonly when we form
verbs from nouns.

For example: to liaise (back-formed from the noun liaison); to intuit (back-formed from

the noun intuition), to enthuse (back-formed from the noun enthusiasm):

Can you liaise with Tim and agree a time for the meeting, please?

She’s always enthusing about her new teacher.

Loan words and new words

Loan words

Loan words are words that are borrowed from other languages. Some recent loan
words for food taken from other languages include: sushi, tapas, chapatti, pizza. When
we use loan words, we do not normally change them, though we do sometimes inflect
them if they are singular countable nouns (pizzas, chapattis). We also sometimes
pronounce them more like English words, instead of using their original pronunciation.

New words

Some prefixes are commonly used to create new words. In modern English the
prefix e- is used to create new words that are connected with the Internet and the use of
the Internet:

e-bank, e-cards, e-commerce, e-learning

Almost any noun may potentially combine with any other noun to form new noun
compounds (e.g. computer virus, carbon footprint, quality time).
lesson 2b sentence construction

Sentence Construction

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Explain techniques for writing effective sentences

Write Concise Sentences

Some examples of these redundant phrases are listed below.

Redundancies: Legend () means it should be deleted

Combine /Join (together)                                      finish (entirely)

Examine [closely]                                                   (eventually) evolve (overtime)

Plan (ahead)                                                           (completely) surround (on all sides)

(clearly) articulate                                                  (Future) plan

In (actual) fact                                                           fill (completely)

Refer/return/ revert (back) to                                (suddenly) interrupt

(strictly) forbid                                                           (harshly) condemn

Estimate/ approximate (roughly)                           (carefully) consider

(mutual) agreement                                                 (positive) benefits

Unite (as one)                                                           emphasize/ stress (strongly)

(better/further) enhance                                         rely/ depend (heavily)

Gather/ assemble (together)                                  (successfully) prove

Years ( of age)                                                          (end) result/ product

Write Clear Sentences

Clear sentences are strong sentences.

Compare these two sentences (the first is taken from President John F. Kennedy’s
inaugural address):
 1. Do not ask what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your
country.

2. Do not submit a query concerning what assets and benefits your country can
bestow upon you and yours, but rather inquire as to what tasks or activities you
yourself can perform and carry out that will be useful for the citizens of your own
country.

Clear writing involves knowing what you want to say before you say it. So, a lack of
clarity often comes from unclear thinking or poor planning. This, unfortunately, leads to
confused or annoyed readers. For many of us, our ideas become clearer as we draft our
essays. That’s why the revision process is so important. As you clarify your ideas, you
need to ensure that each sentence conveys one idea, and that each paragraph
thoroughly develops one unified concept.

Avoid vague and unnecessary words

Are you very hungry? Or are you so hungry you could eat out the entire refrigerator? Is
your English class really great? Or does your English class make you feel as if you are
the most creative writer and the smartest thinker, lucky enough to be studying in class
full of ambitious and engaged peers? Words like very and really don’t say much. Instead
of using stock or clichéd phrases, try to be more specific about what you mean. Below
are some examples of overused intensifiers and clichés you should be wary of.

absolutely actually assuredly certainly clearly completely

considerably definitely effectively extremely fundamentally drastically
highly in fact, incredibly inevitably indeed interestingly
markedly naturally of course, particularly significantly surely
totally utterly very really remarkably tremendously
Overused Intensifiers

Clichés
as plain as day
ballpark figure
few and far between
needless to say,
last but not least
as far as ___ is concerned
Alternatives
plainly, obvious, clear
about, approximately
rare, infrequent
of course, obviously
finally, lastly
according to
Vary the Length of your Sentences

Your sentences should vary in length (short sentence). Avoid having too many long
sentences because they take longer to read and are often more complex (longer
sentence). Reserve the short sentences for main points and use longer sentences for
supporting points that clarify or explain cause and effect relationships (longer sentence).
If you feel the sentence is too long, break it into two sentences (medium sentence). You
do not want your reader to have to read a sentence twice to understand it (short
sentence). (Note: you’ll learn more in a later module about using colons and semi-
colons to structure your complicated and longer sentences so that don’t get out of
control, grammatically.)

Name the People

Directly state who or what group is acting in your sentences. Note the contrast in power
and clarity among the sentences below

 Without people: A citywide ban on indoor smoking in Duluth originally caused a

marked drop in bar patronage.

 With people: When the Duluth City Council passed a citywide ban on indoor
smoking, many people stopped going to bars.

Use Active Verbs

Consider replacing “be-verbs” (is, am, are, was, were, be, has/have been) with active
verbs that allow you to compose powerful sentences shaped around action. Below the
italics are the same sentences that have been transformed with active verbs.

 To be: The sharp rise in fuel prices is a serious challenge to trucking firms. It
makes it hard for them to provide timely service to customers and to meet payroll
expenses.

 Active: Sharply rising fuel prices challenge trucking firms by causing delays in

customer service and payroll.

 To be: Primary causes of the rise in fuel prices are an issue of confusion for

many citizens. They don’t know how to fight the rise because they don’t know its
cause.

 Active: Primary causes of rising fuel prices elude many citizens, making them

unaware of how to fight the increase.
Use Parallel Structure Effectively

Simply put, parallelism is the practice of using the same patterns in words and
structures in order to provide balance to sentences and paragraphs.

Parallel structure can be applied to a single sentence, a paragraph, or even multiple

paragraphs. Compare the two following sentences:

 Yara loves running, to swim, and biking.

 Yara loves running, swimming, and biking.

Was the second sentence a smoother read than the first? The second sentence uses
parallelism—all three verbs are gerunds (running, swimming, biking) —whereas in the
first sentence two are gerunds (running and biking) and one is an infinitive (to swim).
When reading the first sentence, it’s easy to trip up over the mismatching items. Using
strong parallel structure improves writing style and readability and makes sentences
easier to process.

Compare the following examples:

 Lacking parallelism: “She likes cooking, jogging, and to read.”

 Parallel: “She likes cooking, jogging, and reading.”

 Parallel: “She likes to cook, jog, and read.”

 Lacking parallelism: “The dog ran across the yard and jumped over the fence,
and down the alley he sprinted.”

 Parallel: “The dog ran across the yard, jumped over the fence, and sprinted
down the alley.”

The parallel examples sound much better to your ears.

You can also apply parallelism across a passage:

Manuel painted eight paintings in the last week. Jennifer sculpted five statues in the last
month. Zama wrote fifteen songs in the last two months.

Each of the sentences in the preceding paragraph has the same structure: Name + -
ed verb + number of things + in the past time period. When using parallelism across
multiple sentences, be sure that you’re using it well. If you aren’t careful, you can stray
into being repetitive.

Effective Use of Parallelism and Repetition

Parallelism can also involve repeated words or repeated phrases. These uses are part
of “rhetoric” (a field that focuses on persuading readers). Here are a few examples of
repetition:

“The inherent vice of capitalism is the unequal sharing of blessings; the inherent

virtue of socialism is the equal sharing of miseries.” —Winston Churchill

“Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price,
bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure
the survival and the success of liberty.” —John F. Kennedy

“And that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish
from the earth.” —Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address

When used this way, parallelism makes your writing or speaking much stronger. These
repeated phrases seem to bind the work together and make it more powerful—and
more inspiring.

There are four main problems that prevent people from writing complete, grammatically
correct sentences. These problems include: (a) the sentence fragment; (b) the run-on
sentence; (c) lack of subject-verb and pronoun-reference agreement; and (d) la ck of
parallel structure.

Sentence Fragments

A fragment is a sentence which is not complete, and therefore not grammatically

correct. Sentence fragments are problematic because they are disjointed and confusing
to the reader. There are three main causes of fragments: (a) a missing subject; (b) a
missing verb; (c) "danger" words which are not finished.

There are three ways to check for sentence completeness:

1. Find the subject. A subject is the noun or pronoun about which something is written.
To find the subject of a sentence, identify who or what is doing the action. If there is no
subject, the sentence is a fragment. Consider the two examples below.

"The student felt nervous before the speech."

"Thought about leaving the room."

The first sentence above is complete, because it contains both a subject and a verb.
The subject of this sentence is the student. The sentence contains a subject which
answers the question, "who or what felt nervous?" The second sentence is a fragment,
because there is no identifiable subject. The sentence does not contain a subject which
answers the question, "who or what thought about leaving?" To correct the second
sentence, one could write: "He thought about leaving the room." Alternatively, on e
could combine the two sentences to form one complete sentence: "The student felt
nervous before the speech, and thought about leaving the room."

2. Find the verb. A verb is the action word in a sentence. Verbs express action,
existence or occurrence. To find the verb in a sentence, identify what happened. If there
is no identifiable action, the sentence is a fragment. Consider the two examples below.

"Many scientists, such as Einstein, think in strange ways."

"Many scientists think in strange ways. Einstein, for example."

This first example above has one complete sentence followed by a fragment. "Einstein,
for example" is a fragment because there is no verb. "Einstein" serves as the subject
(he is the one doing something), but the rest of the sentence does not express wh at
action he is taking. The second example is a complete sentence. In this case, the
sentence contains both a subject (scientists) and a verb (think). Alternatively, one could
write the following: "Many scientists think in strange ways. Einstein, for example, could
not tolerate more than one bar of soap in his home." In this case, there are two
complete sentences. In the second sentence, the subject is Einstein and the verb is
"could not tolerate."

3. Check for "danger" words. A danger word is one which introduces a thought that
requires a follow-up phrase. Such words are sometimes called "cliff-hangers" because
they begin a statement, but leave it "hanging" without a finish. Consider the phrases
below.

"If you come home..."

"When the rain falls..."
"Because he is mean..."

The danger words in the sentences above are "if," "when" and "because." When these
words are used at the beginning of a phrase, they require a follow-up phrase to
conclude the thought.

Example: If you come home on time...then what?

Correct: If you come home on time, I will buy you a present.

Example: When it rains...what happens?

Correct: When it rains, the gutters become clogged.

Example: Because he is mean...what is the result?

Correct: Because he is mean, I will not take a class from him.

Danger words are helpful when writing sentences, but one must be sure to include a
concluding phrase when these words are used.
Commonly used danger words include: after, unless, although, how, as if, when,
because, where, before, while, if, until, once, so that, since, whether.

Run-on Sentences

A run-on sentence is one which actually contains two (or more) complete sentences
without the proper punctuation to create separate sentences. There are two common
forms of the run-on: (1) the "comma splice" in which a comma is inserted between two
comp lete sentences where a period should actually be used; (2) a lack of punctuation
where a semi-colon or period is needed.

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Incorrect Examples - The Comma Splice

John is a musician, he plays the guitar for a living.

The girl walked home, she decided not to ride the bus.
He could only guess at the number of guests who attended the party, the entire yard
was filled with people.

In each of the examples above, the two sentences are incorrectly joined by a comma,
thus "splicing" two complete sentences together into one run-on sentence. To correct
these run-on's, the comma should be replaced by a period, thus creating two separate
sentences, as shown below.

Correct Examples

John is a musician. He plays the guitar for a living.

The girl walked home. She decided not to ride the bus.
He could only guess at the number of guests who attended the party. The entire yard
was filled with people.
Incorrect Examples - Lack of Punctuation

There is a problem with the television however no one is available to fix it.
Nobody knows what really happened the policeman said there was a fight.
That is the problem when people have conflict, they attack each other personally.

In each of the examples above, some type of punctuation is needed to separate the two
parts of the sentence: either a semi-colon or a period.

Correct Examples

There is a problem with the television; however, no one is available to fix it.
There is a problem with the television. However, no one is available to fix it.

Nobody knows what really happened; the policeman said there was a fight.
Nobody knows what really happened. The policeman said there was a fight.

That is the problem when people have conflict; they attack each other personally.
That is the problem when people have conflict. They attack each other personally.

Subject-Verb Agreement

In order for a sentence to be grammatically correct, the subject and verb must both be
singular or plural. In other words, the subject and verb must agree with one another in
their tense. If the subject is in plural form, the verb should also be in plur al form (and
vice versa). To ensure subject-verb agreement, identify the main subject and verb in the
sentence, then check to see if they are both plural or singular. Consider the examples
below.

Incorrect examples - Subject-Verb Agreement

"The group of students are complaining about grades."

The main subject in this sentence is "group," which is singular. The main verb is
"are complaining," which is plural.

"A recipe with more than six ingredients are too complicated."
The main subject in this sentence is "recipe," which is singular. The main verb is "are,"
which is plural.

"The facts in that complex case is questionable."

The main subject in this sentence is "facts," which is plural. The main verb, "is," is
singular.

"The people is wearing formal attire."

The main subject in this sentence is "people," which is plural. The main verb is "is
wearing," which is singular.
Correct examples

"The group of students is complaining about grades."

"A recipe with more than six ingredients is too complicated."
"The facts in that complex case are questionable."
"The people are wearing formal attire."

A variation of the subject-verb agreement is pronoun-reference agreement. In the case

of pronoun-reference agreement, all of the pronouns should agree with one another in
singular or plural tense. Consider the examples below.

Incorrect examples - Pronoun-Reference Agreement

"A manager should always be honest with their employees."

The subject in this sentence, "manager," is singular. The corresponding pronoun,
"their," is plural.

"Organizations must be careful about discriminating against its employees."

The subject in this sentence is "organizations," which is plural. The corresponding

pronoun, "its," is singular.

"If you really care about somebody, let them make their own choices."
In this sentence, the pronoun "somebody" is singular, but the corresponding pronouns,
"them" and "their" are plural.

Correct examples

"A manager should always be honest with his (or her) employees."
"Organizations must be careful about discriminating against their employees."
"If you really care about somebody, let him (or her) make his (or her) own choices."

Parallel Structure

The parallel structure of a sentence refers to the extent to which different parts of the
sentence match each other in form. When more than one phrase or description is used
in a sentence, those phrases or descriptions should be consistent with one an other in
their form and wording. Parallel structure is important because it enhances the ease
with which the reader can follow the writer's idea. Consider the following examples.

Incorrect examples - Parallel Structure

Example One: "He is strong and a tough competitor."

Notice that "strong" and "a tough competitor" are not the in the same form. "Strong" and
"competitive" are consistent in form.
Example Two: "The new coach is a smart strategist, an effective manager, and works
hard."
Notice that "a smart strategist" and "an effective manager" are consistent with one
another, but not consistent with "works hard."

Example Three: "In the last minute of the game, John intercepted the football, evaded
the tacklers, and a touchdown was scored."
Notice that the first two phrases in this sentence are consistent with one another:
"intercepted the football" and "evaded the tacklers." However, the final phrase, "and a
touchdown was scored" is not consistent with the first two phrases. Correct examples

Example One: "He is strong and competitive."

Example Two: "The new coach is a smart strategist, an effective manager, and a hard
worker."
Example Three: "In the last minute of the game, John intercepted the football, evaded
the tacklers, and scored a touchdown."
Lesson 2 c Paragraph

A paragraph is a distinct section of writing covering one topic. A paragraph will usually

contain more than one sentence. A paragraph starts on a new line.
Sometimes, paragraphs are indented or numbered.

The "perfect paragraph" will start with a topic sentence. It will have detail sentences in
the middle and end with a concluding sentence. It will only cover one topic from start to
finish. The length of a paragraph is supposed to be determined by the topic, but often
writers will create a paragraph simply to ensure they're not presenting too much text in
one chunk.

 Every paragraph in a paper should be:

 Unified: All of the sentences in a single paragraph should be related to a

single controlling idea (often expressed in the topic sentence of the
paragraph).

 Clearly related to the thesis: The sentences should all refer to the central
idea, or thesis, of the paper

 Coherent: The sentences should be arranged in a logical manner and should

follow a definite plan for development

 Well-developed: Every idea discussed in the paragraph should be

adequately explained and supported through evidence and details that work
together to explain the paragraph’s controlling idea

possibilities for organization:

Narration: Tell a story. Go chronologically, from start to finish.

Description: Provide specific details about what something looks, smells, tastes,
sounds, or feels like. Organize spatially, in order of appearance, or by topic.

Process: Explain how something works, step by step. Perhaps follow a sequence—
first, second, third.

Classification: Separate into groups or explain the various parts of a topic.

Illustration: Give examples and explain how those examples prove your point.
5-step process to paragraph development

Step 1. Decide on a controlling idea and create a topic sentence

Paragraph development begins with the formulation of the controlling idea. This idea
directs the paragraph’s development. Often, the controlling idea of a paragraph will
appear in the form of a topic sentence. In some cases, you may need more than one
sentence to express a paragraph’s controlling idea. Here is the controlling idea for
our “model paragraph,” expressed in a topic sentence:

Model controlling idea and topic sentence — Slave spirituals often had hidden
double meanings.

Step 2. Explain the controlling idea

Paragraph development continues with an expression of the rationale or the explanation
that the writer gives for how the reader should interpret the information presented in the
idea statement or topic sentence of the paragraph. The writer explains his/her thinking
about the main topic, idea, or focus of the paragraph. Here’s the sentence that would
follow the controlling idea about slave spirituals:

Model explanation — On one level, spirituals referenced heaven, Jesus, and the soul;
but on another level, the songs spoke about slave resistance.

Step 3. Give an example (or multiple examples)

Paragraph development progresses with the expression of some type of support or
evidence for the idea and the explanation that came before it. The example serves as a
sign or representation of the relationship established in the idea and explanation
portions of the paragraph. Here are two examples that we could use to illustrate the
double meanings in slave spirituals:

Model example A — For example, according to Frederick Douglass, the song “O
Canaan, Sweet Canaan” spoke of slaves’ longing for heaven, but it also expressed their
desire to escape to the North. Careful listeners heard this second meaning in the
following lyrics: “I don’t expect to stay / Much longer here. / Run to Jesus, shun the
danger. / I don’t expect to stay.”

Model example B — Slaves even used songs like “Steal Away to Jesus (at midnight)”
to announce to other slaves the time and place of secret, forbidden meetings.

Step 4. Explain the example(s)

The next movement in paragraph development is an explanation of each example and
its relevance to the topic sentence and rationale that were stated at the beginning of the
paragraph. This explanation shows readers why you chose to use this/or these
particular examples as evidence to support the major claim, or focus, in your paragraph.

Continue the pattern of giving examples and explaining them until all points/examples
that the writer deems necessary have been made and explained. NONE of your
examples should be left unexplained. You might be able to explain the relationship
between the example and the topic sentence in the same sentence which introduced
the example. More often, however, you will need to explain that relationship in a
separate sentence. Look at these explanations for the two examples in the slave
spirituals paragraph:

Model explanation for example A — When slaves sang this song, they could have
been speaking of their departure from this life and their arrival in heaven; however, they
also could have been describing their plans to leave the South and run, not to Jesus,
but to the North.

Model explanation for example B — [The relationship between example B and the
main idea of the paragraph’s controlling idea is clear enough without adding another
sentence to explain it.]

Step 5. Complete the paragraph’s idea or transition into the next paragraph
The final movement in paragraph development involves tying up the loose ends of the
paragraph and reminding the reader of the relevance of the information in this
paragraph to the main or controlling idea of the paper. At this point, you can remind your
reader about the relevance of the information that you just discussed in the paragraph.
You might feel more comfortable, however, simply transitioning your reader to the next
development in the next paragraph. Here’s an example of a sentence that completes
the slave spirituals paragraph:

Model sentence for completing a paragraph — What whites heard as merely spiritual

songs, slaves discerned as detailed messages. The hidden meanings in spirituals
allowed slaves to sing what they could not say.

Notice that the example and explanation steps of this 5-step process (steps 3 and
4) can be repeated as needed. The idea is that you continue to use this pattern
until you have completely developed the main idea of the paragraph.

Here is a look at the completed “model” paragraph:

Slave spirituals often had hidden double meanings. On one level, spirituals referenced
heaven, Jesus, and the soul, but on another level, the songs spoke about slave
resistance. For example, according to Frederick Douglass, the song “O Canaan, Sweet
Canaan” spoke of slaves’ longing for heaven, but it also expressed their desire to
escape to the North. Careful listeners heard this second meaning in the following lyrics:
“I don’t expect to stay / Much longer here. / Run to Jesus, shun the danger. / I don’t
expect to stay.” When slaves sang this song, they could have been speaking of their
departure from this life and their arrival in heaven; however, they also could have been
describing their plans to leave the South and run, not to Jesus, but to the North. Slaves
even used songs like “Steal Away to Jesus (at midnight)” to announce to other slaves
the time and place of secret, forbidden meetings. What whites heard as merely spiritual
songs, slaves discerned as detailed messages. The hidden meanings in spirituals
allowed slaves to sing what they could not say.
lesson 3 Paragraph features and characteristics

Lesson 3 a

Written communication skills examples

In professional settings, great written communication skills are made up of five key
elements. Look at some examples of each of these elements below:

Clarity

Clarity helps your reader understand what you are saying or, at least, understand
enough to know what questions they need to ask for further clarification. Clarity comes
from writing in simple language and sticking to concrete, specific information:

Example: “We are implementing a new late policy to ensure that all employees can
confidently rely on our agreed-upon schedule. See the details of the new policy below.
If you have any questions, you may direct them to the head of human resources.”

The above example gets to the goal of the message right away, touches on the
intention behind the policy change, and provides explicit steps to follow in case a reader
needs further clarification. 

Conciseness

It’s important to get to your point quickly and efficiently. Include only the details that are
necessary to communicate your point:

Example: “After reviewing the articles you’ve written for us, I’ve concluded that you are
one of the most talented writers on our team.”

Concise writing, like that in the above example, helps maintain clarity by avoiding
unnecessary details or overly complicated sentence structures. It also lends more
confidence to your writing.

Tone

Tone refers to the “voice” of your writing. In business writing, your tone should be one of
professionalism blended with varying degrees of formality and friendliness:

Example: “Thank you for sending this over. I highlighted a few inaccuracies found in
this report and attached the latest numbers from our accounting department. Please get
the revised report back to me by Friday afternoon. If you have any questions, feel free
to ask.”
Even while communicating negative news, such as pointing out mistakes, avoid
accusations or language that might make the reader feel singled out. You also want to
be specific. Rather than saying, “This report is wrong,” identify exactly what you’re
asking for.

Active voice

Active voice is typically more accessible and easier to follow for readers than passive
voice. Active voice helps a sentence flow better and allows the reader to move through
your writing at a quicker pace. Complex, passive voice has its place in other forms of
writing, but it slows the reader down in professional communication.

Example: “All department heads have reviewed the proposal.”

Grammar and punctuation

How much you pay attention to precise grammar and punctuation will depend on how
formal the writing needs to be. However, even in informal writing, grammar and
punctuation are important for ensuring that your point is getting across.

Example: “The initial guide identifies the scope and framework of the project, breaks it
down into milestones, and provides criteria for tracking progress and measuring
outcomes.” 

Without correct use of commas, articles, prepositions, verb tense and other basic
grammar, the sentence above would be difficult to understand. 

How to improve your written communication skills

Here are a few tips you should keep in mind whenever you are writing anything,
whether it’s a quick email or a detailed report:

1. Know your goal before you begin writing

Having a clear goal in mind keeps your writing focused and clear. This goal might be to
get the reader to take action, respond to your email, or to know of important information.
Whatever your goal may be, you want to get to it as quickly as possible at the beginning
of the message. Lead with the key point and follow up with the details needed to
understand it. Organizing your message in this way gets the point across in a way that
even readers who might skim through it will understand.

2. Include only need-to-know details

After you’ve written your first draft, read through it and ask the following three questions
of every single sentence: 
  Is the goal of the message clear and concrete? If you need a report or a
project update, give a specific deadline rather than just vaguely stating that it’s
urgent. State what specific details you expect that report or update to include.
The reader should be able to immediately understand what you expect from them
and when without decoding your message.
 Is this detail necessary for the reader to understand the goal of the
message? If you can remove a whole sentence and the reader could still figure
out what they need to do, consider removing it. 
 Is this written as simply and directly as possible? You’re writing to get the
point across while leaving as little room for misinterpretation as possible. While a
certain industry-specific term or bigger word might be more specific to the
meaning of your message, if your reader doesn’t understand the nuance of its
meaning and you do, consider a simpler, more accessible word choice.

3. Make use of outlines 

For longer texts such as a report, take the time to write out an outline to organize your
thoughts and determine the best way to organize the information. Outlines can be
invaluable resources as you write, because they ensure that you make every necessary
point in a logical order. 

4. Keep it professional

Even if you’re just sending a quick email to one of your closest coworkers, avoid jokes
or private complaints. The safest approach is to assume all written communications
could be shared with the entire office. Before you hit send, ask yourself, “Is this email
something you would be okay with everyone reading?”

5. Edit thoroughly

Read through everything two or three times. Besides proofreading for basic grammar
and spelling, pay attention to how it sounds. Ask basic questions about the clarity and
efficiency of what you’ve written, such as:

 How does it flow? 

 Does it make sense? 
 Are there too many unnecessary details? 
 Are there any missing details needed to understand the main point? Have you
written it simply and directly? 

Then, save a draft and step away from it for a few minutes while you work on another
task. Come back to it afterward and read through it again. 

A great way to build editing into your work routine is to write drafts of all the emails you
need to send out. Then, once all the drafts are complete, go back to the beginning and
edit each of those drafts before finally sending them.
How to showcase your written communication skills

Written communication skills are essential at every stage, from getting the job to
performing it to the best of your ability. Here are some occasions where you’ll show
these skills:

On your resume

Your resume should be easy to skim and highly focused on highlighting your greatest
accomplishments and your strengths. Rely on bullet points, lists and clear headlines.
You want to use this as an opportunity to show your ability to communicate concisely
and clearly. 

In your cover letter

Unlike your resume, your cover letter should be composed of more rich detail and well-
constructed sentences. This is where you show your ability to weave details into a clear
and engaging narrative. Tell your story with a clear purpose. Rather than a bullet point
list of achievements, focus on one or two of your great ones and weave your
accomplishments into a story that shows how your unique strengths and experience
helped you achieve those outcomes.

In your job interview

While your job interview will be more about your verbal communication skills, you still
want to make sure your responses are clear, concise and concrete. This will reinforce
the impression that you know how to communicate with purpose and efficiency.

In your thank you letter

After the interview, you have one final opportunity to showcase your written
communication skills. The thank you letter or email allows you to show your ability to
balance professionalism and friendliness. Your thank you letter can show off your
mastery of tone and your attention to detail.

In your emails

Most jobs today will require sending emails on a near daily basis. It’s important that your
writing conveys your professionalism, credibility and friendliness. A well-written email is
direct, specific, and provides clear next steps for the readers whether that next step is
responding to your email, scheduling an appointment, completing a task or letting them
know they can ask you questions they might have.

In your presentations and reports

Presentations and reports are the places where you and your team inform the rest of
the company about what you’ve been working on, what you’ve achieved and what your
goals and expectations are going forward. Doing that well means providing organized,
easy-to-read reports that even people who might not be familiar with your department
can understand. When writing for an audience outside of your own department, avoid
terms that aren’t widely used outside of your own team. If you need to use specific
terminology, make sure you take the time to include definitions and explanations.

Lesson 3 a Topic Sentence

A paragraph is a brief piece of writing that's around seven to ten sentences long. It has
a topic sentence and supporting sentences that all relate closely to the topic sentence.
The paragraph form refers to its overall structure, which is a group of sentences
focusing on a single topic.

There are three main parts of a paragraph:

 Topic sentence - it has the main idea

 Supporting sentence - details that relate to and support the topic sentence
 Concluding sentence - a brief reflection or statement about the main idea

The topic sentence is usually the first sentence but it can appear at any point in the
paragraph. The main thing is to be sure you have a topic sentence because it gives
your paragraph its focus, similar to a thesis statement in an essay.

Let's look at our example paragraph:

Weather in Wisconsin has been especially fierce this week. It all began on Tuesday,
when a tornado swept through the St. Croix River Valley. Wednesday evening another
tornado dropped down on the suburbs of Milwaukee. Then on Thursday evening, River
Falls experienced a torrential rain that flooded the streets. Many are wondering what
Wisconsin city will be next.

Note that all the supporting sentences relate directly to weather in Wisconsin, which is
the paragraph's main idea. The examples in the supporting sentences further support
the claim in the topic sentence since they all happened this week and were fierce
weather events. The concluding sentence shows what people are thinking about all of
these weather events.

TOPIC SENTENCES

A well-organized paragraph supports or develops a single controlling idea, which is

expressed in a sentence called the topic sentence. A topic sentence has several
important functions: it substantiates or supports an essay’s thesis statement; it unifies
the content of a paragraph and directs the order of the sentences; and it advises the
reader of the subject to be discussed and how the paragraph will discuss it.
PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE

Most paragraphs in an essay have a three-part structure—introduction, body, and

conclusion. You can see this structure in paragraphs whether they are narrating,
describing, comparing, contrasting, or analyzing information. Each part of the paragraph
plays an important role in communicating your meaning to your reader.

Introduction: the first section of a paragraph; should include the topic sentence and any
other sentences at the beginning of the paragraph that give background information or
provide a transition.

Body: follows the introduction; discusses the controlling idea, using facts, arguments,
analysis, examples, and other information.

Conclusion: the final section; summarizes the connections between the information
discussed in the body of the paragraph and the paragraph’s controlling idea.

The following paragraph illustrates this pattern of organization. In this paragraph the
topic sentence and concluding sentence (CAPITALIZED) both help the reader keep the
paragraph’s main point in mind.

SCIENTISTS HAVE LEARNED TO SUPPLEMENT THE SENSE OF SIGHT IN

NUMEROUS WAYS. In front of the tiny pupil of the eye they put, on Mount Palomar, a
great monocle 200 inches in diameter, and with it see 2000 times farther into the depths
of space. Or they look through a small pair of lenses arranged as a microscope into a
drop of water or blood, and magnify by as much as 2000 diameters the living creatures
there, many of which are among man’s most dangerous enemies. Or, if we want to see
distant happenings on earth, they use some of the previously wasted electromagnetic
waves to carry television images which they re-create as light by whipping tiny crystals
on a screen with electrons in a vacuum. Or they can bring happenings of long ago and
far away as colored motion pictures, by arranging silver atoms and color-absorbing
molecules to force light waves into the patterns of original reality. Or if we want to see
into the center of a steel casting or the chest of an injured child, they send the
information on a beam of penetrating short-wave X rays, and then convert it back into
images we can see on a screen or photograph. THUS ALMOST EVERY TYPE OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION YET DISCOVERED HAS BEEN USED TO
EXTEND OUR SENSE OF SIGHT IN SOME WAY.

George Harrison, “Faith and the Scientist”

COHERENCE

In a coherent paragraph, each sentence relates clearly to the topic sentence or

controlling idea, but there is more to coherence than this. If a paragraph is coherent,
each sentence flows smoothly into the next without obvious shifts or jumps. A coherent
paragraph also highlights the ties between old information and new information to make
the structure of ideas or arguments clear to the reader.

Along with the smooth flow of sentences, a paragraph’s coherence may also be related
to its length.

Techniques :

1.   Repeat key words or phrases. Particularly in paragraphs in which you define or

identify an important idea or theory, be consistent in how you refer to it. This
consistency and repetition will bind the paragraph together and help your reader
understand your definition or description.

2.   Create parallel structures. Parallel structures are created by constructing two or

more phrases or sentences that have the same grammatical structure and use the
same parts of speech. By creating parallel structures you make your sentences clearer
and easier to read. In addition, repeating a pattern in a series of consecutive sentences
helps your reader see the connections between ideas. In the paragraph above about
scientists and the sense of sight, several sentences in the body of the paragraph have
been constructed in a parallel way. The parallel structures (which have
been emphasized) help the reader see that the paragraph is organized as a set of
examples of a general statement.

3.   Be consistent in point of view, verb tense, and number. Consistency in point of view,
verb tense, and number is a subtle but important aspect of coherence. If you shift from
the more personal "you" to the impersonal “one,” from past to present tense, or from “a
man” to “they,” for example, you make your paragraph less coherent. Such
inconsistencies can also confuse your reader and make your argument more difficult to
follow.

4.   Use transition words or phrases between sentences and between

paragraphs. Transitional expressions emphasize the relationships between ideas, so
they help readers follow your train of thought or see connections that they might
otherwise miss or misunderstand. The following paragraph shows how carefully chosen
transitions (CAPITALIZED) lead the reader smoothly from the introduction to the
conclusion of the paragraph.
I don’t wish to deny that the flattened, minuscule head of the large-bodied "stegosaurus"
houses little brain from our subjective, top-heavy perspective, BUT I do wish to assert
that we should not expect more of the beast. FIRST OF ALL, large animals have
relatively smaller brains than related, small animals. The correlation of brain size with
body size among kindred animals (all reptiles, all mammals, FOR EXAMPLE) is
remarkably regular. AS we move from small to large animals, from mice to elephants or
small lizards to Komodo dragons, brain size increases, BUT not so fast as body size. IN
OTHER WORDS, bodies grow faster than brains, AND large animals have low ratios of
brain weight to body weight. IN FACT, brains grow only about two-thirds as fast as
bodies. SINCE we have no reason to believe that large animals are consistently
stupider than their smaller relatives, we must conclude that large animals require
relatively less brain to do as well as smaller animals. IF we do not recognize this
relationship, we are likely to underestimate the mental power of very large animals,
dinosaurs in particular.

Stephen Jay Gould, “Were Dinosaurs Dumb?”

TRANSITION WORDS

There are six categories of transition words:

1.     Spatial order. Words used in descriptive writing to signal spatial relationships,

such as above, below, beside, nearby, beyond, inside, and outside.

2.     Time order. Words used in writing narratives, and instructions to signal

chronological sequence, such as before, after, first, next, then, when, finally, while, as,
during, earlier, later, and meanwhile.

3.     Numerical order. Words used in expository writing to signal order of importance,

such as first, second, also, finally, in addition, equally important, and more or less
importantly.

4.     Cause/effect order. Words used in expository writing to signal causal

relationships, such as because, since, for, so, as a result, consequently, thus,and
hence.

5.     Comparison/contrast order. Words used in expository writing to signal

similarities and differences, such as (for similarities) also, additionally, just as, as if, as
though, like, and similarly; and (for differences) but, yet, only, although,whereas, in
contrast, conversely, however, on the other hand, rather, instead,in spite of,
and nevertheless.

6.     General/specific order. Words used in descriptive reports and arguments to

signal more specific elaboration on an idea, such as for example, such
as, like,namely, for instance, that is, in fact, in other words, and indeed.
lesson 3b

A thesis statement is one sentence that expresses the main idea of a research paper

or essay, such as an expository essay or argumentative essay. It makes a claim,
directly answering a question.

A thesis statement:

·   tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter under
discussion.

·   is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect from the
rest of the paper.

·   directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation of a question

or subject, not the subject itself. The subject, or topic, of an essay might be World War II
or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a way to understand the war or the novel.

·   makes a claim that others might dispute.

·   is usually a single sentence near the beginning of your paper (most often, at the end
of the first paragraph) that presents your argument to the reader. The rest of the paper,
the body of the essay, gathers and organizes evidence that will persuade the reader of
the logic of your interpretation.

Tips for Writing Your Thesis Statement

1. Determine what kind of paper you are writing:

 An analytical paper breaks down an issue or an idea into its component parts,

evaluates the issue or idea, and presents this breakdown and evaluation to the
audience.
 An expository (explanatory) paper explains something to the audience.
 An argumentative paper makes a claim about a topic and justifies this claim with
specific evidence. The claim could be an opinion, a policy proposal, an
evaluation, a cause-and-effect statement, or an interpretation. The goal of the
argumentative paper is to convince the audience that the claim is true based on
the evidence provided.

If you are writing a text that does not fall under these three categories (e.g., a narrative),
a thesis statement somewhere in the first paragraph could still be helpful to your reader.

2. Your thesis statement should be specific—it should cover only what you will discuss
in your paper and should be supported with specific evidence.

3. The thesis statement usually appears at the end of the first paragraph of a paper.
4. Your topic may change as you write, so you may need to revise your thesis statement
to reflect exactly what you have discussed in the paper.

Example of an analytical thesis statement:

An analysis of the college admission process reveals one challenge facing counselors:
accepting students with high test scores or students with strong extracurricular
backgrounds.

The paper that follows should:

 Explain the analysis of the college admission process

 Explain the challenge facing admissions counselors

Example of an expository (explanatory) thesis statement:

The life of the typical college student is characterized by time spent studying, attending
class, and socializing with peers.

The paper that follows should:

 Explain how students spend their time studying, attending class, and socializing
with peers

Example of an argumentative thesis statement:

High school graduates should be required to take a year off to pursue community
service projects before entering college in order to increase their maturity and global
awareness.

The paper that follows should:

 Present an argument and give evidence to support the claim that students should
pursue community projects before entering college

The main idea is the point of the paragraph. It is the most important thought about the
topic. To figure out the main idea, ask yourself this question: What is being said about
the person, thing, or idea (the topic)? The author can locate the main idea in different
places within a paragraph.

The topic is the broad, general theme or message.  It is what some call the subject. 
The main idea is the "key concept" being expressed.  Details, major and minor,
support the main idea by telling how, what, when, where, why, how much, or how many.

Grasping the Main Idea:

A paragraph is a group of sentences related to a particular topic, or central theme. 
Every paragraph has a key concept or main idea.  The main idea is the most important
piece of information the author wants you to know about the concept of that paragraph.

When authors write they have an idea in mind that they are trying to get across.  This is
especially true as authors compose paragraphs.  An author organizes each paragraph's
main idea and supporting details in support of the topic or central theme, and each
paragraph supports the paragraph preceding it.

A writer will state his/her main idea explicitly somewhere in the paragraph.  That main
idea may be stated at the beginning of the paragraph, in the middle, or at the end.  The
sentence in which the main idea is stated is the topic sentence of that paragraph.

The topic sentence announces the general theme ( or portion of the theme) to be dealt
with in the paragraph.  Although the topic sentence may appear anywhere in the
paragraph, it is usually first – and for a very good reason.  This sentence provides the
focus for the writer while writing and for the reader while reading.  When you find the
topic sentence, be sure to underline it so that it will stand out not only now, but also later
when you review.

Identifying the Topic:

The first thing you must be able to do to get at the main idea of a paragraph is to identify
the topic – the subject of the paragraph.  Think of the paragraph as a wheel with the
topic being the hub – the central core around which the whole wheel (or paragraph)
spins.  Your strategy for topic identification is simply to ask yourself the question, "What
is this about?"  Keep asking yourself that question as you read a paragraph, until the
answer to your question becomes clear.  Sometimes you can spot the topic by looking
for a word or two that repeat.  Usually you can state the topic in a few words.

The bulk of an expository paragraph is made up of supporting sentences (major and

minor details), which help to explain or prove the main idea.  These sentences present
facts, reasons, examples, definitions, comparison, contrasts, and other pertinent
details.  They are most important because they sell the main idea.

The last sentence of a paragraph is likely to be a concluding sentence. It is used to sum

up a discussion, to emphasize a point, or to restate all or part of the topic sentence so
as to bring the paragraph to a close.  The last sentence may also be a transitional
sentence leading to the next paragraph.

Introductory paragraphs tell you, in advance, such things as (1) the main ideas of the
chapter or section; (2) the extent or limits of the coverage; (3) how the topic is
developed; and (4) the writer's attitude toward the topic.  Transitional paragraphs are
usually short; their sole function is to tie together what you have read so far and what is
to come – to set the stage for succeeding ideas of the chapter or
section.  Summarizing paragraphs are used to restate briefly the main ideas of the
chapter or section.  The writer may also draw some conclusion from these ideas, or
speculate on some conclusion based on the evidence he/she has presented.

Exercise:

Read the following paragraph and underline the stated main idea.  Write down in your
own words what you are able to conclude from the information.

The rules of conduct during an examination are clear.  No books, calculators or papers
are allowed in the test room.  Proctors will not allow anyone with such items to take the
test.  Anyone caught cheating will be asked to leave the room.  His or her test sheet will
be taken.  The incident will be reported to the proper authority.  At the end of the test
period, all materials will be returned to the proctor.  Failure to abide by these rules will
result in a failing grade for this test.

Lesson 3c

A clincher sentence is a concluding sentence reinforcing your key message.

A clincher sentence is a soundbite, communicating a nugget of wisdom. It’s a

memorable point that may linger in your reader’s mind long after she’s finished reading
your content.

A clincher is the sentence or limited group of sentences at the end of the concluding
paragraph. An effective clincher leaves the audience with a strong final impression of
the essay.

How To Use Clinchers

Here is a thesis statement:

The incidence of depression has created a crisis in Canadian society that must be
addressed through a combination of counselling, medicine, and social acceptance.

1.   Make a Prediction. Make sure your prediction flows logically from your
research. Don’t make a guess.
Eg. If Canadian society continues to isolate people suffering from depression, these
people will continue to experience difficulties, pain, and loneliness.

2.   Offer a Recommendation. Ensure your recommendation is something

realistic.
Eg. The Canadian mental health community should work towards raising awareness of
the impact of depression on society. By making this clear to community leaders, the
mental health community can be a voice for positive change.
3.   Suggest Opportunities for Further Research. Make use of this method when
there is a lack of research on your topic.
Eg. Future research should examine the treatment strategies employed in other
countries and incorporate successful approaches in the struggle with the disease. By
making use of this information, Canada could effectively support those who live with
depression.

4.   Ask a Thought-Provoking Rhetorical Question. Invite the reader to consider

the question based on the evidence in your essay.
Eg. With all that is known about depression and its devastating impact, why has Canada
not committed more political and economic resources to the fight against the disease?

5.   Connect Back to the Grabber. Provide closure to an essay by connecting

back to the grabber. Note that a citation is needed because information has been
taken from another source.
Example Grabber: Lim et al. (2008) estimated that mental illnesses such as depression
cost the Canadian economy $51 billion in lost employee productivity, hospitalization and
treatment costs, and tax-funded government assistance programs .

Example Clincher relating back to Grabber: As Lim et al. (2008) pointed out, with an
estimated $51 billion in costs and damages at stake each year, Canada cannot afford to
neglect this issue any longer .

Examples:

1.      Topic sentence: New York is an exciting city.

Body of Evidence: New York City has a population of more than 8 million people with a
wide variety of ethnic backgrounds plus a massive tourist draw, attracting visitors from
all over the world. Furthermore, there are numerous museums, attractions, restaurants
and bars.

Clincher statement: It is clear from the infinite variety of entertainment offerings that
New York City is an exciting place.

2.      Topic Sentence: Pets help combat depression.

Body of Evidence: Pets reduce loneliness by providing companionship and forcing their
owners outdoors and out of isolation. When at home, they act as silent confidants. Pets
offer loving affection and unwavering devotion to their owners. Plus, an
unselfconscious, playful pet can be quite comical at times.

Clincher statement: With their unconditional affection, pets can be hugely helpful in
fighting depression.