Control Systems I

ME34
Chapter 2: Modeling in the Frequency Domain

Dr.Mariam Wajdi Ibrahim, IEEE member

Department of Mechatronics Engineering,
German Jordanian University
 Modeling in the Frequency Domain

 Mathematical models describe the relationship Input Output:

Controlled
between the input and output of dynamical System (𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻)
𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) c(t)
systems.
 One such model is the linear, time-invariant differential equation

 This equation, relates the output, 𝑐𝑐(𝑡𝑡), to the input, 𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡), by way of the system
parameters, 𝑎𝑎’s, and 𝑏𝑏’s.
 A system represented by a differential equation is difficult to model as a block diagram.
Thus, we use the Lap-place transform, with which we can represent the input, output,
and system as separate entities and their interrelationship will be simply algebraic.

Input Output:
Sub System Sub System Sub System
(𝑻𝑻𝑭𝑭𝟏𝟏 ) (𝑻𝑻𝑭𝑭𝟐𝟐 ) (𝑻𝑻𝑭𝑭𝟑𝟑 )
𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) c(t)
 Laplace Transform Review
 The Laplace transform is defined as:
∞
L 𝒇𝒇 𝒕𝒕 = 𝑭𝑭 𝒔𝒔 = � 𝒇𝒇(𝒕𝒕)𝒆𝒆−𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 , 𝑠𝑠 = 𝜎𝜎 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 ≡ the Laplace operator
𝟎𝟎

∞
such that 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) satisfies the condition: ∫0 𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 −𝜎𝜎𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 < ∞ , (the integral is finite/exists)

 The inverse Laplace transform, allows us to find 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) given 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠):

𝝈𝝈+𝒋𝒋∞
𝟏𝟏 𝟎𝟎, 𝒕𝒕 < 𝟎𝟎
L −1
𝑭𝑭(𝒔𝒔) = � 𝑭𝑭(𝒔𝒔)𝒆𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝒇𝒇 𝒕𝒕 𝒖𝒖 𝒕𝒕 , 𝒖𝒖 𝒕𝒕 = �
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝝈𝝈−𝒋𝒋∞ 𝟏𝟏, 𝒕𝒕 ≥ 𝟎𝟎

 Multiplication of 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) by 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) yields a time function that is

zero for t < 0.
 Laplace Transform Review

Check the notes and the book for examples

 The Transfer Function

 The transfer function algebraically relates Input Output:

System
a system's output to its input. 𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡)
(𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻)
c(t)
(total system representation)
 Unlike the differential equation, the transfer function allows the separation of
the input, system, and output.

 The transfer function allows us to algebraically combine mathematical

representations of subsystems to yield a total system representation.

Input Output:
Sub System Sub System Sub System
(𝑻𝑻𝑭𝑭𝟏𝟏 ) (𝑻𝑻𝑭𝑭𝟐𝟐 ) (𝑻𝑻𝑭𝑭𝟑𝟑 )
𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) c(t)

(total system representation as inter-connection of subsystems)

 The Transfer Function\cont.
 A general nth order, linear, time-invariant differential equation (LTI),

 Taking the Laplace transform of both sides, and assuming all initial conditions
are zero,
Input Output:
G(s)
R(s) C(s)

 This equation separates the output, C(s), the input, R(s), and the system, (i.e., the ratio
of polynomials in s on the right), G(s), is the transfer function and is evaluated with
zero initial conditions.

 The transfer function can be represented as a block diagram, with the input
on the left, the output on the right, and the system transfer function inside
the block.
Check the notes and the
book for examples
 Electrical Network Transfer Functions
 The transfer function can be used in the mathematical modeling of electrical circuits
consisting of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
 Table 2.3 summarizes the components and the relationships between voltage and
current and between voltage and charge under zero initial conditions.

 When Formulating the transfer function of an electrical cct, we consider the following:
• Decide the input and output of the cct.
• Our guiding principles are Kirchhoff s laws:
Kirchhoff′s voltage law (KVL): We sum voltages around loops, and then equate the result to
zero (i.e., for a given loop: ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 = 0, 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 ′s ≡ the voltages of components forming the loop)
Kirchhoff′s current law (KCL): We sum currents at nodes, and then equate the result to zero
(i.e., for a given node: ∑𝑖𝑖 𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖 = 0, 𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖′ 𝑠𝑠 ≡ the currents entering or leaving the node )
• Depending on which technique involves the least effort in algebraic manipulation, we can use
these relationships and the Laplace transforms to solve for the transfer function.
 Electrical Network Transfer Functions\cont.
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅(𝒕𝒕)
𝒊𝒊 𝒕𝒕 =
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

Capacitor (assuming zero initial conditions)

𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅(𝒕𝒕) 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅(𝒕𝒕) 𝟏𝟏
𝒊𝒊 𝒕𝒕 = 𝑪𝑪 ⇒ 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒕𝒕 = 𝒊𝒊 𝒕𝒕 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 ⇒ 𝒗𝒗 𝒕𝒕 = ∫𝟎𝟎 𝒊𝒊 𝝉𝝉 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 ,since 𝒊𝒊 𝒕𝒕 = ⇒ 𝒗𝒗 𝒕𝒕 = 𝒒𝒒(𝒕𝒕)
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝑪𝑪 𝑪𝑪 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝑪𝑪
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
𝑽𝑽(𝒔𝒔) L[𝒗𝒗(𝒕𝒕)] L[𝑪𝑪 ∫𝟎𝟎 𝒊𝒊 𝝉𝝉 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅] 𝟏𝟏 𝑰𝑰(𝒔𝒔)/𝒔𝒔 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
𝒁𝒁 𝒔𝒔 = = = = × = ⇒ 𝒁𝒁𝑪𝑪 𝒔𝒔 =
𝑰𝑰(𝒔𝒔) L[𝒊𝒊(𝒕𝒕)] 𝑰𝑰(𝒔𝒔) 𝑪𝑪 𝑰𝑰(𝒔𝒔) 𝑪𝑪𝒔𝒔 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪
Inductor
𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒊(𝒕𝒕) 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅(𝒕𝒕) 𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 𝒒𝒒(𝒕𝒕)
𝒗𝒗 𝒕𝒕 = 𝑳𝑳 ⇒ 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒕𝒕 = 𝒗𝒗 𝒕𝒕 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 ⇒ 𝒊𝒊 𝒕𝒕 = � 𝒗𝒗 𝝉𝝉 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 , since 𝒊𝒊 𝒕𝒕 = ⇒ 𝒗𝒗 𝒕𝒕 = 𝑳𝑳
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝑳𝑳 𝑳𝑳 𝟎𝟎 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒕𝒕𝟐𝟐
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅(𝒕𝒕)
𝑽𝑽(𝒔𝒔) L[𝒗𝒗(𝒕𝒕)] L[𝑳𝑳 ] 𝒔𝒔𝑰𝑰(𝒔𝒔)
𝒁𝒁 𝒔𝒔 = = = 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝑳𝑳 = 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 ⇒ 𝒁𝒁𝑳𝑳 𝒔𝒔 = 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳
𝑰𝑰(𝒔𝒔) L[𝒊𝒊(𝒕𝒕)] 𝑰𝑰(𝒔𝒔) 𝑰𝑰(𝒔𝒔)
Resistor
𝒗𝒗(𝒕𝒕) 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅(𝒕𝒕) 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅(𝒕𝒕)
𝒗𝒗 𝒕𝒕 = 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝒕𝒕 ⇒ 𝒊𝒊 𝒕𝒕 = , since 𝒊𝒊 𝒕𝒕 = ⇒ 𝒗𝒗 𝒕𝒕 = 𝑹𝑹
𝑹𝑹 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝑽𝑽(𝒔𝒔) L[𝒗𝒗(𝒕𝒕)] [𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹(𝒔𝒔)]
𝒁𝒁 𝒔𝒔 = = = = 𝑹𝑹 ⇒ 𝒁𝒁𝑹𝑹 𝒔𝒔 = 𝑹𝑹
𝑰𝑰(𝒔𝒔) L[𝒊𝒊(𝒕𝒕)] 𝑰𝑰(𝒔𝒔)
 Electrical Network Transfer Functions\cont.
Ex: Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage, 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 (𝑠𝑠),
to the input voltage, 𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) in Figure 2.3.(using differential equations)
 The designer must first decide what the input and output
should be. We are to treat the capacitor voltage as the output
and the applied voltage as the input.
 Summing the voltages around the loop, using KVL: ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 = 0
−𝒗𝒗 𝒕𝒕 + 𝒗𝒗𝑳𝑳 𝒕𝒕 + 𝒗𝒗𝑹𝑹 𝒕𝒕 + 𝒗𝒗𝑪𝑪 𝒕𝒕 = 𝟎𝟎 (*)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
 We want the (*) equation to be in terms of 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 (𝑠𝑠) and 𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) only, we know 𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐿𝐿 ,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣 (𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 (𝑡𝑡)
and 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶 ⇒ 𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 Note that RLC are in series
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2
(same current 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 passes through them)
𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 (𝑡𝑡)
 Also, 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 (𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 (𝑡𝑡)

−𝒗𝒗 𝒕𝒕 + 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 + 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝒗𝒗𝑪𝑪 𝒕𝒕 = 𝟎𝟎 (*)
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 (𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 (𝑡𝑡)

𝒗𝒗 𝒕𝒕 = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 + 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝒗𝒗𝑪𝑪 𝒕𝒕 (*), take lap-lace for both sides
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑽𝑽 𝒔𝒔 = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑠𝑠 2 𝑽𝑽𝑪𝑪 (𝒔𝒔) + 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠𝑽𝑽𝑪𝑪 (𝒔𝒔) + 𝑽𝑽𝑪𝑪 (𝒔𝒔) (*)
𝑽𝑽𝑪𝑪 𝒔𝒔 𝟏𝟏�
= 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳
𝑽𝑽 𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 + 𝑹𝑹�𝑳𝑳 𝒔𝒔 + 𝟏𝟏�𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳
 Electrical Network Transfer Functions\cont.
Ex: Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage, 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 (𝑠𝑠),
to the input voltage, 𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) in Figure 2.3.(The impedance transform method)

 The designer must first decide what the input and output should be. We are to treat the
capacitor voltage as the output and the applied voltage as the input.
 Summing the voltages around the loop, using KVL: ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 = 0
−𝒗𝒗 𝒕𝒕 + 𝒗𝒗𝑳𝑳 𝒕𝒕 + 𝒗𝒗𝑹𝑹 𝒕𝒕 + 𝒗𝒗𝑪𝑪 𝒕𝒕 = 𝟎𝟎 (*)
 Redraw the original network showing all time variables, such as 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡), 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡), and 𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐 (𝑡𝑡), as
Laplace transforms 𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠), 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠), and 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 (𝑠𝑠), respectively and replace the component
values with their impedance values.
𝟏𝟏
 we know that 𝐕𝐕 𝒔𝒔 = 𝒁𝒁 𝒔𝒔 𝑰𝑰(𝒔𝒔) ⇒ 𝑽𝑽𝑪𝑪 𝒔𝒔 = 𝑰𝑰 𝒔𝒔 , 𝑽𝑽𝑳𝑳 𝒔𝒔 = 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳(𝒔𝒔), 𝑽𝑽𝑹𝑹 𝒔𝒔 = 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹(𝒔𝒔)
𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪
take L for equation (*): −𝑽𝑽 𝒔𝒔 + 𝑽𝑽𝑳𝑳 𝒔𝒔 + 𝑽𝑽𝑹𝑹 𝒔𝒔 + 𝑽𝑽𝑪𝑪 𝒔𝒔 = 𝟎𝟎,
𝟏𝟏 𝑽𝑽 𝒔𝒔
⇒ −𝑽𝑽 𝒔𝒔 + 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳(𝒔𝒔) + 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹(𝒔𝒔) + 𝑰𝑰 𝒔𝒔 = 𝟎𝟎 ⇒ 𝑰𝑰 𝒔𝒔 =
𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳+𝑹𝑹+𝟏𝟏�𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪
𝟏𝟏
but we want the relation between 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 (𝑠𝑠) and 𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠), ⇒ 𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰 𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤 𝑽𝑽𝑪𝑪 𝒔𝒔 = 𝑰𝑰 𝒔𝒔
𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪
Check the notes and the 𝑽𝑽 𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏𝟏 [ 𝑽𝑽 𝒔𝒔
]⇒ 𝑽𝑽𝑪𝑪 𝒔𝒔 𝟏𝟏�
𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳
𝑪𝑪
𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 + 𝑹𝑹 + �𝟏𝟏 =
book for more examples 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝑽𝑽 𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 + 𝑹𝑹�𝑳𝑳 𝒔𝒔 + 𝟏𝟏�𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳
Translational Mechanical System Transfer Functions
 The motion that
takes place along a
straight line is called
a translational
motion

Spring
𝒕𝒕 𝒕𝒕
𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙(𝒕𝒕)
𝒇𝒇 𝒕𝒕 = 𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲 𝒕𝒕 , since 𝒗𝒗 𝒕𝒕 = ⇒ 𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒕𝒕 = 𝒗𝒗 𝒕𝒕 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 ⇒ 𝒙𝒙 𝒕𝒕 = � 𝒗𝒗 𝝉𝝉 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 ⇒ 𝒇𝒇 𝒕𝒕 = 𝑲𝑲 � 𝒗𝒗 𝝉𝝉 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎
𝑭𝑭(𝒔𝒔) L[𝒇𝒇(𝒕𝒕)] KX(s) Spring
𝒁𝒁 𝒔𝒔 = = = = 𝑲𝑲 ⇒ 𝒁𝒁𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒔 = 𝑲𝑲
Viscous Damper 𝑿𝑿(𝒔𝒔) L[𝒙𝒙(𝒕𝒕)] 𝑿𝑿(𝒔𝒔) constant
𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙(𝒕𝒕)
𝒇𝒇 𝒕𝒕 = 𝒇𝒇𝒗𝒗 ⇒ 𝒇𝒇 𝒕𝒕 = 𝒇𝒇𝒗𝒗 𝒗𝒗 𝒕𝒕
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝑭𝑭(𝒔𝒔) L[𝒇𝒇(𝒕𝒕)] 𝒇𝒇𝒗𝒗 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔(𝒔𝒔)
𝒁𝒁 𝒔𝒔 = = = = 𝒇𝒇𝒗𝒗 𝒔𝒔 ⇒ 𝒁𝒁𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒔𝒔 = 𝒇𝒇𝒗𝒗 𝒔𝒔
𝑿𝑿(𝒔𝒔) L[𝒙𝒙(𝒕𝒕)] 𝑿𝑿(𝒔𝒔)
Mass 𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 𝒙𝒙(𝒕𝒕) 𝒅𝒅𝒗𝒗(𝒕𝒕) coefficient of viscous friction
𝒇𝒇 𝒕𝒕 = 𝑴𝑴 ⇒ 𝒇𝒇 𝒕𝒕 = 𝑴𝑴
𝒅𝒅𝒕𝒕𝟐𝟐 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝟐𝟐
𝑭𝑭(𝒔𝒔) L[𝒇𝒇(𝒕𝒕)] 𝑴𝑴𝒔𝒔 𝑿𝑿(𝒔𝒔)
𝒁𝒁 𝒔𝒔 = = = = 𝑴𝑴𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 ⇒ 𝒁𝒁𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒔𝒔 = 𝑴𝑴𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐
𝑿𝑿(𝒔𝒔) L[𝒙𝒙(𝒕𝒕)] 𝑿𝑿(𝒔𝒔)
Translational Mechanical System Transfer Functions\cont.
 Mechanical systems parallel electrical networks to such an extent that there are analogies
between electrical and mechanical components and variables (mathematical view point).

 Comparing the force-velocity column of Table 2.4 to the voltage-current column of Table 2.3,
we see that mechanical force is analogous to electrical voltage and mechanical velocity is
analogous to electrical current.
Translational Mechanical System Transfer Functions\cont.

 Comparing the force-displacement column of Table 2.4 with the voltage-charge column
of Table 2.3 leads to the analogy between the mechanical displacement and electrical
charge.
 We also see that the spring is analogous to the capacitor, the viscous damper is analogous to
the resistor, and the mass is analogous to the inductor.
Translational Mechanical System Transfer Functions\cont.
EX: Find the transfer function 𝑋𝑋(𝑠𝑠)�𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) .(using differential equations)
 Begin the solution by drawing the free-body diagram, assuming a
positive direction of motion, for example, to the right, placing on
the body all forces that act on the body either in the direction of
motion or opposite to it.

• We assume the mass is traveling toward the right. Thus, only the
applied force 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) points to the right
• All other forces impede the motion and act to oppose it. Hence,
the spring, viscous damper, and the force due to acceleration
point to the left.

 Write the differential equation of motion using Newton's law to sum to zero all of the forces
shown on the mass ∑𝑀𝑀 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 0
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒕𝒕 𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 𝒙𝒙 𝒕𝒕
𝒇𝒇 𝒕𝒕 − 𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲 𝒕𝒕 − 𝒇𝒇𝒗𝒗 − 𝑴𝑴 = 𝟎𝟎 ⇒
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒕𝒕𝟐𝟐
 Taking the Laplace transform, assuming zero initial conditions,
⇒
⇒
Translational Mechanical System Transfer Functions\cont.
EX: Find the transfer function 𝑋𝑋(𝑠𝑠)�𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) .(The impedance transform method)
 Begin the solution by drawing the free-body diagram.

 Replace each force in the figure by its Laplace transform,

𝑲𝑲𝑿𝑿(𝒔𝒔), 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
where, i.e., 𝑭𝑭 𝒔𝒔 = �𝒇𝒇𝒗𝒗 𝒔𝒔𝑿𝑿(𝒔𝒔), 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝑴𝑴𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 𝑿𝑿(𝒔𝒔), 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
� 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) = 0
𝑀𝑀
𝑭𝑭 𝒔𝒔 − 𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲 𝒔𝒔 − 𝒇𝒇𝒗𝒗 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔(𝒔𝒔) − 𝑴𝑴𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 𝑿𝑿(𝒔𝒔) = 𝟎𝟎

⇒
⇒ Check the notes and the
book for more examples
Rotational Mechanical System Transfer Functions
 Rotational mechanical systems are handled the same way as translational mechanical systems,
except that torque replaces force and angular displacement replaces translational displacement.

 The mechanical components for rotational systems are the same as those for translational
systems, except that the components undergo rotation instead of translation.

 Writing the equations of motion for rotational systems is similar to writing them for
translational systems; the only difference is that the free-body diagram consists of torques
rather than forces.
 Just as a force is a push
or a pull, a torque can be
thought of as a twist to
an object.
Rotational Mechanical System Transfer Functions\cont.

Spring
𝒕𝒕 𝒕𝒕
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅(𝒕𝒕)
𝑻𝑻 𝒕𝒕 = 𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲 𝒕𝒕 , since 𝝎𝝎 𝒕𝒕 = ⇒ 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒕𝒕 = 𝝎𝝎 𝒕𝒕 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 ⇒ 𝜽𝜽 𝒕𝒕 = � 𝝎𝝎 𝝉𝝉 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 ⇒ 𝑻𝑻 𝒕𝒕 = 𝑲𝑲 � 𝝎𝝎 𝝉𝝉 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎
𝑻𝑻(𝒔𝒔) L[𝑻𝑻(𝒕𝒕)] K𝚯𝚯(𝒔𝒔) Spring
𝒁𝒁 𝒔𝒔 = = = = 𝑲𝑲 ⇒ 𝒁𝒁𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒔 = 𝑲𝑲
Viscous Damper 𝚯𝚯(𝒔𝒔) L[𝜽𝜽(𝒕𝒕)] 𝚯𝚯(𝒔𝒔) constant
𝒅𝒅𝜽𝜽 (𝒕𝒕)
𝑻𝑻 𝒕𝒕 = 𝑫𝑫 ⇒ 𝑻𝑻 𝒕𝒕 = 𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 𝒕𝒕
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝑻𝑻(𝒔𝒔) L[𝑻𝑻(𝒕𝒕)] 𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝚯𝚯(𝒔𝒔)
𝒁𝒁 𝒔𝒔 = = = = 𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 ⇒ 𝒁𝒁𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒔𝒔 = 𝑫𝑫𝒔𝒔
𝚯𝚯(𝒔𝒔) L[𝜽𝜽(𝒕𝒕)] 𝚯𝚯(𝒔𝒔)
Inertia 𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 𝜽𝜽(𝒕𝒕) 𝒅𝒅𝝎𝝎(𝒕𝒕) coefficient of viscous friction
𝑻𝑻 𝒕𝒕 = 𝑱𝑱 ⇒ 𝑻𝑻 𝒕𝒕 = 𝑱𝑱
𝒅𝒅𝒕𝒕𝟐𝟐 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝟐𝟐
𝑻𝑻(𝒔𝒔) L[𝑻𝑻(𝒕𝒕)] 𝑱𝑱𝒔𝒔 𝚯𝚯(𝒔𝒔) moment of
𝒁𝒁 𝒔𝒔 = = = = 𝑱𝑱𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 ⇒ 𝒁𝒁𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒔𝒔 = 𝑱𝑱𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐
𝚯𝚯(𝒔𝒔) L[𝜽𝜽(𝒕𝒕)] 𝚯𝚯(𝒔𝒔) inertia,
 Rotational Mechanical System Transfer Functions\cont.
EX: Find the transfer function Θ(𝑠𝑠)�𝑇𝑇(𝑠𝑠)
 Begin the solution by drawing the free-body diagram, assuming a
positive direction of motion, for example, to be clock-wise, placing
on the body all torques that act on the body either in the direction
of motion or opposite to it.

• The inertia is rotating c.w. Thus, only the applied torque T(𝑡𝑡)
points c.w.
• All other torques impede the motion and act to oppose it. Hence,
the spring, viscous damper, and the torque due to acceleration
point to ccw.

 Write the differential equation of motion using Newton's law to sum to zero all of the toques
shown on the inertia ∑𝐽𝐽 𝑇𝑇(𝑡𝑡) = 0
𝒅𝒅𝜽𝜽 𝒕𝒕 𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 𝜽𝜽 𝒕𝒕
𝑻𝑻 𝒕𝒕 − 𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲 𝒕𝒕 − 𝑫𝑫 − 𝑱𝑱 = 𝟎𝟎
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒕𝒕𝟐𝟐
 Taking the Laplace transform, assuming zero initial conditions,
𝑻𝑻 𝒔𝒔 − 𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲 𝒔𝒔 − 𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝛩𝛩 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑱𝑱𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 𝛩𝛩 𝑠𝑠 =0 ⇒ 𝑻𝑻 𝒔𝒔 = (𝑱𝑱𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 + 𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 + 𝑲𝑲)𝜣𝜣 𝒔𝒔
Θ 𝑠𝑠 1 Check the notes and the
⇒ 𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 𝑱𝑱𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 + 𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 + 𝑲𝑲
=
book for more examples
 Transfer Functions for Systems with Gears
EX: Find the transfer function Θ2 (𝑠𝑠)�𝑇𝑇1 (𝑠𝑠)
 Gears allow you to match the drive system and the load.
 An input gear with radius 𝑟𝑟1 and 𝑁𝑁1 teeth is rotated through
angle 𝜃𝜃1 (𝑡𝑡) due to a torque, 𝑇𝑇1 . An output gear with radius
𝑟𝑟2 and 𝑁𝑁2 teeth responds by rotating through angle 𝜃𝜃2 (𝑡𝑡)
and delivering a torque, 𝑇𝑇2

 The inertias are tied together by the gears. Thus, there is only one equation of motion.
 Reflect the impedances (𝐽𝐽1 and 𝐷𝐷1 ) on the input shaft to the
output, where the impedances are reflected by:
2 2
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑁𝑁2
=
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑁𝑁1

𝑁𝑁2
 Similarly, reflect the torque (𝑇𝑇1 ) on the input shaft to the output, by ⇒
𝑁𝑁1
� 𝑇𝑇(𝑡𝑡) = 0
𝐽𝐽𝑒𝑒
⇒
 Electromechanical System Transfer Functions
 Systems that are hybrids of electrical
and mechanical variables are called
electromechanical systems .
 A motor is an electromechanical
component that yields a
displacement output for a voltage
input, that is, a mechanical output
generated by an electrical input.
 A magnetic field is developed by stationary permanent magnets (fixed field).
 The armature circuit, through which current 𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎 (𝑡𝑡) flows, passes through this magnetic field
and the resulting torque turns the rotor, the rotating member of the motor.
 This movement generates a voltage 𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏 (𝑡𝑡) (back electromotive force ) proportional to speed
at the terminals of the rotor
 𝐾𝐾𝑏𝑏 is a constant of proportionality called the back emf constant;

⇒ 𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲:
 The torque developed by the motor is proportional to the armature current
 𝐾𝐾𝑡𝑡 is a constant of proportionality, called the motor torque constant, which depends on the motor
and magnetic field characteristics.
⇒
Electromechanical System Transfer Functions\cont.
 Find the transfer function of the motor, Θ𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠)�𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠)

 If we assume that the armature inductance, 𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 , is small compared to the armature
resistance, 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 , which is usual for a dc motor (i.e., 𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 ≈ 0),
• 𝐽𝐽𝑚𝑚 is the equivalent inertia at the armature
⇒ and includes both the armature inertia and the
load inertia reflected to the armature.
• 𝐷𝐷𝑚𝑚 is the equivalent viscous damping at the
⇒ armature and includes both the armature
viscous damping and the load viscous
damping reflected to the armature.
 Nonlinearities
 A designer can often make a linear approximation to a nonlinear system.

 Linear approximations simplify the analysis and design of a system and are used as long as
the results yield a good approximation to reality.
Some examples of physical nonlinearities.
 An electronic amplifier is linear over a specific range but exhibits the nonlinearity called
saturation at high input voltages.
 A motor that does not respond at very low input voltages due to frictional forces exhibits a
nonlinearity called dead zone.
 Gears that do not fit tightly exhibit a nonlinearity called backlash: The drive gear rotates
through a small angle before making contact with the meshed gear. The result is that the
angular rotation of the output gear does not occur until a small angular rotation of the
input gear has occurred.
Output driven gear

Input drive gear

 Linearization
 If we assume a nonlinear system operating at point A, [𝑥𝑥0 , 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥0 )], small changes in the
input can be related to changes in the output about the point by way of the slope of the
curve at the point A.

 Thus, if the slope of the curve at point A is 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 , then small excursions of the input about
point A, 𝛿𝛿𝑥𝑥 , yield small changes in the output, 𝛿𝛿𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 , related by the slope at point A. Thus,

(∗)
from which

and

 The resulting approximation in (∗) yields a straight-line

relationship between the change in 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and the
excursions away from 𝑥𝑥0 .

or

which is a linear relationship between 𝛿𝛿𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 and 𝛿𝛿𝑥𝑥 for small excursions away from 𝑥𝑥0 .
 Linearization
EX: Linearize 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 5 cos 𝑥𝑥 about 𝑥𝑥 = 𝜋𝜋/2.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 We first find that the derivative of f(x) is = (−5𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠).
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 At 𝑥𝑥 = 𝜋𝜋/2, the derivative is −5.
𝜋𝜋
 Also 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 = 5𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶(𝜋𝜋/2) = 0.
2

Thus, since
𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋
the system can be represented as 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 0 + −5 𝑥𝑥 − = −5𝑥𝑥 + = −5𝛿𝛿𝑥𝑥 for small
2 2
excursions of 𝑥𝑥 about 𝜋𝜋/2.
 The process is shown graphically in
Figure 2.48, where the cosine curve does
indeed look like a straight line of slope -5
near 𝜋𝜋/2.