An Attitudinal Framework for

Advertising Strategy
HARPER W. BOYD, JR. ADVERTISING and marketing researchers have de-
MICHAEL L. RAY veloped a variety of new techniques for defining
and measuring attitude and attitudinal change. These
and techniques have added much to the understanding of the
communications process, but seldom have they been used
EDWARD C. STRONG
in a comprehensive form to structure advertising strate-
gies and tactics.' This article focuses on the nature of
advertising objectives from an attitudinal perspective.
The proposed framework facilitates the formulation
of a strategy of consumer attitudinal change and sug-
Is it realistic to consider advertising gests that basically five advertising strategy alternatives
are available to the decision maker. The nature of each
strategy in terms of more than just levels
of these strategy alternatives is discussed, but the frame-
on a "hierarchy of effect?" The authors
work also holds promise for meeting other marketing
report that it is. They present a five-
problems such as market segmentation and the develop-
alternative framework for advertising
ment of product features and new products.
strategy based on attitude research which
relates product and brand perceptions
Attitudes as Advertising Objectives
to consumer preferences.
The specification of advertising objectives is of criti-
cal significance for the formulation of advertising strate-
gy. Therefore, it is important to. select objectives that
can be affected by advertising and that allow for efficient
and continuous testing and evaluation.
The issue of objectives had been somewhat neglected
in the advertising field until 1961 when the Association
of National Advertisers published Colley's Defining Ad-
vertising Goals for Measured Advertising Results.2 This
book, and a subsequent monograph, suggested that the
goals of advertising are most often goals of communica-
tion rather than those pertaining to sales.3 These and
similar publications essentially conceptualized the ad-
* ABOUT THE AUTHORS.

Harper W. Boyd, Jr. is Sebastian S. Kresge Professor
of Marketing; director, International Center for the Ad-
vancement of Management Education; and director of
Continuing Education, Graduate School of Business,
Stanford University
Michael L. Ray is associate professor of marketing
at the Stanford University Graduate School of Business.
He also holds a courtesy appointment in the Stanford
Communication Department.
Edward C. Strong is assistant professor of marketing
at INSEAD, Fontainebleau, France.
Journal of Marketing, Vol. 36 (April, 1972), pp. 27-33.
1Lee Adler and Irving Crespi, eds., Attitude Research at
Sea (Chicago: American Marketing Association, 1966)
and Attitude Research on the Rocks (1968); Allan Green-
berg, "Is Communication Research Really Worthwhile ?"
Journal of Marketing, Vol. 31 (January, 1967), pp. 48-
50; and Charles K. Ramond, "Must Advertising Com-
municate to Sell?" Harvard Business Review, Vol. 43
(September-October, 1965), pp. 148-161.
2Russell Colley, Defining Advertising Goals for Measured
Advertising Results (New York: Association of Na-
tional Advertisers, 1961).
3Harry Deane Wolfe, James K. Brown, and G. Clark
Thompson, Measuring Advertising Results (New York:
National Industrial Conference Board, 1962).

27

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 28 Journal of Marketing, April, 1972

behave. His reasons of

vertising process as a "hierarchy for wanting a product deter-
effect."'4 The
view was that advertising's mine his selection: we
purpose was have always found a closesom
to affect
level of the hierarchy-such as between
relationship awareness,
opinion towards acomprehe
product and
sion, or conviction-and that this
probability effect, combined wi
of purchase.8
the effects of other variables
Maloneyin the marketing
also concluded that consumer attitudes mix,
do
would lead to the ultimate goals
relate of
to sales. He sales
offers and
considerable profits.
evidence that
This "hierarchy" view was criticized
". .. consumer on can
attitude data two become fronts.
a focal point
First, quantitatively oriented
for definingresearchers
marketing problems and and manage
determining mar-
argued that inasmuch as sales are the ultimate outcom
keting goals."9
of advertising efforts, sales should be measured.5 Sec
Defining advertising goals in relation to attitudes and
ond, certain behavioral scientists contended that littl
attitudinal change has considerable appeal. Attitudes
evidence supported the hierarchy
have the operationallyof desirable
effects quality itself;
of being meas-th
is, learning does not necessarily
urable, albeit with lead
difficultyto attitudinal
and some lack of precision.
change, nor does attitudinal change necessarily lead t
Attitudes also have long been the object of investigation
behavioral change.6 Thus, advertising goals formed on
by behavioral scientists, and a considerable body of
the basis of changes in intermediate
knowledge has resulted from variables-such
their studies and models.
recall or comprehension-may be of questionable value
Today's psychologists believe that attitude includes both
Fortunately, this controversy about objectives created
perceptual and preferential components; i.e., attitude
some insight and raised a isnumber of significant
an inferred construct. When one refers to anissue
atti-
For example, one of the recent key developments
tude he means that a person's past experiences predis-
marketing research has been that
pose him of techniques
to respond in certain ways on for me
the basis of
uring attitude as a predispositional response-one th
certain perceptions. Attitude, therefore, may be viewed
is indicative of future behavior.7 Richard Reiser, exe
as a variable which links psychological and behavioral
utive director of the market research department
components.'o
Grey Advertising, has commented:
Since attitudes reflect perceptions, they inevitably
Our reason for selecting indicate
attitudes as Thus,
predispositions. our theybasic way
permit advertising
of looking at a market is based on more than the
strategists to design advertising inputs which will affect
fact that one function of advertising
perceptions is predispositions
and thereby change to affect to re-
attitudes. There is considerable evidence to show
spond or behave. This process is the foundation of the
that the way a person thinks and feels about a strategy suggestions contained in the following sections.
brand-his attitudinal set-determines how he will

4See for example, Rosser Reeves, Reality in Advertising An Emerging Framework

(New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1961); Darrell Blaine
The possibility of linking perceptions and preferences
Lucas and Steuart Henderson Britt, Measuring Advertis-
ing Effectiveness (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963); and in formulating advertising strategy has only recently
Robert J. Lavidge and Gary A. Steiner, "A Model for occurred, because strategists and researchers have em-
Predictive Measurements of Advertising Effectiveness,"I phasized either perceptions or preferences to the exclu-
JOURNAL OF MARKETING, Vol. 25 (October, 1961), pp. sion of the other. Some have emphasized brand image
59-62.

5Kristian S. Palda, "The Hypothesis of Hierarchy ofwith only vague regard to response; others have em-
Effects: A Partial Evaluation," Journal of Marketing phasized brand loyalty with little regard to the percep-
Research, Vol. 3 (February, 1966), pp. 13-24; Ramond,tion that led to that loyalty."1
same reference as footnote 1; and Ambar G. Rao, Quan- Now, however, marketing has witnessed an active in-
titative Theories in Advertising (New York: John Wiley
& Sons, 1970). tegration of research on the perceptual and the pref-
6Leon Festinger, "Behavioral Support for Opinion erence aspects of attitude. The Colley-DAGMAR and
Change, " Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 28 (Fall, 1964), NICB books hinted at this integration.12 Maloney sug-
pp. 404-417; Jack B. Haskins, "Factual Recall as a gested using both perceptions and preferences with his
Measure of Advertising Effectiveness," Journal of Ad-
CAPP (Continuous Advertising Planning Program)
vertising Research, Vol. 4 (March, 1964), pp. 2-8; and
Herbert E. Krugman, "The Impact of Television Adver-
tising: Learning Without Involvement," Public Opinion8As quoted in Advertising Age, December 19, 1966, p. 1.
Quarterly, Vol. 29 (Fall, 1965), pp. 349-356. 9Maloney, same reference as footnote 7.
7Alvin A. Achenbaum, "An Answer to One of the Un-
10oee Martin Fishbein, ed., Readings in Attitude Theory
answered Questions About the Measurement of Advertis-
and Measurement (New York: John Wiley & Sons,
ing Effectiveness," in Proceedings of the 12th Annual 1967); Marie Jahoda and Neil Warren, eds., Attitudes
Meeting of the Advertising Research Foundation (New (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1966); and Gene F. Sum-
York: Advertising Research Foundation, 1966), pp. 24- mers, ed., Attitude Measurement (Chicago: Rand-
32; George S. Day, "Using Attitude Measures to Evalu- McNally, 1970).
ate New Product Introductions," Journal of Marketing118ummers, same reference as footnote 10, pp. 227-234
Research, Vol. 7 (November, 1970), pp. 474-482; and and pp. 149-158; and Jacob Jacoby, "A Model of
John C. Maloney, "Attitude Measurement and Forma-
Multi-Brand Loyalty," Journal of Advertising Research,
tion," paper presented at the AMA Test Marketing Vol. 11 (June, 1971), pp. 25-31.
Workshop (Chicago: American Marketing Association,12Colley, same reference as footnote 2; and Wolfe et al.,
1966), mimeo. same reference as footnote 2.

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 An Attitudinal Framework for Advertising Strategy 29

research.l3 Smith described General Motors' advertis- T'ABLE 1

ing evaluation program as including measurement HYPOTHETICALof
EXAMPLE OF AMSTUTZ-TYPE ATTITUDE
consumer perceptions of automobile characteristics STRUCTURE OR iNUTRITIONAL
and READY-TO-EAT CEREALS

the relating of these characteristics to automobile pref-

Salient Product Characteristics Batings
erences or likelihood of purchase.14 Product
Even more recently, technical advances have been Category Brand A Brand B
made in marketing that further allow managers to link Protein 8 9 5
perceptions and preferences in order to make advertis- Minerals 5 7 5
ing plans. These technical advances have come from Vitamins 9 8 4
two areas. One is the area of research for new product Absence of Sugar 4 3 6
developments which is typified by the market structure
studies pioneered by Stefflre and others.15 The other
area is that of consumer behavior models. These models More specifically, the consu
typically examine the nature of the changes in the per- the extent to which each pro
ceptions and preferences of consumers as they move using a scale, say, of 0-10. T
toward a buying decision. Although a number of such set which forms the consum
models exist, they are typified by Amstutz's microsimu- which the individual brands
lation model which posits that consumers move through class are evaluated. The consumer is then asked to
four major stages in the purchase process: development rate the same product characteristics for each relevant
of perceived need, decision to shop, purchase, and post- brand again on a scale of 0-10. Conceptually, the con-
purchase. While moving through these stages, con- sumer chooses a particular brand by comparing his
sumers can experience alterations in attitudinal struc- ratings toward each brand with his ratings of the ideal
ture.16 His concept is the primary basis for the frame- brand. The brand which compares most favorably with
work for advertising strategy suggested in this article. the "ideal" has the highest probability of being chosen.
Amstutz assumes that the consumer's attitudinal This is the link between perception and preference.
structure for any product class consists of a set of For example, a housewife who did not believe that
salient product class characteristics (choice criteria) andnutrition was a highly salient product characteristic for
a set of brand perceptions regarding each of the salienta ready-to-eat cereal would, of course, be unlikely to
product characteristics. That is, for a particular prod- buy such a cereal type. On the other hand, the follow-
uct class an individual considers a number of producting product characteristics might be salient to a house-
characteristics to be salient. He also has a perceptionwife who is considering the purchase of such a cereal
about what the ideal brand of this product would betype: protein, minerals, vitamins, and the absence of
like with respect to each of these characteristics orsugar. Assume that a housewife is asked for her ideal
dimensions.
saliency ratings on these four product characteristics
The consumer's choice criteria reflects his needs, using a scale of 0-10. Further assume that the same
values, prior product experience, and so on. In the case consumer is asked to rate brands A and B in the same
of mature products, the choice criteria are reasonably fashion with the results shown in Table 1.
well defined. Such is not the case with many new Based on such an attitudinal set the consumer would
products; therefore, the seller has the opportunity to probably buy brand A over brand B. It should be
play an important role in the building of attitudesstated that predictions of behavior based on such ratings
toward the product class. are essentially probabilistic.
The above described perceptual structure holds con-
13 Maloney, same reference as footnote 7.
siderable promise as a framework for advertising strate-
14Gail Smith, "How G.M. Measures Ad Effectiveness,"
Printer's Ink (May 14, 1965), pp. 19-29. gy formulation. Rather than assume that advertising's
15Volney Stefflre, "Market Structure Studies: New Prod- function is to affect sales directly or to have an effect
ucts for Old Markets and New Markets (Foreign) for on a level of the hierarchy, it would seem more func-
Old Products," in Applications of the Sciences in Mar- tional to assume that advertising can maintain or shift
eting Management (New York: John Wiley and Sons, attitudes with respect to salient product characteristics
1968), pp. 251-268; and Alvin J. Silk, "The Use of Pref-
erence and Perception Measures in New Product Develop-
and their ratings. If such can be accomplished, it will
ment: An Exposition and Review," Industrial Manage- lead to preference which affects sales and profits.
ment Review, Vol. 11 (Fall, 1969), pp. 21-37. If advertising's overriding goal is to influence atti-
16Arnold E. Amstutz, Computer Simulation of Competitive
tudinal structures such as those suggested in Table 1,
Market Response (Cambridge, Massachusetts: M.I.T.
Press, 1967). For other micro-type consumer behavior then a manager can choose from among five broad
models see John A. Howard and Jagdish N. Sheth, The strategy alternatives. He can seek to:
Theory of Buyer Behavior (New York: John Wiley & 1. Affect those forces which influence strongly the
Sons, 1964); Francesco M. Nicosia, Consumer Decision
choice criteria used for evaluating brands belong-
Processes (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1966),
pp. 155-191, and James F. Engel, David T. Kollat, and ing to the product class;
Roger D. Blackwell, Consumer Behavior (New York: 2. Add characteristic(s) to those considered salient
Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1968). for the product class;

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 30 Journal of Marketing, April, 1972
3. Increase/decrease the rating ratings or for
product a salient
class product
choice criteria in the hope of
class characteristic; attracting more consumers to his product class and ulti-
4. Change perception of the mately tocompany's brand
his brand. In the nutritional with
cereal example,
regard to some particular salient
at least product
one advertiser attempted tocharac-
do this by making
teristic; or the appeal: "What's a mother to do . . . about vitamins
5. Change perception of competitive brands with re- ... Serve ............. the only leading cereal with
gard to some particular salient product character- a whole day's vitamin supply ... Feel vitamin-safe all
istic.
day." Another advertiser perceived another goal as in-
The remainder of this article discusses these strategies. strumental and advertised: "Charge Up, Sleek Down
. . Feel Like a Healthy Animal." The first advertiser
Strategy One: Affect Product Class Linkages to tied goals to product class choice criteria, while the
Goals and Events
latter simply stressed the goal to be obtained.
This strategy relates to the formulation of advertising Other examples of attempting to change, influence, or
which attempts to stimulate primary demand. Such a create additional goals as they relate to the use of prod-
strategy would seek to enhance the saliency rating given uct classes or brands are safety in automobiles, health
one product class versus others with respect to obtain- protection by eliminating oral bacteria and germs
ing certain goals. The framework is similar to that through the frequent use of a mouth wash, easing prob-
presented earlier in that the consumer has choice criteria lems of mild insomnia by taking aspirin, reducing the
which he uses to rate alternative product classes with financial burden of decentralized inventories through the
respect to obtaining his goals. regularized use of air freight, and the reduction in air
If the advertiser knows (1) the goals of a given pollution through the use of low-lead gasoline.
market segment with respect to (2) the choice criteria Once goals are set, the consumer will proceed to
(salient product characteristics) used to evaluate the select products which will help him obtain his objec-
alternative product classes considered as ways of achiev- tives. But there is an intervening consideration since
ing the goals, and (3) the perceptions regarding each most products are consumed as part of an "event"-
product class, he can better decide what action to take that is, it is part of a situation which occurs at certain
to stimulate demand for his product class. Inevitably places at certain times and often involves the presence
he must link his product class to the relevant goals. But of more than one individual. The situation may be so-
he must also seek to change the consumer's rating of cially or work-oriented and often involves more than
his product class versus others with respect to the choice one product. The event is, of course, tied to the goal
criteria involved.
and is prescribed and constrained accordingly.
The advertiser could seek to change the saliency of the The possibility presented for strategy formulation
consumer's goals and thus increase the demand for his at this level is the use of advertising to change the indi-
product class. However, most of the change associated vidual's attitude toward the use of a product class
with goals comes about through environmental factors within a particular event. In other words, the salient
operating over long periods of time, although advertis- product characteristics of alternative product classes
ing can, no doubt, accelerate the trends. will be judged according to how well they "fit" with the
Thus far no distinction has been made between "goals" event to be pursued. The event itself is perceived by
and "needs." In the final analysis, products are judged the individual as being associated with certain salient
on the basis of their function or role in helping the product class characteristics, and the decision process is
individual to attain some goal or in meeting a need. similar to the notion of perception and brand choice.
In the case of nutritional ready-to-eat cereal, the goal The advertiser seeks to change or modify the attitudes
of many consumers is to maintain or improve health toward salient product class characteristics that the in-
while not gaining (or losing) weight. Still other con- dividual associates with the event, in order to increase
sumers might wish to achieve the goal of caring for the probability that the product class of interest will be
their loved ones by ensuring that they receive their chosen.
daily quota of minerals and vitamins. Many other goals It is at the event level of demand that social or group
could be outlined, but their importance lies, first, in influence on the individual's choice of brand becomes
that the goal(s) will partly determine what product more apparent. This is only natural, because social en-
class characteristics are salient (as well as how salient), counter is viewed as an "event" by individuals, whether
and second, that the goal(s) will ultimately be reflected people gather for some jointly agreed purpose (specific
in the individual's attitudes toward alternative brands goal-related activities) or merely meet "by chance." Fre-
of the product. Thus, if goals are known-however quently, a modification or influence of attitude sets at
imprecisely-they help to explain attitudinal ratings, or the event level entails changing attitudes of the group
if salient product characteristics and ratings are known, or at least changing the individual's perception of atti-
goals may be deduced.
tudes held by the group. A prominent example of such
After the advertiser has differentiated individuals on
attempted influence involves the social acceptability of
the basis of goals and translated this differentiation into women smoking small cigars in public. Others include
preference for one product class over another via sali-
the serving of margarine to guests, the serving of wine
ency ratings, he now could try to alter these saliency at family meals to bring greater enjoyment to a com-

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 An Attitudinal Framework for Advertising Strategy 31

monplace affair, and the drinking of milk lowafter strenu-

with respect to that characteristic.'7 For example,
ous exercise to reduce body temperature. an airline company which noted that "on schedule" was
The first broad strategy alternative is anot
complex one,
given a high saliency rating might seek to increase
and this article can only hint at how thethestrategy canproduct class characteristic provided
rating of this
be implemented. Nevertheless, goals and that
events
it feltare
thatim-
its "on schedule" performance was bet-
portant to consider since they affect the ter
waythaneach
that ofprod-
its competitors.
uct class is perceived and thus help to explain consumer
response to the product class. Further, they provide
Changing the Range
the Optimal
most appropriate communication setting in which the
Underlying much of the above is an assumption of
appeals are embedded and thus enhance their accept-
ability.
how advertising relates to brand and product percep-
tions and the way these relate to brand preference. Spe-
The Two Product Class Strategies cifically, the purchase probability of any particular
The strategist who observes that his brand does not brand is the sum of the salient characteristics ratings
"fit" the ideal product class characteristics is faced with multiplied by the brand ratings across all characteristics
the alternative of either changing consumer attitudes considered by a segment. In other words, the assump-
toward his brand or changing consumer attitudes con- tion is that the higher the brand is rated across all ideal
cerning the "ideal." These two approaches are discussed characteristics, the more likely it is to be preferred and
below. purchased.
This assumption probably holds true in only a few
markets because, in order for it to be correct, consumers
Adding a Salient Characteristic--
Strategy Two would have to desire an unlimited amount of any charac-
teristic. More realistically, however, there may be opti-
Through advertising, a firm can make consumers
mal ratings below or beyond which preferences fall off.
aware of an attribute of a product class which has
For instance, in the nutritional cereal example shown
previously not been considered salient or which may
earlier, it is likely that for the characteristics "protein,"
not even have existed. Examples of this strategy's ap-
"minerals," and "vitamins," the more a brand is per-
plication include the use of additives to gasoline, the
ceived as having the characteristic, the more a consumer
adding of fluorides to toothpaste, the adding of minerals
is likely to buy the brand. But, for the characteristic
to cereals, and the incorporation of light meters into
cameras.
"absence of sugar," a point probably exists beyond
which the consumer is not willing to go; that is, a cereal
This type of strategy is most often attempted when a
could have too little sugar. Possibly the relationships
product is at the mature stages in its life cycle since
are also somewhat different on either side of the optimal
by this time consumer attitudes pertaining to choice
point. In the case of the cereal example in Table 1,
criteria have been well established. The advertising
any deviation above the "4" ideal point on the charac-
change is frequently combined with a product modifica-
teristic "absence of sugar" may be enough to reject the
tion, although this may not be necessary. Clearly, re-
search must show that the new characteristic has the brand. On the other hand, deviations below "4," how-
ever, may still be within the acceptable range.
potential of becoming salient; further, the advertiser
These relationships can vary across the ideal charac-
must believe that his brand can attain a high relative
teristics within any given market. For instance, when
rating on the new characteristic. Ideally, he would like
price is considered as a variable, the ideal product rat-
to appropriate it so that competitors who followed
would reinforce the claims made for his brand while ing usually represents a maximum level above which the
consumer may not move and below which the consumer
simultaneously building the saliency of the product char-
acteristics. would happily go. For "quality," on the other hand,
the ideal rating is usually a minimum level with higher
rated brands acceptable and lower rated brands not
Altering the Perception of Existing Product
Characteristics--Strategy Three
17For further discussion of this subject see Joel B. Cohen
Increasing Salience and Michael Houston, "The Structure of Consumer At-
The advertiser who observes that his brand rates well titudes: Tke Use of Attribute Possession and Impor-
tance Scores," Faculty Working Paper Number 2, Uni-
on a product class characteristic which consumers do versity of Illinois at Urbana, 1971; Martin Fishbein, "A
not consider too salient may wish to try to effect an Behavior Theory Approach to the Relations between Be-
increase in its salience. This strategy is an extension of liefs about an Object and Attitude Toward that Object,"
the previous one and requires careful research to deter- and "Attitudes and the Prediction of Behavior," in
Readings in Attitude Theory and Measurement, Martin
mine how the advertiser's brand and competitive brands
Fishbein, ed. (New York: John Wiley and Sons 1967),
are positioned by market segment. This kind of com- pp. 382-389 and pp. 477-491; Jagdish N. Sheth and Wayne
parative examination is important since research has W. Talarzyk, "Relative Contribution of Perceived In-
indicated that changing the importance of a product strumentality and Value Importance Components in De-
termining Attitudes," paper presented at the Fall Meet-
class characteristic will not affect preference for it
ings of the American Marketing Association, Boston,
unless one brand rates high and competitive brands are 1970.

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 32 Journal of Marketing, April, 1972

in attitude.21 This article

acceptable. Moreover, interactions betweendoes not discuss such re-
character-
istics often occur; e.g., consumers willto accept
search, but it will suffice emphasize thatinfinite
the research
drops in price so long as no clearly
indicates perceptible
the significant value of considering qualit
strategies
decrease occurs. A price not
droponly inin some
terms of points instances
but also in terms ofwil
the
affect the consumer's perception of
distribution around thethe
points. product's qua
ity.18
Consequently, a manager must consider the optimal Two Brand-Level Strategies
product rating not only with regard to its relation to
brand perception and preference, but also with regard Changing Perceptions of Advertiser's Brand-
to (a) the distribution of that relationship around the Strategy Four
ideal point, and (b) the relationships between distribu- Whereas strategies 2 and 3 were concerned with chang-
tions for all of the characteristics considered to be ing consumer perceptions of the ideal brand, the present
important by consumers. While this may appear to strategy focuses on changing consumer perceptions of an
be extremely complex, the process is simplified by the advertiser's brand. In both cases, the strategy objective
fact that few product characteristics seem to be utilized is to develop a better "fit" between the "ideal" brand
in any single product purchase decision.19 Also, the and the advertiser's brand.
characteristics by which products are identified and con- Little can be said about this strategy that has not
ceptualized are fairly stable over time. Further, mana- been said already. Several significant suggestions, how-
gers have demonstrated their ability to understand and ever, come from recent attitudinal research. An obvious
predict very well with the use of a few simple vari- one is that advertisers should not attempt to change
ables.20 perceptions for their brand when the brand itself does
Once the meaning of the saliency of product class not possess an adequate quantity of the characteristic in
characteristics is established, it is possible to consider question. The basic assumption of the Steffire product
the process which entails an attempt to change the development system, for instance, is that the purpose
nature of the acceptable distribution around the ideal of advertising is to communicate the characteristics
point for a characteristic. If an advertiser is selling which the brand actually has.22
a higher priced product than his competitors, for in- The framework suggested here provides a clear and
stance, he may not be able to change the ideal rating a measurable set of criteria for selecting the particular
segment would give for price. But he may be able to brand perceptions to be emphasized. Analysis of the
get consumers to consider a range of prices above the optimal points and ranges for the salient product char-
ideal rating by affecting the price-quality relationship acteristics can indicate those characteristics that are
which is perceived by many. He could point out the most crucial in their effect on preference--and can do
quality that is possible only with the higher-priced so by segments. Indeed such a process would appear
product. to be at the very core of any segmentation scheme.
Similar strategy examples could be cited for all the Within this set of characteristics, the advertiser should
negative relationships discussed above. Thus, for ex- seek to emphasize those for which he has the most rela-
ample, one could attempt to deal with the potential tive advantage. Ideally, these would be characteristics
negative relationship between the perception of sweet- for which both he and his competitiors have low brand
ness and nutrition for cereals, initial cost and upkeep perceptions. These characteristics provide an oppor-
for machinery, horse power and safety for cars, taste
tunity for a profitable change in brand perception. This
and the effectiveness of mouthwashes, and so on. The is especially true for those characteristics that the brand
goal of advertising is to change the nature of the range
possesses and which will be difficult for competition to
around the ideal point. Typically, this is done with
copy.
advertising using two or more of the product charac-
teristics. These conditions-high salience of a characteristic and
A substantial amount of research has been conducted exclusive possession of it by one brand--occur so seldom
by psychologists on latitudes of acceptance and rejectionin marketing that their presence constitutes good reason
to believe that there is a substantial opportunity for
18See Alfred Oxenfeldt, David Miller, Abraham Schuchman product development. Much of the criticism that is
and Charles Winick, Insights Into Pricing (Belmont, leveled against advertising has to do with the use of
California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1961), Chap- trivial claims; i.e., those which the consumer cannot link
ter 4; and Joseph M. Kamen and Robert J. Toman " Psy-
to any salient product class characteristics.
chographics of Pricing," Journal of Marketing Research,
Vol. 7 (February, 1970), pp. 27-35.
19Same reference as footnote 15. Also see David Klahr, 21Carolyn W. Sherif, Muzafer Sherif and Richard Neber-
" A Study of Consumers' Cognitive Structure for Ciga- gall, Attitude and Attitude Change (Philadelphia: W.
rette Brands," paper presented at the meetings of the B. Saunders, 1965); and George S. Day, "Theories of
Institute of Management Sciences, May, 1968. Attitude Structure and Change," in Consumer Behavior:
20David B. Montgomery, "Initial Distribution: A Gate A Theoretical Source Book, Scott Ward and Thomas
Keeping Analysis of Supermarket Buyer Divisions,'" Robertson, eds. (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-
paper presented at the Institute of Management Sciences Hall), forthcoming in 1973.
fall meetings, Detroit, 1971. 22Steffire, same reference as footnote 15, p. 262.

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 An Attitudinal Framework for Advertising Strategy 33

carefully. Some evidence suggests that if they are not,

Changing Perceptions of Competing Brands--
Strategy Five the advertising can boomerang by giving support to
Under some conditions, success may becompetitive
achieved brands
by and claims.24 Further evidence indi-
cates that,
altering perceptions for a brand with regard tounless the audience is relatively sophisticated
salient
and highly
characteristics that are perceived as being involvedto
possessed with the product, they are unlikely
to comprehend
a greater extent by a competitive brand. There are two-sided messages fully. And if the
audience is sophisticated and involved, their attitudes
techniques which boost the advertiser's brand while
may be quite difficult to change with any kind of
pointing out the fallibility of competitive claims. Spe-
cifically, two-sided and refutational messages provide a message.

vehicle for fairly presenting both sides of an issue while Conclusion

at the same time improving the perceptions of the brand
being advertised.23
Examples are Avis and Hertz advertising dealing
with the advantages of first or second position in the
rental car industry; Volkswagen's refutation of the
small and ugly car counterclaims; Bayer Aspirin's
counterattacks against other forms of headache remedy;
and, in the political arena, Mayor John Lindsay's mes-
sages which refuted claims of his alleged mishandling
of New York City's affairs. The strategy of dealing
with competitive claims also occurs in industrial selling
through the presentation of comparative cost data or
competitive laboratory findings.
Once again, however, these techniques must be used
23Carl I. Hovland, Irving Janis and Harold H. Kelley,
Communication and Persuasion (New Haven, Connecti-
cut: Yale University Press, 1953); William J. McGuire,
"Inducing Resistance to Persuasion: Some Contempo-
rary Approaches," Advances in Experimental Social Psy-
cology, Vol. 1 (1964), pp. 192-231; Percy H. Tannen-
baum, "The Congruity Principle Revisited: Studies in
the Reduction, Induction, and Generalization of Per-
suasion," Advances in Experimental Social Psychology,
Vol. 3 (1967), pp. 272-320; and Michael L. Ray, "Biases
in Selection of Messages Designed to Induce Resistance to
Persuasion," Journal of Personality and Social Psychol-
ogy, Vol. 9 (August, 1968), pp. 335-339.
For many years controversy has arisen concerning
the determination of appropriateness of advertisin
effectiveness measures. No single measure suggested
however, has provided a basis for the formulation o
advertising strategy, which has remained more art than
science. Also, over the last several years, several the
ories of consumer behavior have made the marketin
community sharply aware of the need to consider con-
sumer behavior as a complete system. Few of thes
models specify the linkages between components of con
sumer behavior in sufficient detail to be managerially
useful except for broad conceptual relationship. Thi
article has taken a perspective of consumer brand choice
from the model developed by Amstutz and extended it
to various levels of demand. The resulting framework
serves as a useful tool for advertising decision makers
in developing comprehensive strategies of attitudina
change.
24Michael L. Ray, Alan G. Sawyer and Edward C. Strong,
"Frequency Effects Revisited," Journal of Advertising
Research, Vol. 11 (February, 1971), pp. 14-20; and
Michael L. Ray and Alan G. Sawyer, "Behavioral Meas-
urement for Marketing Models: Empirical Estimates of
Advertising Repetition for Media Planning," Manage-
ment Science: Applications, Vol. 17 (December, 1971),
Part II, pp. 73-89.

,MARKETING MEMOm
There are Models and Models . . .
A simulation model is a theory describing the structure and interrelationships
of a system. The fact that the simulation process is to be used does not of itself
make the theory correct. Models can be useful or useless. They can be soundly
conceived, inadequate, or wrong. They can be concise and clear and describe
only those characteristics of the real system necessary to give the behavior
characteristics of interest, or they can be verbose, obscure, and cluttered with un-
important detail so that they confuse rather than inform. They can be structured
with recognition of the dynamic principles of feedback-system behavior, or they
can simply be a catchall for observed fragments of the system while omitting
the essential structure. Correct concepts of structure must guide model-building.
Everyone uses models. A written description is a model that presents one
aspect of reality. A mental image used in thinking is a model, it is not the
real system. The simulation model differs in being logically complete. It de-
scribes a dynamic process and can manipulate rates and levels to generate a time
history in accordance with the statements of which the model is composed.
-Jay W. Forrester, Urban Dynamics
(Cambridge, Mass.: The M.I.T. Press,
November, 1968), pp. 112-113.

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