LAB REPORT 2

KIRCHHOFF’S CIRCUIT
LAWS
 GROUP 04

SUBMITTED BY:
Tooba Zia (171123)
Kanza Tahreem (171156)
Kiran Shehzadi (171116)
Saifullah Ishfaq (171139)
Mohib Tanveer (171146)
Faisal Mehmood (171159)
Usama bin Abid (170082)

SUBMITTED TO:
Ma’am Sadia Khatoon

SUBMITTED ON:
26th April, 2020
BRIEF HISTORY OF KRICHOFF:
Gustav Robert Kirchoff was a German physicist born on March 12, 1824, in Konigsberg,
Prussia. Gustav Kirchhoff’s first research topic was on the conduction of electricity. As a
result of this research, Kirchoff wrote the Laws of Closed Electric Circuits in 1845. These
laws were eventually named after their author, which are now known as Kirchhoff’s Current
and Voltage Laws. Because Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current laws apply to all electric
circuits, a firm understanding of these fundamental laws is paramount in the understanding of
how an electronic circuit functions. Although these laws have immortalized Kirchoff in the
field of Electrical Engineering, Kirchoff also had additional discoveries. Gustav Kirchoff was
the first person to verify that an electrical impulse traveled at the speed of light. Furthermore,
Kirchoff made major contributions in the study of spectroscopy and he advanced the research
into blackbody radiation. Gustav Robert Kirchoff died in Berlin in October 17, 1887.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND:
Although Kirchhoff’s Laws can be derived from the equations of James Clerk Maxwell,
Maxwell did not publish his set of differential equations, which form the foundation of
classical electrodynamics, optics, and electric circuits, until 1861 and 1862. Kirchhoff, rather,
used Georg Ohm’s work as a foundation for Kirchhoff’s circuit Laws.

INTRODUCTION:
Kirchhoff's Laws for current and voltage lie at the heart of circuit analysis. With these two
laws, plus the equations for individual component (resistor, capacitor, inductor), we have the
basic tool set we need to start analyzing circuits. Kirchhoff’s circuit laws are the two
equations that address the conservation of energy and charge in the context of electrical
circuits.
Kirchhoff’s laws are extremely important to the analysis of closed circuits
Kirchhoff’s laws mainly deal with voltage and current in the electrical circuits. These laws
can be understood as results of the Maxwell equations in the low frequency limit. They are
perfect for DC and AC circuits at frequencies where the electromagnetic radiation
wavelengths are very large when we compare with other circuits. There are various
relationships among voltages and currents of an electrical circuit. These relationships are
determined by Kirchhoff’s laws such as KVL and KCL. These laws are used to determine the
impedance of the complex network or equivalent electrical resistance and the currents
flowing in the several branches.
1. KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW:

At any node or junction in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing into
that node is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that node.
Or
The algebraic sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point is
zero.

∑ 𝐼𝐼𝑁 = ∑ 𝐼𝑂𝑈𝑇

The sum of currents entering the junction are thus equal to the sum of currents leaving. This implies
that the current is conserved. Hence, there is no loss of current.

This law is particularly useful when applied at a position where the current is split into pieces by
several wires. The point in the circuit where the current splits is known as a node. Figure illustrate a
node at a typical circuit.
The relationship can be expressed as:
𝑁

∑ 𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + ⋯ = 0
𝑖=1

Another way of thinking of this relationship is that the current that flows into a node must be
balanced by the current that flows out of the node which means that current does not build up
or leak out of a node in a circuit. This means that at least one of the currents in the current
equation will be negative and represent the current flowing out of the node. This expression is
an application of the conservation of charge.

LIMITATIONS:
Kirchhoff’s junction law is limited in its applicability. It holds for all cases in which total
electric charge, Q, is constant in the region in consideration. Practically, this is always true so
long as the law is applied for a specific point. Over a region, however, charge density may
not be constant. Because charge is conserved, the only way this is possible is if there is a flow
of charge across the boundary of the region. This flow would be a current, thus violating
Kirchhoff’s junction law.
2. KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW:

KVL or Kirchhoff’s voltage law or Kirchhoff’s second law states that, the
algebraic sum of the voltage in a closed circuit is equal to zero.
OR
The algebraic sum of the voltage at node is equal to zero.

∑ ∆𝑉𝐶𝐿𝑂𝑆𝐸 𝐿𝑂𝑂𝑃 = 0

Kirchhoff’s second law is based on principle of conservation of energy. According to

conservation of energy, energy is neither created nor destroyed. It is a ubiquitous principle across
many studies in physics, including circuits. Applied to circuitry, it is implicit that the directed sum of
the electrical potential differences or voltages around any closed network is equal to zero. In other
words, the sum of the electromotive force values in any closed loop is equal to the sum of the
potential drops in that loop, which may come from resistors.
Another equivalent statement is that the algebraic sum of the products of resistances of conductors in
a closed loop is equal to the total electromotive force available in that loop.

A mechanical equivalent to this is a roller coaster. The car in a roller coaster is initially pulled
to the top of a hill. In a circuit, this is represented by the battery placing the charges at the top
of a potential ‘hill’. Once the roller coaster reaches the top of the hill, it begins to fall and
move through various twists and turns. In the circuit, these twists and turns can be thought of
as the various elements, such as resistors, within the circuit. After moving through the various
twists and turns, the roller coaster car ends at the bottom of the hill where it initially started.
In a similar manner, the charges in a circuit end up at the ‘bottom’ of the potential hill in a
circuit.
In order to sum the voltages around a loop, the voltage polarity of each object must be
known. For a battery, the polarity is usually indicated on the battery with a + or - near one of
the terminals. On a circuit diagram, the different terminals are represented by the size of the
plate. The larger plate indicates a positive terminal, while a smaller plate indicates a negative
terminal. When going around a loop, the sign we end up on as we go across the battery is the
polarity of the battery in the loop. Following Figure illustrates this convention.
The direction of current flow through a resistor determines the polarity of resistors in a
circuit. For these types of problems, current is thought to be the flow of positive charges. In
actuality negatively charged electrons flow, but this was not known when Kirchhoff made his
discovery. The discrepancy here does not affect the results, but should be kept in mind. If we
consider the current to be made up of positive charges flowing through the wires, then the
charges will move from higher, +, potential to lower, -, potential. Just as in batteries, the sign
we end up on as we go around the loop will determine the polarity of the resistor. This
convention is illustrated in Figure.

The application of these polarity conventions on the circuit shown in Figure

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to this circuit gives the following equations.
For loop 1:
𝑁

∑ 𝑉𝑖 = 0
𝑖=1

𝑉𝐵1 − 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐼3 𝑅4 = 0
For loop 2:
 𝑁

∑ 𝑉𝑖 = 0
𝑖=1

−𝑉𝐵2 + 𝐼2 𝑅2 + 𝐼2 𝑅3 − 𝐼3 𝑅4 = 0

Combining these equations, we obtain

∑ 𝐼𝑖 = 0
𝑖=1

𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 = 0

In a series circuit, the total

voltage supplied by the
source must equal to the
total voltage used by all of
the loads in that path

In parallel circuit, the total

voltage supplied by the
source is equal to the
voltage across each
parallel branch
LIMITATIONS:
Kirchhoff’s loop rule is a simplification of Faraday’s law of induction, and holds under the
assumption that there is no fluctuating magnetic field linking the closed loop. In the presence
of a variable magnetic field, electric fields could be induced and emf could be produced, in
which case Kirchhoff’s loop rule breaks down.

APPLICATIONS OF KIRCHHOFF’S LAW:

Kirchhoff’s rules can be used to analyze any circuit by modifying them for those circuits with
electromotive forces, resistors, capacitors and more. Practically speaking, however, the rules
are only useful for characterizing those circuits that cannot be simplified by combining
elements in series and parallel.

Combinations in series and parallel are typically much easier to perform than applying either
of Kirchhoff’s rules, but Kirchhoff’s rules are more broadly applicable and should be used to
solve problems involving complex circuits that cannot be simplified by combining circuit
elements in series or parallel.
OBJECTIVE:

Kirchhoff’s Laws form the basis of all circuit analysis. Here we verify the laws for a resistive
circuit using a DC input and for a time varying RC circuit.

EQUIPMENTS:

1 Resistive/ Capacitive/ Inductive Network UI-5210

2 Voltage Sensors UI05100
3 Current Probe PS-2184
4 Short Patch Cords SE-7123
5 850 Universal Interface UI-5000
6 PASCO Capstone

EXPLAINATION:

1. Resistive/ Capacitive/ Inductive Network

The components in the network

include
a. Four resistors, all 0.25
watt, 5% tolerance
b. Two ceramic capacitors,
both 100 volt, 10%
tolerance,
c. Two inductors, 6.8 mH
and 2.5 mH.
d. Sixteen test point
terminals
e. Sixteen shrouded banana
jack connectors.

The UI-5000 850 Universal

Interface has built in power
output capability. There are two
shrouded banana jack connectors
and two BNC connectors on the
front panel of the interface.

Never supply the components on

the Resistor/Capacitor/Inductor
Network with external source
voltages greater than ± 20 volts.
2. Voltage Source

This voltage sensor plugs into any

analog channel on the 850
Universal Interface, and the 550
Universal Interface.
The voltage range and frequency
response depend on the interface.
When the voltage sensor is
plugged into either the 550 or 850
Universal Interface, the sensor is
automatically recognized.

3. Current Probe

The Current Probe attaches to a

PASCO voltage sensor to enable
the measurement of current
between −4 A and +4 A.

The probe contains a 0.10 Ω

resistor. Current to be measured
flows through the resistor;

The voltage sensor measures the

resulting potential across the
resistor.
4. Short Patch Cords

These insulated 30 cm patch

cords are convenient, durable,
and inexpensive.

The stackable grips are made of

soft plastic for flexible strain
relief and the spring connectors
rotate, reducing wear due to
friction.

This set of 8 includes 2 red, 2

yellow, 2 blue, and 2 black.

5. 850 Universal Interface

The PASCO 850 Universal

Interface is a USB (Universal
Serial Bus) multi-port data
acquisition interface designed for
use with any PASCO sensor and
PASCO Capstone software.

We can plug a sensor into one of

the twelve input ports on the
interface, perform the necessary
setup in the PASCO Capstone
program, and then begin
collecting data.

PASCO Capstone software

records, displays and analyzes the
data measured by the sensor
 SETUP OF EXPERIMENT:

1. An l000 - 5%) resistor is associated in arrangement with two Current Probes

(the A with a hover around it [for ammeter] on the circuit graph). A Voltage sensor is
joined to every Current Probe as appeared and afterward to the A and B Analog
contributions on the 850 Universal Interface.

2. It is critical to watch extremity by interfacing red to red and dark to dark where
conceivable. It is additionally critical to monitor which Current Probe is connected to
which Analog information. You may connect a bit of tape to one of the Current
Probes and imprint it A.

3. In PASCO Capstone, create a table: All of the columns are user-entered data sets.

AMMETER 0V CURRENT 5V CURRENT 10V CURRENT 15V CURRENT CURRENT

(mA) (mA) (mA) (mA) CORRECT
(mA)

4. Create the following equations:

a. i1 ave = 1000*avg ([output, current, Ch 01]) Units of mA

b. iA ave = 1000*avg ([Current Probe, Ch A]) Units of mA
c. iB ave = 1000*avg ([current probe, Ch B]) Units of mA
 5. Create three digits displays and put the three calculated values from the previous step
into them.
6. Set the Common Sample Rate to 50 Hz.

The Current Probes work by measuring the voltage drop across a small. Since the sensitivity
is about 0.1 mA, this means the 850 Universal Interface must measure voltages of 0.01 mV.
Noise can result in significant zero error. By averaging over several seconds we can achieve a
precision of 0.1-0.2 mA, but with systematic zero errors that can be several milliamps. We
can correct for this with a brief calibration procedure.

1. Click open the Signal Generator at the left of the screen. Set 850 Output 1 for a DC
Waveform and a DC Voltage of 0 V. Click the On button.
2. Click Record (bottom left of screen).
3. Wait several seconds until the measured currents stop varying as the average becomes
well defined. Click Stop.
4. Enter the three values in the second column Table I.
5. Click Delete Last Run at the bottom of the screen.
6. In the Signal Generator panel, increase the voltage to 5 V and repeat. Then repeat for
10 V and 15 V. Turn Signal Generator Off.
7. From the values in the table, calculate the average current correction for each
ammeter and enter it in the “Current Correct” column of the table. Note that since we
are using a 1000 W resistor, the current should be 5.0 mA for a 5 V input and so on.
Also notice that if all the values are high, the correction should be negative.
8. In the calculator, create the following calculations:
9. i1 corr = [i1 ave]-3.8 Units of mA
10. iA corr = [iA ave]-0.3 Units of mA
11. iB corr = [iB ave]+0.2 Units of mA
12. Click open the Calculator at the left of the screen and enter the correction currents in
lines 4-6 by replacing my values (-3.8, -0.3, +0.2). Note that this means my values for
Ammeter 1 were 3.8 mA high and my values for Ammeter B were 0.2 mA low on
average.
PROCEDURE:
1. Click open the Signal Generator at the left of the screen. Set 850 Output 1 for a DC
Waveform and a DC Voltage of 0 V. Click the On button.
2. Click Record.
3. Wait several seconds until the measured currents stop varying as the average becomes
well defined. Click Stop.
4. The three values should be 0 mA within 0.2 mA or so. The amount they disagree with
zero will imply what precision you can expect in your data. Click Delete Last Run.
5. Increase the Signal Generator voltage to 5 V.
6. Enter the three values for current in the first row of Table II.
7. Click Delete Last Run at the bottom of the screen.
8. In the Signal Generator panel, increase the voltage to 10 V and repeat. Then repeat for
15 V. Turn Signal Generator Off.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Perform the experiment carefully
2. Perform each step one by one
3. Do not touch the apparatus