BUMA 20053 BUSINESS RESEARCH Module

Republic of the Philippines
POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

Office of the Vice President for Academic Affairs
College of Business Administration
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
FOR
BUMA 20053: BUSINESS RESEARCH
COMPILED BY:
Dr. Cindy Fetalvero-Soliman

Dr. Dominador L. Gamboa, Jr.
Dr. Jose Ogrimen, Jr.
Prof. Michael Angelo Alejandro
Prof. Bonifacio Echauz
Dr. Roy Angelo Pobre
Prof. Michelle Lasundin
PUP A. Mabini Campus, Anonas Street, Sta. Mesa, Manila 1016

Direct Line: 335-1730 | Trunk Line: 335-1787 or 335-1777 local 000
Website: www.pup.edu.ph | Email: inquire@pup.edu.ph
THE COUNTRY’S 1st POLYTECHNIC U

INTRODUCTION
This instructional material aims to provide simplified and direct to the point
techniques in writing a Thesis Proposal, from Chapter 1 to 3, and designing the
appropriate survey instrument.
Template is already provided for each part of research for the students to follow.
At the end of the semester, skills in writing a research proposal in business

should be acquired.
Students are expected to answer all items under activities/assessment and

should submit a well-written thesis proposal in order to pass the course.
A printed University Thesis/Dissertation Manual should also be provided to the

students as supplemental reading.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
Course Outcomes ............................................................................................................... 1

Part 1 .................................................................................................................................. 2
Introduction To Business Research ................................................................................... 2
Part 2 ................................................................................................................................ 11
The Research Proposal .................................................................................................... 11
Part 3 ................................................................................................................................ 50
Designing A Survey Instrument ........................................................................................ 50
Grading System .............................................................................................................. 52
References ....................................................................................................................... 53
Final Exam ....................................................................................................................... 56
COURSE OUTCOMES
At the end of the semester, the students will be able to:
• Determine a research topic worth investigating related to human resource

management
• Write a thesis proposal comprising chapters 1-3
• Design an appropriate survey instrument
• Demonstrate ability to defend research proposal in a professional manner
1
PART 1
INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS RESEARCH
OVERVIEW
Business research can be described as a systematic and organized effort to

investigate a specific problem encountered in the work setting, that needs a solution. It
comprises a series of steps designed and executed, with the goal of finding answers to
the issues that are of concern to the manager in the work environment. This means that
the first step in research is to know where the problem areas exist in the organization,
and to identify as clearly and specifically as possible the problems that need to be
studied and resolved. Once the problem that needs attention is clearly defined, then
steps can be taken to gather information, analyze the data, and determine the factors
that are associated with the problem and solve it by taking the necessary corrective
measures.
This entire process by which we attempt to solve problems is called research.

Thus, research involves a series of well-thought-out and carefully executed activities that
will enable the manager to know how organizational problems can be solved, or at least
considerably minimized. Research thus encompasses the processes of inquiry,
investigation, examination, and experimentation. These processes have to be carried out
systematically, diligently, critically, objectively, and logically. The expected end results
would be the discovery that will help the manager to deal with the problem situation.
The difference between the manager who uses common sense alone to analyze
and make a decision in a given situation, and the investigator who uses a scientific
method, is that the latter does a systematic inquiry into the matter and proceeds to
describe, explain, or predict phenomena based on data carefully collected for the
purpose.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this lesson, the student will be able to:
• Appreciate the importance of taking up the course

• Understand why managers should know about research
• Discuss the definition of research and the difference between applied and
basic
Research
• Identify a research topic worth investigating in the field of human resource
management
2
COURSE MATERIALS
WHAT IS RESEARCH?
Research is simply the process of finding solutions to a problem after a thorough

study and analysis of the situational factors. Managers in organizations constantly
engage themselves in studying and analyzing issues and hence are involved in some
form of research activity as they make decisions at the workplace.
As is well known, sometimes managers make good decisions and the problem
gets solved, sometimes they make poor decisions and the problem persists, and on
occasions they make such colossal blunders that the organization gets stuck in the mire.
The difference between making good decisions and committing blunders lies in how
managers go about the decision-making process. In other words, good decision making
fetches a ―yes‖ answer to the following questions: Do managers identify where exactly
the problem lies, do they correctly recognize the relevant factors in the situation needing
investigation, do they know what types of information are to be gathered and how, do
they know how to make use of the information so collected and draw appropriate
conclusions to make the right decisions, and finally, do they know how to implement the
results of this process to solve the problem? This is the essence of research and to be a
successful manager it is important for you to know how to go about making the right
decisions by being knowledgeable about the various steps involved in finding solutions
to problematic issues.
THE EXCITEMENT OF RESEARCH AND WHY MANAGERS SHOULD KNOW ABOUT

RESEARCH
Modern technology has made research an exciting and a relatively smooth

process. Knowledge of research not only helps one to look at the available information in
sophisticated and creative ways in the fast-paced global environment that businesses
face, but this knowledge also helps in other ways. For example, you can interact more
effectively with research consultants who work for you, you can discriminate between
good and bad studies published in professional journals, and if so desired, you yourself
can undertake research to solve problems.
Moreover, knowledge in the business area is exploding and there is an

overwhelming maze of information available through the Internet, which has to be sifted
through to determine its reliability. Identifying the critical issues, gathering relevant
information, analyzing the data in ways that would help decision making, and
implementing the right course of action, are all facilitated by understanding business
research. After all, decision making is merely a process of choosing from among
alternative solutions to resolve a problem and research helps to generate viable
alternatives for effective decision making.
3
DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
Business research is as an organized, systematic, data-based, critical,

objective, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the
purpose of finding answers or solutions to it. In essence, research provides the needed
information that guides managers to make informed decisions to successfully deal with
problems. The information provided could be the result of a careful analysis of data
gathered firsthand or of data that are already available (in the company, industry,
archives, etc.). Data can be quantitative (as generally gathered through structured
questions) or qualitative (as generated from the broad answers to specific questions in
interviews, or from responses to open-ended questions in a questionnaire, or through
observation, or from already available information gathered from various sources).
TYPES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH: APPLIED AND BASIC
Research can be undertaken for two different purposes. One is to solve a current
problem faced by the manager in the work setting, demanding a timely solution. For
example, a particular product may not be selling well and the manager might want to find
the reasons for this in order to take corrective action. Such research is called applied
research. The other is to generate a body of knowledge by trying to comprehend how
certain problems that occur in organizations can be solved. This is called basic research.
It is quite possible that some organizations may later on apply the knowledge gained by
the findings of such basic research to solve their own problems. For instance, a
university professor maybe interested in investigating the factors that contribute to
absenteeism as a matter of mere academic interest. After gathering information on this
topic from several institutions and analyzing the data, the professor may identify factors
such as inflexible work hours, inadequate training of employees, and low morale as
primarily influencing absenteeism. Later on, a manager who encounters absenteeism of
employees in his organization may use this information to determine if these factors are
relevant to that particular work setting. Thus, research done with the intention of applying
the results of the findings to solve specific problems currently being experienced in the
organization is called applied research. Research done chiefly to enhance the
understanding of certain problems that commonly occur in organizational settings, and
seek methods of solving them, is called basic or fundamental research. It is also known
as pure research. The findings of such research contribute to the building of knowledge
in the various functional areas of business. Such knowledge generated is usually later
applied in organizational settings for problem solving.
4
Applied Research
Consider the following two situations cited in Business Week.
It is obvious that Oxford has a multitude of problems and an outside consultant–

researcher would perhaps be able to design a scientific study that would look into them.
Presumably, this would be a lengthy investigation that could result in several different
recommended solutions. The company manager could then consider them, make the
right decision, and thereby solve Oxford‘s problems. In the second situation, Xerox also
needs to look into the efficacy of the analog technology used in copiers and examine
what should be done to increase efficiency and promote its sales. The two preceding
examples illustrate the need for applied research, whereby existing problems can be
solved through investigation and good managerial decision making.
Basic Research
The above is an instance of basic research, where knowledge was generated to

understand a phenomenon of interest to the researcher. Most research and
development departments in various industries, as well as many professors in colleges
and universities, do basic or fundamental research, so that more knowledge is
5
generated in particular areas of interest to industries, organizations, and researchers.
Though the objective of engaging in basic research is primarily to equip oneself with
additional knowledge of certain phenomena and problems that occur in several
organizations and industries with a view to finding solutions, the knowledge generated
from such research is often applied later for solving organizational problems.
As stated, the primary purpose of conducting basic research is to generate more

knowledge and understanding of the phenomena of interest and to build theories based
on the research results. Such theories subsequently form the foundation of further
studies of many aspects of the phenomena. This process of building on existing
knowledge is the genesis for theory building, particularly in the management area.
Several examples of basic research can be provided. For instance, research into
the causes and consequences of global warming will offer many solutions to minimize
the phenomenon, and lead to further research concerning if and how global warming can
be averted. Although research on global warming might primarily be for the purpose of
understanding the nuances of the phenomenon, the findings will ultimately be applied
and useful to, among others, the agricultural and building industries.
Many large companies also engage in basic research. For instance, General
Electric Company generates knowledge concerning the different applications of electrical
energy, their motto being ―We bring good things to life.‖ Computer companies in the
Silicon Valley are constantly engaged in generating the know-how to increase the
usefulness of microcomputers in industry, which benefits managers and technicians in
all organizations. This, ultimately, results in increased sales of computers for them.
University professors engage in basic research in an effort to understand and

generate more knowledge about various aspects of businesses, such as how to improve
the effectiveness of information systems, integrate technology into the overall strategic
objectives of an organization, assess the impact of logos, increase the productivity of
employees in service industries, monitor sexual harassment incidents at the workplace,
increase the effectiveness of small businesses, evaluate alternative inventory valuation
methods, change the institutional structure of the financial and capital markets, and the
like. These findings later become useful for application in business situations.
As illustrated, the main distinction between applied and basic business research
is that the former is specifically aimed at solving a currently experienced problem,
whereas the latter has the broader objective of generating knowledge and understanding
of phenomena and problems that occur in various organizational settings. Despite this
distinction, both types of research follow the same steps of systematic inquiry to arrive at
solutions to problems. As current or prospective practicing managers in organizations,
you would be directly or indirectly engaged in applied research. You would also be
keeping abreast of new basic knowledge generated by being in regular touch with the
published research in the business journals related to your sphere of work, some of
which could very well be relevant and applicable to your own business organization.
6
In sum, both applied and basic business research are scientific in nature, the
main difference being that the former is undertaken specifically to solve a current
business problem whereas the latter is primarily resorted to because of the importance
of the subject to the researcher.
Being knowledgeable about research and research methods helps professional

managers to:
1. Identify and effectively solve minor problems in the work setting.

2. Know how to discriminate good from bad research.
3. Appreciate and be constantly aware of the multiple influences and multiple
effects of factors impinging on a situation.
4. Take calculated risks in decision making, knowing full well the probabilities
associated with the different possible outcomes.
5. Prevent possible vested interests from exercising their influence in a situation.
6. Relate to hired researchers and consultants more effectively.
7. Combine experience with scientific knowledge while making decisions.
In selecting a topic in conducting a research, a student should be able to focus

on his/her field of specialization. An investigation of business processes that leads to
improving business practices in a specific area of discipline, thus a great contributory to
the body of knowledge.
A common experience of all organizations is that the managers thereof

encounter problems big and small on a daily basis, which they have to solve by making
the right decisions. In business, research is usually primarily conducted to resolve
problematic issues in, or interrelated among, the areas of accounting, finance,
management, and marketing. In Accounting, budget control systems, practices, and
procedures are frequently examined. Inventory costing methods, accelerated
depreciation, time-series behavior of quarterly earnings, transfer pricing, cash recovery
rates, and taxation methods are some of the other areas that are researched. In
Finance, the operations of financial institutions, optimum financial ratios, mergers and
acquisitions, leveraged buyouts, intercorporate financing, yields on mortgages, the
behavior of the stock exchange, and the like, become the focus of investigation.
Management research could encompass the study of employee attitudes and behaviors,
human resources management, the impact of changing demographics on management
practices, production operations management, strategy formulation, information
systems, and the like. Marketing research could address issues pertaining to product
image, advertising, sales promotion, distribution, packaging, pricing, after-sales service,
consumer preferences, new product development, and other marketing aspects.
7
SOME COMMONLY RESEARCH AREAS IN BUSINESS
1. Employee behaviors such as performance, absenteeism, and turnover.

2. Employee attitudes such as job satisfaction, loyalty, and organizational
commitment.
3. Supervisory performance, managerial leadership style, and performance
appraisal systems.
4. Employee selection, recruitment, training, and retention.
5. Validation of performance appraisal systems.
6. Human resource management choices and organizational strategy.
7. Evaluation of assessment centers.
8. The dynamics of rating and rating errors in the judgment of human performance.
9. Strategy formulation and implementation.
10. Just-in-time systems, continuous-improvement strategies, and production
efficiencies.
11. Updating policies and procedures in keeping with latest government regulations
and organizational changes.
12. Organizational outcomes such as increased sales, market share, profits, growth,
and effectiveness.
13. Brand loyalty, product life cycle, and product innovation.
14. Consumer complaints.
15. Impression management, logos, and image building.
16. Product positioning, product modification, and new product development.
17. Cost of capital, valuation of firms, dividend policies, and investment decisions.
18. Risk assessment, exchange rate fluctuations, and foreign investment.
19. Tax implications of reorganization of firms or acquisition of companies.
20. Collection of accounts receivable.
21. Development of effective cost accounting procedures.
22. Qualified pension plans and cafeteria type of benefits for employees.
23. Deferred compensation plans.
24. Installation of effective management information systems.
25. Advanced manufacturing technologies and information systems.
26. Design of career paths for spouses in dual-career families.
27. Creative management of a diverse workforce.
28. Cultural differences and the dynamics of managing a multinational firm.
29. Alternative work patterns: job sharing, flexi time, flexi place, and part time work.
30. Downsizing.
31. Participative management and performance effectiveness.
32. Differences in leadership positions, salaries, and leadership styles.
33. Instrument development for assessing ―true‖ gender differences.
34. Installation, adaptation, and updating of computer networks and software suitable
for
35. creating effective information systems for organizations.
36. Installation of an effective Data Warehouse and Data Mining system for the
organization.
37. Keeping ahead of the competition in the new millennium.
Not only are the issues within any subarea related to many factors within that
particular system, but they must also be investigated in the context of the external
environment facing the business. For example, economic, political, demographic,
8
technological, competitive, and other relevant global factors could impinge on some of
the dynamics related to the firm. These have to be scrutinized as well to assess their
impact, if any, on the problem researched.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH TOPICS WORTH INVESTIGATING
1. The research topic should be aligned with the student’s field of specialization.
If the student is taking up BSBA Major in Human Resource Management, then

Human Resource (HR) operative functions could be considered. HR operative functions
includes human resource planning, job analysis, recruitment, selection, placement,
performance management, training and development, labor relations, employee
relations, and compensation administration.
Other topics may include investigating on the best practices organizations

(regardless of size and type) have in relation to employee welfare, employee
engagement and productivity.
If, for instance, the students is taking up the course Bachelor of Science in
Financial Management, then topics should be geari.ng towards effectiveness of business
practices to management financial health of an organization.
2. The topic that will be selected for an investigation should be specific, not broad, and
should be relevant.
2.1 Example topics for BSBA major in Human Resource Management students:
2.1.1 Human Resource Management (HRM) Practices in a Fast Food Chain

Company
2.1.2 Employee Engagement Program in a BPO Company
2.1.3 Business Continuity Program to Retain Employees in a BPO Company
Amidst Covid-19 Pandemic
2.1.4 Corporate Wellness Program in a BPO Company
2.1.5 Covid-19 Pandemic Impact to Automation Acceleration of Human
Resource Practices
3. The research title should stand as the “main problem” and the “main objective” of the
study and should be supported with the sub-problems- the specific objectives.
The researcher should take note that when sub-problems were answered, the
answers to the main problem will be gained too.
9
ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS
ESSAY: 10 points each
1. What is the importance of acquiring skills in business research to your future career?
2. Explain in your own understanding the meaning of research and how it improves
managerial decisions?
3. Differentiate basic research from applied research. Provide an example for each type
of research.
4. Give at least 3 examples of research topic worth investigating in the field of human
resource management.
10
PART 2
THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
OVERVIEW
The research proposal composes the Chapter 1 to 3 of the study and the Survey
Questionnaire aligned with the statement of the problem.
To further understand research proposal, the research should know and

understand the parts of chapters 1 to 3.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
• Discuss what includes a research proposal

• Identify and explain briefly the parts of research proposal
COURSE MATERIALS
2.1. WRITING THE CHAPTER 1: THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING
Figure 1. Parts of Chapter 1
Source: PUP Thesis and Dissertation Manual
11
2.1.1. Introduction
The rationale of the study and what made the researcher conduct the study is
presented in the introduction part. A well-written introduction sets the tone of the reader
and should catch the reader’s interest.
2.2.2 Theoretical Framework
In this part, the researcher will present the theory or framework which provides
direction to the study. For instance, the researcher would like to investigate on the
effectiveness of the training program of a particular company, he/she may use the
training design framework of Richard Noe in his book Employee Training and
Development (2008). Proper citation of the source should be observed.
Example:
Theoretical Framework
Noe, et.al (2015) cited Human resource management (HRM) refers to
the policies, practices, and systems that influence employees’ behavior, attitudes,
and performance. Many companies refer to HRM as involving “people practices.”
Figure 1.1 emphasizes that there are several important HRM practices. The strategy
underlying these practices needs to be considered to maximize their influence on
company performance. As the figure shows, HRM practices include analyzing and
designing work, determining human resource needs (HR planning), attracting
potential employees (recruiting), choosing employees (selection), teaching
employees how to perform their jobs and preparing them for the future (training
and development), rewarding employees (compensation), evaluating their
performance (performance management), and creating a positive work environment
(employee relations).
Figure 1. HRM Practices

12
Noe et.al (2015) also mentioned that job analysis is the process of
getting detailed information about jobs. Job design addresses what tasks
should be grouped into a particular job. The way that jobs are designed
should have an important tie to the strategy of an organization because the
strategy requires either new and different tasks or different ways of performing the
same tasks. In addition, because many strategies entail the introduction of
new technologies, this affects the way that work is performed. In general,
jobs can vary from having a narrow range of tasks (most of which are simplified
and require a limited range of skills) to having a broad array of complex tasks
requiring multiple skills. In the past, the narrow design of jobs has been
used to increase efficiency, while the broad design of jobs has been
associated with efforts to increase innovation. Recruitment is the process
through which the organization seeks applicants for potential employment.
Selection refers to the process by which it attempts to identify applicants with the
necessary knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics that will help the
company achieve its goals. Development involves acquiring knowledge, skills,
and behavior that improve employees’ ability to meet the challenges of a
variety of existing jobs or jobs that do not yet exist. Changes in strategies
often require changes in the types, levels, and mixes of skills. Thus, the
acquisition of strategy-related skills is an essential element of the
implementation of strategy. Performance management is used to ensure that
employees’ activities and outcomes are congruent with the organization’s
objectives. It entails specifying those activities and outcomes that will result in
the firm’s successfully implementing the strategy. For example, companies that
13
are “steady state” (not diversified) tend to have evaluation systems that call for
subjective performance assessments of managers.
The pay system has an important role in implementing strategies. First, a
high level of pay and/or benefits relative to that of competitors can ensure that the
company attractsand retains high-quality employees, but this might have a
negative impact on the company’s overall labor costs.38 Second, by tying pay to
performance, the company can elicit specific activities and levels of performance
from employees.
Whether companies are unionized or not, the general approach to relations
with employees can strongly affect their potential for gaining competitive
advantage.
Companies can choose to treat employees as an asset that requires
investment of resources or as an expense to be minimized.40 They have to make
choices about how much employees can and should participate in decision
making, what rights employees have, and what the company’s responsibility is to
them. The approach a company takes in making these decisions can result in it
either successfully achieving its short- and long-term goals or ceasing to exist.
2.2.3. Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework serves as the blueprint of the study. Using the Input-
Process- Output (IPO) Model, the researcher will be able to illustrate how he/she want
the study to be conducted. The input contains the statement of the problem. The process
includes the activities involved for the researcher to conduct the entire investigation, and
the output contains the expected outcomes of the entire research.
Example:
Conceptual Framework
Figure 2 illustrates the direction of the study with necessary input,

process/es involved and the expected output of the study.
14
The input contains the profile of the respondents in terms of sex, age,
marital status, highest educational attainment, type of employee (regular, casual,
project-based) and length of service in the company.
The process includes the data gathering, statistical treatment of data, and
analysis and interpretation of the findings.
The output contains determined profile of respondents, identified

assessment of the company’s HRM practices, and recommendations to improve
company HRM practices.
After the sub-title “conceptual framework” the researcher introduces the IPO
Model, followed by the explanation on what contains input, process and output portions.
After which, Research Paradigm should be presented as illustrated above.
2.2.4 Statement of the Problem
This pertains to the identification of the sub-problems that should be answered

leading towards answering the main problem. The main problem is the research title
itself. In our given example, the title/ main problem is “THE HUMAN RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT (HRM) PRATICES of ABC COMPANY”.
15
In our example, the researcher used the HRM Practices Framework of Noe et.al
(2015).
The statement of the problem should goes like this:
Example:
Statement of the Problem
This study aims to determine the HRM Practices of the ABC Company.
Specifically, the study seeks answers to the following:
1. What is the profile of the respondents in terms of the following aspects?
1.1. age
1.2 sex
1.3 civil status
1.4 highest educational attainment
1.5 length of service in the company
2. How do respondents assess the Human Resource Management (HRM)

practices of ABC Company in terms of the following aspects?
2.1 analysis and design of work
2.2 HR Planning
2.3 Recruiting
2.4 Selection
2.5 Training and Development
2.6 Compensation
2.7 Performance Management
2.8 Employee Relations
3. Is there a significant difference in the respondents’ assessment on the ABC

Company’s Human Resource Management (HRM) practices when grouped
according to profile variables?
The researcher may add more items in profile variables, for instance (1) level of
management (supervisor, mid-manager, top executive), (2) number of trainings attended
related to HRM practices (3) assigned department/ area , and etc, as long as the
16
researcher believes that adding them is important to the research being conducted. The
supervisors’ assessment might be far different from the top-management’s assessment
for some reasons.
2.2.5 Hypothesis
Hypothesis is the tentative guess of a phenomenon. This may be added

depending on the nature of the statement of the problem. In the given example, the 3rd
problem is the hypothesis, the researcher then just have to transform the 3rd problem
from interrogative to declarative form of sentence. Null hypothesis (negative) should be
used.
Example:
Hypothesis
There is no significant difference in the respondents’ assessment on the

ABC Company’s Human Resource Management (HRM) practices when grouped
according to profile variables?
2.2.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study
This portion explain the restrictions and range of the study. In the given example,
the researcher could make a limit to have Manila Branch only as the focus of its
investigation. The scope and limitations of the study should be properly mentioned in this
portion so as not to avoid confusion on the part of the readers.
Example:
Scope and Limitations of the Study
This study will largely focus on the Human Resource Management (HRM)
Practices of the ABC Company Main Branch only, and the assessment will be
coming from its managerial employees (supervisors, mid-managers and top
executives).
2.2.7 Significance of the Study
In this portion, the researcher will delineate the individuals, group of people or
organization who will benefit from the study.
Example:
17
Significance of the Study
The conduct of this study will be beneficial to the following:
The ABC Company. The results of this study will be the company’s basis to improve
their HRM practices
The Employees. Once the HRM practices was improved, employees’ welfare will be
better as well.
Other Researchers. The results and findings of this study could be a concrete evidence
to support other related studies
2.2.8 Definition of terms
The researcher should define the important terminologies in his/her study to help
the readers easily understand the study. Operational definition, or how the terminologies
were used in the study should be provided.
Example:
Definition of Terms
To better understand the study, the following terminologies were defined

operationally:
Human Resource Management (HRM) Practices. This term refers to the ABC
Company’s management practices focusing on the effective and efficient
utilization of its human resources. The practices include 1 analysis and design of
work, HR planning, recruiting, selection, training and development,
compensation, performance management, and employee relations
Recruiting. This term refers to the ABC Company’s process of finding the
qualified candidate for a vacant position.
The researcher should include all the variables/ items in statement of the
problem number 2, and other relevant terminologies helpful for the readers to easily
understand the entire research.
18
2.2. WRITING THE CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATUE AND STUDIES
Chapter 2 contains the compilation of the literature and studies that supports the
research being conducted. There are plenty books, journals, theses and dissertations to
gather with but the researcher should ensure that the information he/she will be greeting
from them should really support the research being conducted. Such compilations
should also be helpful in guiding the researchers to come up with a detailed and
simplified questionnaire. During the proposal, the researcher may gather lots of related
literature and studies, but at towards the end of the study, when results and findings
were revealed, the literature and studies which supports the results should be included
in this chapter, as others may be although related, but irrelevant. Figure 2 presents Parts
of Chapter 2.
Figure 2. Parts of Chapter

2
Source: PUP Research and Dissertation Manual
Thematic reviews of literature are organized around a topic or issue, rather

than the progression of time. However, progression of time may still be an important
factor in a thematic review. For example, a review of the Internet’s impact on American
presidential politics could focus on the development of online political satire. While the
study focuses on one topic, the Internet’s impact on American presidential politics, it will
still be organized chronologically reflecting technological developments in media. The
only difference here between a "chronological" and a "thematic" approach is what is
emphasized the most: the role of the Internet in presidential politics. Note however that
more authentic thematic reviews tend to break away from chronological order. A review
organized in this manner would shift between time periods within each section according
to the point made.
Example:
19
Chapter 2
Review of Literature and Studies
Noe, et al. (2015) cited that there are several important HRM practices. The
strategy underlying these practices needs to be considered to maximize their/influence
on company performance. HRM practices include analyzing and designing work,
determining human resource needs (HR planning), attracting potential employees
(recruiting), choosing employees (selection), teaching employees how to perform their
jobs and preparing them for the future (training a development), rewarding employees
(compensation), evaluating their performance (performance management), and
creating a positive work environment(employee relations). Effective HRM has been
shown to enhance company performance by contributing to employee and
customer satisfaction, innovation, productivity, and development of a favorable
reputation in the firm’s community.
Noe, et al. (2015) also mentioned that many top-level managers and HR
professionals believe that the best way to develop competencies of the future
effective professionals needed in HR is to train employees or put them into
experiences that help them understand the business and HR’s role in contributing to
it…..
In a thesis conducted by Salah (2016) titled, “The Impact of Training and
Development on Employees Performance and Productivity ", he mentioned that The
Success or failure of modern business organizations depends on the quality of their
human resources. Well trained and highly developed employees are considered as
cornerstone for such success. Therefore, it was recommended that effective training
programs and carefully set development plans should be provided to all employees to
enable them to enhance their skills and upgrade their knowledge
20
Add more! Make it sure that all variables mentioned in statement of the problem
are supported by literature and studies and arranged in thematic approach, and need not
to label whether foreign or local literature/study)
The related literature and studies will be used later on to support the findings of
the research.
2.3 WRITING THE CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Parts of Chapter 3
1. Method of Research
2. Population, Sample size, and sampling technique
3. Description of respondents
4. Research Instrument
5. Data-Gathering Procedure
6. Statistical Treatment of Data
Method of Research
In this portion, the researcher explains the research design used.
The research design refers to the overall strategy that researchers choose to integrate
the different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring
that the researcher will effectively address the research problem; it constitutes the
blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data. Note that your research
problem determines the type of design you can use, not the other way around!
1. Action Research Design
2. Case Study Design
3. Causal Design
4. Cohort Design
5. Cross-Sectional Design
6. Descriptive Design
7. Experimental Design
8. Exploratory Design
9. Historical Design
10. Longitudinal Design
11. Observational Design
12. Philosophical Design
13. Sequential Design
The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables you to
effectively address the research problem as unambiguously as possible. In social
sciences research, obtaining evidence relevant to the research problem generally entails
specifying the type of evidence needed to test a theory, to evaluate a program, or to
accurately describe a phenomenon. However, researchers can often begin their
investigations far too early, before they have thought critically about about what
21
information is required to answer the study's research questions. Without attending to
these design issues beforehand, the conclusions drawn risk being weak and
unconvincing and, consequently, will fail to adequate address the overall research
problem.
Given this, the length and complexity of research designs can vary considerably, but any
sound design will do the following things:
1. Identify the research problem clearly and justify its selection,

2. Review previously published literature associated with the problem area,
3. Clearly and explicitly specify hypotheses [i.e., research questions] central to the
problem selected,
4. Effectively describe the data which will be necessary for an adequate test of the
hypotheses and explain how such data will be obtained, and
5. Describe the methods of analysis which will be applied to the data in determining
whether or not the hypotheses are true or false.
Action Research Design

The essentials of action research design follow a characteristic cycle whereby initially an
exploratory stance is adopted, where an understanding of a problem is developed and
plans are made for some form of interventionary strategy. Then the intervention is
carried out (the action in Action Research) during which time, pertinent observations are
collected in various forms. The new interventional strategies are carried out, and the
cyclic process repeats, continuing until a sufficient understanding of (or implement able
solution for) the problem is achieved. The protocol is iterative or cyclical in nature and is
intended to foster deeper understanding of a given situation, starting with
conceptualizing and particularizing the problem and moving through several
interventions and evaluations.
What do these studies tell you?
1. A collaborative and adaptive research design that lends itself to use in work or
community situations.
2. Design focuses on pragmatic and solution-driven research rather than testing
theories.
3. When practitioners use action research it has the potential to increase the
amount they learn consciously from their experience. The action research cycle
can also be regarded as a learning cycle.
4. Action search studies often have direct and obvious relevance to practice.
5. There are no hidden controls or preemption of direction by the researcher.
What these studies don't tell you?
1. It is harder to do than conducting conventional studies because the researcher

takes on responsibilities for encouraging change as well as for research.
2. Action research is much harder to write up because you probably can’t use a
standard format to report your findings effectively.
3. Personal over-involvement of the researcher may bias research results.
22
4. The cyclic nature of action research to achieve its twin outcomes of action (e.g.
change) and research (e.g. understanding) is time-consuming and complex to
conduct.
Case Study Design

A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research problem rather than a
sweeping statistical survey. It is often used to narrow down a very broad field of research
into one or a few easily researchable examples. The case study research design is also
useful for testing whether a specific theory and model actually applies to phenomena in
the real world. It is a useful design when not much is known about a phenomenon.
1. Approach excels at bringing us to an understanding of a complex issue through

detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their
relationships.
2. A researcher using a case study design can apply a variety of methodologies and
rely on a variety of sources to investigate a research problem.
3. Design can extend experience or add strength to what is already known through
previous research.
4. Social scientists, in particular, make wide use of this research design to examine
contemporary real-life situations and provide the basis for the application of
concepts and theories and extension of methods.
5. The design can provide detailed descriptions of specific and rare cases.
1. A single or small number of cases offers little basis for establishing reliability or to
generalize the findings to a wider population of people, places, or things.
2. The intense exposure to study of the case may bias a researcher's interpretation
of the findings.
3. Design does not facilitate assessment of cause and effect relationships.
4. Vital information may be missing, making the case hard to interpret.
5. The case may not be representative or typical of the larger problem being
investigated.
6. If the criteria for selecting a case is because it represents a very unusual or
unique phenomenon or problem for study, then your interpretation of the findings
can only apply to that particular case.
Cohort Design
Often used in the medical sciences, but also found in the applied social sciences, a
cohort study generally refers to a study conducted over a period of time involving
members of a population which the subject or representative member comes from, and
who are united by some commonality or similarity. Using a quantitative framework, a
cohort study makes note of statistical occurrence within a specialized subgroup, united
by same or similar characteristics that are relevant to the research problem being
investigated, rather than studying statistical occurrence within the general population.
Using a qualitative framework, cohort studies generally gather data using methods of
observation. Cohorts can be either "open" or "closed."
23
• Open Cohort Studies [dynamic populations, such as the population of Los
Angeles] involve a population that is defined just by the state of being a part of
the study in question (and being monitored for the outcome). Date of entry and
exit from the study is individually defined, therefore, the size of the study
population is not constant. In open cohort studies, researchers can only calculate
rate based data, such as, incidence rates and variants thereof.
• Closed Cohort Studies [static populations, such as patients entered into a clinical
trial] involve participants who enter into the study at one defining point in time
and where it is presumed that no new participants can enter the cohort. Given
this, the number of study participants remains constant (or can only decrease).
1. The use of cohorts is often mandatory because a randomized control study may
be unethical. For example, you cannot deliberately expose people to asbestos,
you can only study its effects on those who have already been exposed.
Research that measures risk factors often relies on cohort designs.
2. Because cohort studies measure potential causes before the outcome has
occurred, they can demonstrate that these “causes” preceded the outcome,
thereby avoiding the debate as to which is the cause and which is the effect.
3. Cohort analysis is highly flexible and can provide insight into effects over time
and related to a variety of different types of changes [e.g., social, cultural,
political, economic, etc.].
4. Either original data or secondary data can be used in this design.
1. In cases where a comparative analysis of two cohorts is made [e.g., studying the
effects of one group exposed to asbestos and one that has not], a researcher
cannot control for all other factors that might differ between the two groups.
These factors are known as confounding variables.
2. Cohort studies can end up taking a long time to complete if the researcher must
wait for the conditions of interest to develop within the group. This also increases
the chance that key variables change during the course of the study, potentially
impacting the validity of the findings.
3. Because of the lack of randomization in the cohort design, its external validity is
lower than that of study designs where the researcher randomly assigns
participants.
Cross-Sectional Design
Cross-sectional research designs have three distinctive features: no time dimension, a
reliance on existing differences rather than change following intervention; and, groups
are selected based on existing differences rather than random allocation. The cross-
sectional design can only measure differences between or from among a variety of
people, subjects, or phenomena rather than change. As such, researchers using this
design can only employ a relative passive approach to making causal inferences based
on findings.
24
1. Cross-sectional studies provide a 'snapshot' of the outcome and the

characteristics associated with it, at a specific point in time.
2. Unlike the experimental design where there is an active intervention by the
researcher to produce and measure change or to create differences, cross-
sectional designs focus on studying and drawing inferences from existing
differences between people, subjects, or phenomena.
3. Entails collecting data at and concerning one point in time. While longitudinal
studies involve taking multiple measures over an extended period of time, cross-
sectional research is focused on finding relationships between variables at one
moment in time.
4. Groups identified for study are purposely selected based upon existing
differences in the sample rather than seeking random sampling.
5. Cross-section studies are capable of using data from a large number of subjects
and, unlike observational studies, is not geographically bound.
6. Can estimate prevalence of an outcome of interest because the sample is usually
taken from the whole population.
7. Because cross-sectional designs generally use survey techniques to gather data,
they are relatively inexpensive and take up little time to conduct.
1. Finding people, subjects, or phenomena to study that are very similar except in
one specific variable can be difficult.
2. Results are static and time bound and, therefore, give no indication of a
sequence of events or reveal historical contexts.
3. Studies cannot be utilized to establish cause and effect relationships.
4. Provide only a snapshot of analysis so there is always the possibility that a study
could have differing results if another time-frame had been chosen.
5. There is no follow up to the findings.
Descriptive Design
Descriptive research designs help provide answers to the questions of who, what, when,
where, and how associated with a particular research problem; a descriptive study
cannot conclusively ascertain answers to why. Descriptive research is used to obtain
information concerning the current status of the phenomena and to describe "what
exists" with respect to variables or conditions in a situation.
1. The subject is being observed in a completely natural and unchanged natural

environment. True experiments, whilst giving analyzable data, often adversely
influence the normal behavior of the subject.
25
2. Descriptive research is often used as a pre-cursor to more quantitatively
research designs, the general overview giving some valuable pointers as to what
variables are worth testing quantitatively.
3. If the limitations are understood, they can be a useful tool in developing a more
focused study.
4. Descriptive studies can yield rich data that lead to important recommendations.
5. Approach collects a large amount of data for detailed analysis.
1. The results from a descriptive research cannot be used to discover a definitive

answer or to disprove a hypothesis.
2. Because descriptive designs often utilize observational methods [as opposed to
quantitative methods], the results cannot be replicated.
3. The descriptive function of research is heavily dependent on instrumentation for
measurement and observation.
Experimental Design
A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to maintain control over all
factors that may affect the result of an experiment. In doing this, the researcher attempts
to determine or predict what may occur. Experimental Research is often used where
there is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect), there is consistency
in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect), and the magnitude
of the correlation is great. The classic experimental design specifies an experimental
group and a control group. The independent variable is administered to the experimental
group and not to the control group, and both groups are measured on the same
dependent variable. Subsequent experimental designs have used more groups and
more measurements over longer periods. True experiments must have control,
randomization, and manipulation.
1. Experimental research allows the researcher to control the situation. In so doing,

it allows researchers to answer the question, “what causes something to occur?”
2. Permits the researcher to identify cause and effect relationships between
variables and to distinguish placebo effects from treatment effects.
3. Experimental research designs support the ability to limit alternative explanations
and to infer direct causal relationships in the study.
4. Approach provides the highest level of evidence for single studies.
1. The design is artificial, and results may not generalize well to the real world.
2. The artificial settings of experiments may alter subject behaviors or responses.
3. Experimental designs can be costly if special equipment or facilities are needed.
4. Some research problems cannot be studied using an experiment because of
ethical or technical reasons.
5. Difficult to apply ethnographic and other qualitative methods to experimental
designed research studies.
26
Exploratory design
Definition and Purpose
An exploratory design is conducted about a research problem when there are few or no
earlier studies to refer to. The focus is on gaining insights and familiarity for later
investigation or undertaken when problems are in a preliminary stage of investigation.
The goals of exploratory research are intended to produce the following possible
insights:
• Familiarity with basic details, settings and concerns.

• Well-grounded picture of the situation being developed.
• Generation of new ideas and assumption, development of tentative theories or
hypotheses.
• Determination about whether a study is feasible in the future.
• Issues get refined for more systematic investigation and formulation of new
research questions.
• Direction for future research and techniques get developed.
1. Design is a useful approach for gaining background information on a particular

topic.
2. Exploratory research is flexible and can address research questions of all types
(what, why, how).
3. Provides an opportunity to define new terms and clarify existing concepts.
4. Exploratory research is often used to generate formal hypotheses and develop
more precise research problems.
5. Exploratory studies help establish research priorities.
1. Exploratory research generally utilizes small sample sizes and, thus, findings are
typically not generalizable to the population at large.
2. The exploratory nature of the research inhibits an ability to make definitive
conclusions about the findings.
3. The research process underpinning exploratory studies is flexible but often
unstructured, leading to only tentative results that have limited value in decision-
making.
4. Design lacks rigorous standards applied to methods of data gathering and
analysis because one of the areas for exploration could be to determine what
method or methodologies could best fit the research problem.
Historical Design
The purpose of a historical research design is to collect, verify, and synthesize evidence
from the past to establish facts that defend or refute your hypothesis. It uses secondary
sources and a variety of primary documentary evidence, such as, logs, diaries, official
records, reports, archives, and non-textual information [maps, pictures, audio and visual
recordings]. The limitation is that the sources must be both authentic and valid.
27
1. The historical research design is unobtrusive; the act of research does not affect
the results of the study.
2. The historical approach is well suited for trend analysis.
3. Historical records can add important contextual background required to more
fully understand and interpret a research problem.
4. There is no possibility of researcher-subject interaction that could affect the
findings.
5. Historical sources can be used over and over to study different research
problems or to replicate a previous study.
1. The ability to fulfill the aims of your research are directly related to the amount
and quality of documentation available to understand the research problem.
2. Since historical research relies on data from the past, there is no way to
manipulate it to control for contemporary contexts.
3. Interpreting historical sources can be very time consuming.
4. The sources of historical materials must be archived consistently to ensure
access.
5. Original authors bring their own perspectives and biases to the interpretation of
past events and these biases are more difficult to ascertain in historical
resources.
6. Due to the lack of control over external variables, historical research is very weak
with regard to the demands of internal validity.
7. It rare that the entirety of historical documentation needed to fully address a
research problem is available for interpretation, therefore, gaps need to be
acknowledged.
Longitudinal Design
A longitudinal study follows the same sample over time and makes repeated
observations. With longitudinal surveys, for example, the same group of people is
interviewed at regular intervals, enabling researchers to track changes over time and to
relate them to variables that might explain why the changes occur. Longitudinal research
designs describe patterns of change and help establish the direction and magnitude of
causal relationships. Measurements are taken on each variable over two or more distinct
time periods. This allows the researcher to measure change in variables over time. It is a
type of observational study and is sometimes referred to as a panel study.
1. Longitudinal data allow the analysis of duration of a particular phenomenon.

2. Enables survey researchers to get close to the kinds of causal explanations
usually attainable only with experiments.
3. The design permits the measurement of differences or change in a variable from
one period to another [i.e., the description of patterns of change over time].
4. Longitudinal studies facilitate the prediction of future outcomes based upon
earlier factors.
28
1. The data collection method may change over time.

2. Maintaining the integrity of the original sample can be difficult over an extended
period of time.
3. It can be difficult to show more than one variable at a time.
4. This design often needs qualitative research to explain fluctuations in the data.
5. A longitudinal research design assumes present trends will continue unchanged.
6. It can take a long period of time to gather results.
7. There is a need to have a large sample size and accurate sampling to reach
representativeness.
Observational Design
This type of research design draws a conclusion by comparing subjects against a control
group, in cases where the researcher has no control over the experiment. There are two
general types of observational designs. In direct observations, people know that you are
watching them. Unobtrusive measures involve any method for studying behavior where
individuals do not know they are being observed. An observational study allows a useful
insight into a phenomenon and avoids the ethical and practical difficulties of setting up a
large and cumbersome research project.
1. Observational studies are usually flexible and do not necessarily need to be

structured around a hypothesis about what you expect to observe (data is
emergent rather than pre-existing).
2. The researcher is able to collect a depth of information about a particular
behavior.
3. Can reveal interrelationships among multifaceted dimensions of group
interactions.
4. You can generalize your results to real life situations.
5. Observational research is useful for discovering what variables may be important
before applying other methods like experiments.
6. Observation research designs account for the complexity of group behaviors.
1. Reliability of data is low because seeing behaviors occur over and over again
may be a time consuming task and difficult to replicate.
2. In observational research, findings may only reflect a unique sample population
and, thus, cannot be generalized to other groups.
3. There can be problems with bias as the researcher may only "see what they want
to see."
4. There is no possibility to determine "cause and effect" relationships since nothing
is manipulated.
5. Sources or subjects may not all be equally credible.
29
6. Any group that is studied is altered to some degree by the very presence of the
researcher, therefore, skewing to some degree any data collected (the
Heisenburg Uncertainty Principle).
Philosophical Design
Understood more as an broad approach to examining a research problem than a
methodological design, philosophical analysis and argumentation is intended to
challenge deeply embedded, often intractable, assumptions underpinning an area of
study. This approach uses the tools of argumentation derived from philosophical
traditions, concepts, models, and theories to critically explore and challenge, for
example, the relevance of logic and evidence in academic debates, to analyze
arguments about fundamental issues, or to discuss the root of existing discourse about a
research problem. These overarching tools of analysis can be framed in three ways:
• Ontology -- the study that describes the nature of reality; for example, what is
real and what is not, what is fundamental and what is derivative?
• Epistemology -- the study that explores the nature of knowledge; for example, on
what does knowledge and understanding depend upon and how can we be
certain of what we know?
• Axiology -- the study of values; for example, what values does an individual or
group hold and why? How are values related to interest, desire, will, experience,
and means-to-end? And, what is the difference between a matter of fact and a
matter of value?
1. Can provide a basis for applying ethical decision-making to practice.

2. Functions as a means of gaining greater self-understanding and self-knowledge
about the purposes of research.
3. Brings clarity to general guiding practices and principles of an individual or group.
4. Philosophy informs methodology.
5. Refine concepts and theories that are invoked in relatively unreflective modes of
thought and discourse.
6. Beyond methodology, philosophy also informs critical thinking about
epistemology and the structure of reality (metaphysics).
7. Offers clarity and definition to the practical and theoretical uses of terms,
concepts, and ideas.
1. Limited application to specific research problems [answering the "So What?"

question in social science research].
2. Analysis can be abstract, argumentative, and limited in its practical application to
real-life issues.
3. While a philosophical analysis may render problematic that which was once
simple or taken-for-granted, the writing can be dense and subject to unnecessary
jargon, overstatement, and/or excessive quotation and documentation.
4. There are limitations in the use of metaphor as a vehicle of philosophical
analysis.
30
5. There can be analytical difficulties in moving from philosophy to advocacy and
between abstract thought and application to the phenomenal world.
Sequential Design
Sequential research is that which is carried out in a deliberate, staged approach [i.e.
serially] where one stage will be completed, followed by another, then another, and so
on, with the aim that each stage will build upon the previous one until enough data is
gathered over an interval of time to test your hypothesis. The sample size is not
predetermined. After each sample is analyzed, the researcher can accept the null
hypothesis, accept the alternative hypothesis, or select another pool of subjects and
conduct the study once again. This means the researcher can obtain a limitless number
of subjects before finally making a decision whether to accept the null or alternative
hypothesis. Using a quantitative framework, a sequential study generally utilizes
sampling techniques to gather data and applying statistical methods to analyze the
data. Using a qualitative framework, sequential studies generally utilize samples of
individuals or groups of individuals [cohorts] and use qualitative methods, such as
interviews or observations, to gather information from each sample.
1. The researcher has a limitless option when it comes to sample size and the
sampling schedule.
2. Due to the repetitive nature of this research design, minor changes and
adjustments can be done during the initial parts of the study to correct and hone
the research method. Useful design for exploratory studies.
3. There is very little effort on the part of the researcher when performing this
technique. It is generally not expensive, time consuming, or workforce extensive.
4. Because the study is conducted serially, the results of one sample are known
before the next sample is taken and analyzed.
1. The sampling method is not representative of the entire population. The only
possibility of approaching representativeness is when the researcher chooses to
use a very large sample size significant enough to represent a significant portion
of the entire population. In this case, moving on to study a second or more
sample can be difficult.
2. Because the sampling technique is not randomized, the design cannot be used
to create conclusions and interpretations that pertain to an entire population.
Generalizability from findings is limited.
3. Difficult to account for and interpret variation from one sample to another over
time, particularly when using qualitative methods of data collection.
In our given example, descriptive research design is applicable where the

current human resource management practices of ABC Company will be
investigated.
31
Population
Population is a complete set of elements (persons or objects) that possess some

common characteristic defined by the sampling criteria established by the researcher.
The entire group of people or objects to which the researcher wishes to generalize the
study findings. In our given example the main topic is HRM practices of ABC Company,
and the respondents are all managerial employees in the main branch. If that’s the case,
the total population will be the total number of the managerial employees assigned in the
main branch.
Sample Size
Sample size is the sub-set of the population. It is the selected elements (people or
objects) chosen for participation in a study; people are referred to as subjects or
participants. It will be very costly and time consuming on the part of the researcher to
gather data from all units of the populations. Determining the sample size to represent
the entire population could make the researcher generalize findings and results without
spending too much resources given a systematic sampling technique.
Sampling Techniques
When we are interested in a population, we typically study a sample of that population

rather than attempt to study the whole population The purpose of sampling techniques is
to help you select units to be included in your sample.
Broadly speaking, there are two groups of sampling technique: probability sampling
techniques and non-probability sampling techniques.
Probability sampling techniques
Probability sampling techniques use random selection to help you select units from your
sampling frame to be included in your sample. These procedures are very clearly
defined, making it easy to follow them.
32
In probability Samples, each member of the population has a known non-zero probability
of being selected. Probability methods include random sampling, systematic sampling,
and stratified sampling. Probability sampling includes simple random sampling,
systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling and disproportional sampling.
The advantage of probability sampling is that sampling error can be calculated.
In probability sampling, every individual in the population have equal chance of being
selected as a subject for the research.
This method guarantees that the selection process is completely randomized and
without bias.
The most basic example of probability sampling is listing all the names of the individuals
in the population in separate pieces of paper, and then drawing a number of papers one
by one from the complete collection of names.
The advantage of using probability sampling is the accuracy of the statistical methods
after the experiment. It can also be used to estimate the population parameters since it
is representative of the entire population. It is also a reliable method to eliminate
sampling bias.
These types of probability sampling technique include simple random sampling,
systematic random sampling, stratified random sampling and cluster sampling.
Random sampling
-The random sample is the purest form of probability sampling. Each member of the
population has an equal and known chance of being selected. When there are very large
populations, it is often difficult or impossible to identify every member of the population,
so the pool of available subjects becomes biased.
This may be the most important type of sample. A random sample allows a known
probability that each elementary unit will be chosen. This is the type of sampling that is
used in lotteries and raffles.
Types of random Samples
A Simple Random Sample-A simple random sample is obtained by choosing

elementary units in search a way that each unit in the population has an equal chance of
being selected. A simple random sample is free from sampling bias. However, using a
random number table to choose the elementary units can be cumbersome. If the sample
is to be collected by a person untrained in statistics, then instructions may be
misinterpreted and selections may be made improperly.
A systematic random sample-Systematic sampling is often used instead of random

sampling. It is also called an Nth name selection technique. After the required sample
size has been calculated, every Nth record is selected from a list of population members.
As long as the list does not contain any hidden order, this sampling method is as good
as
33
for us. the random sampling method. Its only advantage over the random sampling
technique is simplicity. Systematic sampling is frequently used to select a specified
number of records from a computer file
A systematic random sample is obtained by selecting one unit on a random basis and
choosing additional elementary units at evenly spaced intervals until the desired number
of units is obtained.
Concept of Randomization
Contrary to popular opinion, samples are not selected haphazardly. Rather they are
chosen in a systematically random way so that chance or the operation of probability is
utilized. Where random selection is not possible, other systematic means are used.
Randomization is a sampling method used in scientific experiments. It is commonly used

in randomized controlled trials in experimental research.
The concept of randomness has been basic to scientific observation and research. It is
based on the assumption that while individual events cannot be predicted with accuracy,
aggregate events can. For instance, although it may not predict with great accuracy an
individual’s academic achievement, it will predict accurately the average academic
performance of a group.
In randomized controlled trials, the research participants are assigned by chance, rather
than by choice, to either the experimental group or the control group.
Randomization reduces bias as much as possible. Randomization is designed to

“control” (reduce or eliminate if possible) bias by all means.
The fundamental goal of randomization is to certain that each treatment is equally likely
to be assigned to any given experimental unit.
Randomization has two important applications in research:
1. Selecting a group of individuals for observation who are representative of the

population about which the researcher wishes to generalize, or
2. Equating experimental and control groups in an experiment. Assigning individuals by

random assignment (each individual in the sample has an equal and independent
chance of being assigned to each of the groups) is the best method of providing for their
equivalence.
Randomization- Actually Working
Well, there are different options used by researchers to perform randomization. It can be
achieved by use of random number tables given in most statistical textbooks or
computers can also be used to generate random numbers
34
If neither of these available, you can devise your own plan to perform randomization. For
example, you can select the last digit of phone numbers given in a telephone directory.
For example you have different varieties of rice grown in10 total small plots in a
greenhouse and you want to evaluate certain fertilizer on 9 varieties of rice plants
keeping one plot as a control.
You can number each of the small plots up to 9 and then you can use series of numbers
like 8 6 3 1 6 2 9 3 5 6 7 5 5 3 1 and so on
You can then allocate each of three doses of fertilizer treatment (call them doses A, B,
C). Now you can apply dose A to plot number 8, B to 6, and C to 3. Then you apply dose
A to 1, B to 2 because dose B is already used on plot 6 and so on.
A Stratified Sample-Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is

superior to random sampling because it reduces sampling error. A stratum is a subset of
the population that share at least one common characteristic. . The researcher first
identifies the relevant stratums and their actual representation in the population.
Random sampling is then used to select a sufficient number of subjects from each
stratum. “Sufficient” refers to a sample size large enough for us to be reasonably
confident that the stratum represents the population. Stratified sampling is often used
when one or more of the stratums in the population have a low incidence relative to the
other stratums.
A stratified sample is obtained by independently selecting a separate simple random
sample from each population stratum. A population can be divided into different groups
may be based on some characteristic or variable.
Stratified sampling is a probability sampling technique wherein the researcher divides

the entire population into different subgroups or strata, then randomly selects the final
subjects proportionally from the different strata.
Stratified random sampling is a method of sampling that involves the division of a

population into smaller groups known as strata. In stratified random sampling, the strata
are formed based on members’ shared attributes or characteristics. A random sample
from each stratum is taken in a number proportional to the stratum’s size when
compared to the population. These subsets of the strata are then pooled to form
a random sample.
The main advantage with stratified sampling is how it captures key population
characteristics in the sample. Similar to a weighted average, this method of sampling
produces characteristics in the sample that are proportional to the overall population.
Stratified sampling works well for populations with a variety of attributes, but is otherwise
ineffective, as subgroups cannot be formed.
It is important to note that a random sample is not necessarily an identical representation
of the population. Characteristics of successive random samples drawn from the same
population may differ to some degree, but it is possible to estimate their variation from
the population characteristics and from each other. The variation, known as sampling
error, does not suggest that a mistake has been made in the sampling process. Rather,
sampling error refers to the chance variations that occur in sampling; with randomization
these variations are predictable and taken into account in data-analysis techniques.
35
It is important to note that the strata must be non-overlapping. Having overlapping
subgroups will grant some individuals higher chances of being selected as subject. This
completely negates the concept of stratified sampling as a type of probability sampling.
Equally important is the fact that the researcher must use simple probability sampling
within the different strata.
The most common strata used in stratified random sampling are age, gender,
socioeconomic status, religion, nationality and educational attainment.
Stratified random sampling is used when the researcher wants to highlight a specific
subgroup within the population. This technique is useful in such researches because it
ensures the presence of the key subgroup within the sample.
Researchers also employ stratified random sampling when they want to observe existing
relationships between two or more subgroups. With a simple random sampling
technique, the researcher is not sure whether the subgroups that he wants to observe
are represented equally or proportionately within the sample.
With stratified sampling, the researcher can representatively sample even the smallest
and most inaccessible subgroups in the population. This allows the researcher to sample
the rare extremes of the given population.
With this technique, you have a higher statistical precision compared to simple random
sampling. This is because the variability within the subgroups is lower compared to the
variations when dealing with the entire population.
Because this technique has high statistical precision, it also means that it requires a
small sample size which can save a lot of time, money and effort of the researchers.
Types of Stratified Sampling
A-Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling
The sample size of each stratum in this technique is proportionate to the population size
of the stratum when viewed against the entire population. This means that the each
stratum has the same sampling fraction.
For example, you have 3 strata with 100, 200 and 300 population sizes respectively. And
the researcher chose a sampling fraction of ½. Then, the researcher must randomly
sample 50, 100 and 150 subjects from each stratum respectively.
Stratum A B C
Population Size 100 200 300
36
Sampling Fraction ½ ½ ½
Final Sample Size 50 100 150
The important thing to remember in this technique is to use the same sampling fraction
for each stratum regardless of the differences in population size of the strata. It is much
like assembling a smaller population that is specific to the relative proportions of the
subgroups within the population.
B- Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling
The only difference between proportionate and disproportionate stratified random

sampling is their sampling fractions. With disproportionate sampling, the different strata
have different sampling fractions.
precision of this design is highly dependent on the sampling fraction allocation of the
researcher. If the researcher commits mistakes in allotting sampling fractions, a stratum
may either be overrepresented or underrepresented which will result in skewed results.
A Cluster Sample
-A cluster sample is obtained by selecting clusters from the population on the basis of
simple random sampling. The sample comprises a census of each random cluster
selected. Cluster sampling is a method used to enable random sampling to occur while
limiting the time and costs that would otherwise be required to sample from either a very
large population or one that is geographically diverse. Using this method, a one- or two-
level randomization process is used the important element in this process is that each
one of the criteria have an equal opportunity to be chosen, with no researcher or facility
bias.
The area or cluster sample is a variation of the simple random sample that is particularly
appropriate when the population of interest is infinite, when a list of the members of the
population does not exist, or when the geographic distribution of the individuals is widely
scattered.
Non-probability sampling techniques
In this type of population sampling, members of the population do not have equal chance
of being selected. Due to this, it is not safe to assume that the sample fully represents
the target population. It is also possible that the researcher deliberately chose the
individuals that will participate in the study.
Non-probability sampling techniques refer on the subjective judgement of the researcher

when selecting units from the population to be included in the sample. For some of the
different types of non-probability sampling technique, the procedures for selecting units
to be included in the sample are very clearly defined, just like probability sampling
techniques. However, in others (e.g., purposive sampling), the subjective judgement
required to select units from the population, which involves a combination of theory,
37
experience and insight from the research process, makes selecting units more
complicated. Overall, the types of non-probability sampling technique include quota
sampling, purposive sampling, convenience sampling, snowball sampling and self-
section sampling.
Non-probability population sampling method is useful for pilot studies, case studies,
qualitative research, and for hypothesis development.
Non-Probability Sampling, members are selected from the population in some

nonrandom manner. Non-probability sampling includes convenience sampling,
consecutive sampling, judgmental sampling, quota sampling and snowball sampling. In
non-probability sampling, the degree to which the sample differs from the population
remains unknown
Convenience Sampling
In all forms of research, it would be ideal to test the entire population, but in most cases,
the population is just too large that it is impossible to include every individual. This is the
reason why most researchers rely on sampling techniques like convenience sampling,
the most common of all sampling techniques. Many researchers prefer this sampling
technique because it is fast, inexpensive, easy and the subjects are readily available.
Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where subjects are

selected because of their convenient accessibility and proximity to the researcher.
The subjects are selected just because they are easiest to recruit for the study and the
researcher did not consider selecting subjects that are representative of the entire
population.
-Convenience sampling is probably the most commonly used technique in research

today. With convenience sampling, subjects are selected because of their convenient
accessibility to the researcher. These subjects are chosen simply because they are the
easiest to obtain for the study. This technique is easy, fast and usually the least
expensive and troublesome convenience sample results when the more convenient
elementary units are chosen from a population for observation. Convenience sampling is
used in exploratory research where the researcher is interested in getting an
inexpensive approximation of the truth. As the name implies, the sample is selected
because they are convenient. This Non-probability method is often used during
preliminary research efforts to get a gross estimate of the results, without incurring the
cost or time required to select a random sample.
Researchers use convenience sampling not just because it is easy to use, but because it
also has other research advantages.
In pilot studies, convenience sample is usually used because it allows the researcher to
obtain basic data and trends regarding his study without the complications of using a
randomized sample.
38
This sampling technique is also useful in documenting that a particular quality of a
substance or phenomenon occurs within a given sample. Such studies are also very
useful for detecting relationships among different phenomena.
The most obvious criticism about convenience sampling is sampling bias and that the
sample is not representative of the entire population. This may be the biggest
disadvantage when using a convenience sample because it leads to more problems and
criticisms.
Systematic bias stems from sampling bias. This refers to a constant difference between
the results from the sample and the theoretical results from the entire population. It is not
rare that the results from a study that uses a convenience sample differ significantly with
the results from the entire population. A consequence of having systematic bias is
obtaining skewed results.
Another significant criticism about using a convenience sample is the limitation in

generalization and inference making about the entire population. Since the sample is not
representative of the population, the results of the study cannot speak for the entire
population. This results to a low external validity of the study.
When using convenience sampling, it is necessary to describe how your sample would
differ from an ideal sample that was randomly selected. It is also necessary to describe
the individuals who might be left out during the selection process or the individuals who
are overrepresented in the sample.
Consecutive Sampling
Consecutive Sampling is a strict version of convenience sampling where every available

subject is selected, i.e., the complete accessible population is studied. This is the best
choice of the Non-probability sampling techniques since by studying everybody
available, a good representation of the overall population is possible in a reasonable
period of time.
Consecutive Sampling is very similar to convenience sampling except that it seeks to

include ALL accessible subjects as part of the sample. This non-probability sampling
technique can be considered as the best of all non-probability samples because it
includes all subjects that are available that makes the sample a better representation of
the entire population.
Consecutive sampling is a sampling technique in which every subject meeting the

criteria of inclusion is selected until the required sample size is achieved. Consecutive
sampling technique involves selecting all individuals who agree to participate, provided
they meet pre-established criteria, until the number of subjects desired has been
recruited. For example, the author of this text once conducted a study of the verbal
memory of adult dyslexics who were recruited by means of several techniques including
appeals through newspaper and radio advertising. In order to qualify as subjects, several
criteria had to be satisfied with respect to age, IQ level, educational achievement, history
of remediation, mental and physical status, and scores on standardized tests of reading
39
ability, among other factors. Consecutive sampling can be highly useful when the
available subject pool is limited or when using selection criteria so stringent as to reduce
the number of subjects to a point that threatens the generality of findings. Although
consecutive sampling methods are typically stronger than other nonprobability methods
in controlling sampling bias, such confounding influence cannot be ruled out. Response
rate, the proportion of the subjects willing to participate of those selected, may also
influence the validity of inferences. For instance, subjects who agree to participate may
have different motivations or life circumstances than those who do not.
Judgmental sampling
Judgmental sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where the researcher

selects units to be sampled based on their knowledge and professional judgment.
The Judgment Sample-Judgmental sampling, also called Purposive Sampling
or authoritative sampling , is another form of convenience sampling where subjects
are handpicked from the accessible population Subjects usually are selected using
judgmental sampling because the researcher believes that certain subjects are likely to
benefit or be more compliant A judgement sample is obtained according to the discretion
of someone who is familiar with the relevant characteristics of the population. It is a
common non-probability method. The researcher selects the sample based on judgment.
The judgemental sampling is used in cases where the specialty of an authority can
select a more representative sample that can bring more accurate results than by using
other probability sampling techniques. The process involves nothing but purposely
handpicking individuals from the population based on the authority’s or the researcher’s
knowledge and judgment.
Judgmental sampling design is usually used when a limited number of individuals

possess the trait of interest. It is the only viable sampling technique in obtaining
information from a very specific group of people. It is also possible to use judgmental
sampling if the researcher knows a reliable professional or authority that he thinks is
capable of assembling a representative sample.
The two main weaknesses of authoritative sampling are with the authority and in the
sampling process; both of which pertains to the reliability and the bias that accompanies
the sampling technique.
Unfortunately, there is usually no way to evaluate the reliability of the expert or the
authority. The best way to avoid sampling error brought by the expert is to choose the
best and most experienced authority in the field of interest.
When it comes to the sampling process, it is usually biased since no randomization was
used in obtaining the sample. It is also worth noting that the members of
the population did not have equal chances of being selected. The consequence of this is
the misrepresentation of the entire population which will then limit generalizations of the
results of the study. Purposeful sampling is often used in qualitative research studies.
40
Quota Sampling
Quota sampling is the Non-probability equivalent of stratified sampling. Like stratified

sampling, the researcher first identifies the stratums and their proportions as they are
represented in the population. Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select
the required number of subjects from each stratum. This differs from stratified sampling,
where the stratums are filled by random sampling Quota sampling is a non-probability
technique used to ensure equal representation of subjects in each layer of a stratified
sample grouping.
It is a technique wherein the assembled sample has the same proportions of individuals
as the entire population with respect to known characteristics, traits or focused
phenomenon.
In addition to this, the researcher must make sure that the composition of the final
sample to be used in the study meets the research’s quota criteria.
The first step in non-probability quota sampling is to divide the population into exclusive
subgroups.
Then, the researcher must identify the proportions of these subgroups in the population;
this same proportion will be applied in the sampling process.
Finally, the researcher selects subjects from the various subgroups while taking into
consideration the proportions noted in the previous step.
The final step ensures that the sample is representative of the entire population. It also
allows the researcher to study traits and characteristics that are noted for each
subgroup.
In a study wherein the researcher likes to compare the academic performance of the
different high school class levels, its relationship with gender and socioeconomic status,
the researcher first identifies the subgroups.
Usually, the subgroups are the characteristics or variables of the study. The researcher
divides the entire population into class levels, intersected with gender and
socioeconomic status. Then, he takes note of the proportions of these subgroups in the
entire population and then samples each subgroup accordingly.
The main reason why researchers choose quota samples is that it allows the
researchers to sample a subgroup that is of great interest to the study. If a study aims to
investigate a trait or a characteristic of a certain subgroup, this type of sampling is the
ideal technique.
Quota sampling also allows the researchers to observe relationships between

subgroups. In some studies, traits of a certain subgroup interact with other traits of
another subgroup. In such cases, it is also necessary for the researcher to use this type
of sampling technique.
41
It may appear that this type of sampling technique is totally representative of the
population. In some cases it is not. Keep in mind that only the selected traits of the
population were taken into account in forming the subgroups.
In the process of sampling these subgroups, other traits in the sample may be
overrepresented. In a study that considers gender, socioeconomic status and religion as
the basis of the subgroups, the final sample may have skewed representation of age,
race, educational attainment, marital status and a lot more.
Sequential Sampling
Sequential sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the researcher

picks a single or a group of subjects in a given time interval, conducts his study,
analyzes the results then picks another group of subjects if needed and so on.
Sequential sampling technique initially developed as a tool for product quality

control. The sample size, n, is not fixed in advanced, nor is the timeframe of data
collection. The process begins, first, with the sampling of a single observation or a
group of observations. These are then tested to see whether or not the null hypothesis
can be rejected. If the null is not rejected, then another observation or group of
observations is sampled and the test is run again. In this way the test continues until the
researcher is confident in his or her results.
For survey sampling applications, the term sequential sampling describes any method of
sampling that reads an ordered frame of N sampling units and selects the sample with
specified probabilities or specified expectations. Sequential sampling methods are
particularly well suited when applied with computers. They can also be applied for
selecting samples of a population resulting from some other process: for example, cars
coming off an assembly line, patients arriving at a clinic, or voters exiting the polls.
Examples of sequential sampling schemes discussed in this entry include simple
random sampling, systematic sampling, and probability proportional to size (PPS)
sequential sampling.
This technique can reduce sampling costs by reducing the number of observations
needed. If a whole batch of light bulbs is defective, sequential sampling can allow us to
learn this much more quickly and inexpensively than simple random
sampling. However, it is not a random sample and has other issues with making
statistical inference.
This sampling technique gives the researcher limitless chances of fine tuning his
research methods and gaining a vital insight into the study that he is currently pursuing.
42
If we are to consider all the other sampling techniques in research, we will all come to a
conclusion that the experiment and the data analysis will either boil down to accepting
the null hypothesis or disproving the null hypothesis while accepting the alternative
hypothesis.
In sequential sampling technique, there exists another step, a third option. The
researcher can accept the null hypothesis, accept his alternative hypothesis, or select
another pool of subjects and conduct the experiment once again. This entails that the
researcher can obtain limitless number of subjects before finally making a decision
whether to accept his null or alternative hypothesis.
The researcher has a limitless option when it comes to sample size and sampling
schedule. The sample size can be relatively small of excessively large depending on the
decision making of the researcher. Sampling schedule is also completely dependent to
the researcher since a second group of samples can only be obtained after conducting
the experiment to the initial group of samples.
As mentioned above, this sampling technique enables the researcher to fine-tune his
research methods and results analysis. Due to the repetitive nature of this sampling
method, minor changes and adjustments can be done during the initial parts of the study
to correct and hone the research method.
There is very little effort in the part of the researcher when performing this sampling
technique. It is not expensive, not time consuming and not workforce extensive.
This sampling method is hardly representative of the entire population. Its only hope of
approaching representativeness is when the researcher chose to use a very large
sample size significant enough to represent a big fraction of the entire population.
The sampling technique is also hardly randomized. This contributes to the very little
degree representativeness of the sampling technique.
Due to the aforementioned disadvantages, results from this sampling technique cannot
be used to create conclusions and interpretations pertaining to the entire population.
Be sure to understand the limitations of the technique. Sequential modeling is not a

probabilistic sampling option. It can lead to valid statistical conclusions but the means in
which these are obtained is separate from probabilistic sampling techniques.
Systematic Sampling
Systematic sampling is a random sampling technique which is frequently chosen by

researchers for its simplicity and its periodic quality.
Systematic sampling is a type of probability sampling method in which sample members
from a larger population are selected according to a random starting point and a fixed
periodic interval. This interval, called the sampling interval, is calculated by dividing the
population size by the desired sample size. Despite the sample population being
43
selected in advance, systematic sampling is still thought of as being random if the
periodic interval is determined beforehand and the starting point is random.
In systematic random sampling, the researcher first randomly picks the first item or
subject from the population. Then, the researcher will select each n’th subject from the
list.
The procedure involved in systematic random sampling is very easy and can be done
manually. The results are representative of the population unless certain characteristics
of the population are repeated for every n’th individual, which is highly unlikely.
Since simply random sampling a population can be inefficient and time-consuming,

statisticians turn to other methods, such as systematic sampling. Choosing a sample
size through a systematic approach can be done quickly. Once a fixed starting point has
been identified, a constant interval is selected to facilitate participant selection.
For example, if you wanted to select a random group of 1,000 people from a population
of 50,000 using systematic sampling, all of the potential participants must be placed in a
list and a starting point would be selected. Once the list is formed, every 50th person on
the list, starting the count at the selected starting point, would be chosen as a
participant, since 50,000/1,000 = 50. For example, if the selected starting point was 20,
the 70th person on the list would be chosen followed by the 120th, and so on. Once the
end of the list was reached, if additional participants are required, the count loops to the
beginning of the list to finish the count.
Within systematic sampling, as with other sampling methods, a target population must
be selected prior to selecting participants. A population can be identified based on any
number of desired characteristics that suit the purpose of the study being conducted.
Some selection criteria may include age, gender, race, location, education level and/or
profession
The process of obtaining the systematic sample is much like an arithmetic progression.
Starting-Number
The researcher selects an integer that must be less than the total number of individuals
in the population. This integer will correspond to the first subject.
1-Interval:
The researcher picks another integer which will serve as the constant difference
between any two consecutive numbers in the progression.
The integer is typically selected so that the researcher obtains the correct sample size
For example, the researcher has a population total of 100 individuals and need 12
subjects. He first picks his starting number, 5.
Then the researcher picks his interval, 8. The members of his sample will be individuals
5, 13, 21, 29, 37, 45, 53, 61, 69, 77, 85, 93.
44
Other researchers use a modified systematic random sampling technique wherein they
first identify the needed sample size. Then, they divide the total number of the population
with the sample size to obtain the sampling fraction. The sampling fraction is then used
as the constant difference between subjects.
Risks Associated with Systematic Sampling
One risk that statisticians must take into account when conducting systematic sampling
involves how the list used with the sampling interval is organized. If the population
placed on the list is organized in a cyclical pattern that matches the sampling interval,
the selected sample may be biased. For example, a company’s human
resources department wants to pick a sample of employees and ask how they feel about
company policies. Employees are grouped in teams of 20, with each team headed by a
manager. If the list used to pick the sample size is organized with teams clustered
together, the statistician risks picking only managers (or no managers at all) depending
on the sampling interval.
Advantage and Disadvantage of systematic sampling
▪ Another advantage of systematic random sampling over simple random sampling is

the assurance that the population will be evenly sampled. There exists a chance in
simple random sampling that allows a clustered selection of subjects. This is
systematically eliminated in systematic sampling.
▪ The main advantage of using systematic sampling over simple random sampling is
its simplicity. It allows the researcher to add a degree of system or process into the
random selection of subjects.
▪ The process of selection can interact with a hidden periodic trait within the
population. If the sampling technique coincides with the periodicity of the trait, the
sampling technique will no longer be random and representativeness of the sample
is compromised
Since systematic random sampling is a type of probability sampling, the researcher must
ensure that all the members of the population have equal chances of being selected as
the starting point or the initial subject.
The researcher must be certain that the chosen constant interval between subjects do
not reflect a certain pattern of traits present in the population. If a pattern in the
population exists and it coincides with the interval set by the researcher, randomness of
the sampling technique is compromised.
Snowball or Chain Sampling
This particular one identifies, cases of interest from people who know people who know
what cases are information rich that is good examples for study, good interview subjects.
This is commonly used in studies that may be looking at issues like the homeless
households. What you do is to get hold of one and he/she will tell you where the others
are or can be found. When you find those others they will tell you where you can get
more others and the chain continues. Snowball sampling is a special Non-probability
method used when the desired sample characteristic is rare. It may be extremely difficult
or cost prohibitive to locate respondents in these situations. Snowball sampling relies on
referrals from initial subjects to generate additional subjects. While this technique can
45
dramatically lower search costs, it comes at the expense of introducing bias because the
technique itself reduces the likelihood that the sample will represent a good cross
section from the population.
Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling technique that is used by researchers

to identify potential subjects in studies where subjects are hard to locate.
Snowball Sampling
Researchers use this sampling method if the sample for the study is very rare or is
limited to a very small subgroup of the population. This type of sampling technique works
like chain referral. After observing the initial subject, the researcher asks for assistance
from the subject to help identify people with a similar trait of interest.
The process of snowball sampling is much like asking your subjects to nominate another
person with the same trait as your next subject. The researcher then observes the
nominated subjects and continues in the same way until the obtaining sufficient number
of subjects.
For example, if obtaining subjects for a study that wants to observe a rare disease, the
researcher may opt to use snowball sampling since it will be difficult to obtain subjects. It
is also possible that the patients with the same disease have a support group; being able
to observe one of the members as your initial subject will then lead you to more subjects
for the study.
Types of Snowball Sampling

▪ Linear Snowball Sampling
▪ Exponential Non-Discriminative Snowball Sampling
46
▪ Exponential Discriminative Snowball Sampling
Advantages and Disadvantages of Snowball Sampling
▪ The chain referral process allows the researcher to reach populations that are
difficult to sample when using other sampling methods.
▪ The process is cheap, simple and cost-efficient.
▪ This sampling technique needs little planning and fewer workforce compared to
other sampling techniques.
▪ The researcher has little control over the sampling method. The subjects that the
researcher can obtain rely mainly on the previous subjects that were observed.
▪ Representativeness of the sample is not guaranteed. The researcher has no idea of
the true distribution of the population and of the sample.
▪ Sampling bias is also a fear of researchers when using this sampling technique.
Initial subjects tend to nominate people that they know well. Because of this, it is
highly possible that the subjects share the same traits and characteristics, thus, it is
possible that the sample that the researcher will obtain is only a small subgroup of
the entire population.
Description of Respondents
This part of chapter 3 explains the characteristics of the respondents along with
its limitation.
Respondents are those persons who have been invited to participate in a

particular study and have actually taken part in the study. This definition applies to both
qualitative and quantitative studies.
Research Instrument
This part of chapter 3 presents the research tool that will be used in data gathering.
Research instrument could be standardized or a researcher-made questionnaire. It
47
should be noted that if the researcher will be using a new (researcher-made) survey
instrument, its reliability and validity should be tested before finalizing them.
Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. To test the survey instrument’s

reliability, it should be pilot-tested to respondents with the same characteristics as the
actual respondents but should be conducted to other company/locations. For instance,
managers of a bpo company are the respondents, so the researcher should pilot-test
his/her designed questionnaire to other bpo company’s managerial employees. The
results should be tallied and computed by statisticians to determine whether the
instrument’s reliability is high or low. If low, it should be revised depending on details of
the reliability test.
When a measure has good test-retest reliability and internal consistency, researchers
should be more confident that the scores represent what they are supposed to, validity
test should then follow. Validity is the extent to which the scores from a measure
represent the variable they are intended to.
After passing the reliability test, the instrument should be validated by field experts. In
the given example, HR practitioners (not connected with ABC Company) should validate
content of the questionnaire. HR professors’ or college instructors’ expertise may also be
sought to validate the instrument. Experts in the field of research and statisticians should
be consulted as well to validate whether the survey instrument is consistent with the
over-all objectives of the investigation.
Once the researcher have secured validity and reliability of his/her research instrument,
data gathering maybe conducted then.
Data-Gathering Procedure
This part of research proposal entails the systematic conduct of survey depending
whether respondents are known or unknown. . In our given example, respondents are
obviously managers of the ABC Company. Data gathering procedures may be easier
that may take a week given the approval sought company to conduct the study.
Example of unknown respondents are customers of a fast-food chain as people come

and go by the store everyday. Data gathering from unknown respondents may take
longer and the approach should be more systematic. Conduct of survey should be done
everyday (Monday to Sunday), four times week (breakfast, lunch, afternoon snacks, and
dinner) to ensure that all types of customers are given the chance to be surveyed.
Statistical Treatment of Data
This part of research proposal presents the different statistical formulas the researcher
the researcher believes applicable to solve the pre-identified statement of the problem. It
is best to consult statisticians who are experts in the field as they know the appropriate
formulas.
It is advantageous for the researcher to understand statistical treatment of data specially

if intend to improve his/her research skills.
48
ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT
ESSAY: 10 Points each
1. Discuss what includes a research proposal

2. Identify and explain briefly the parts of research proposal
49
PART 3
DESIGNING A SURVEY INSTRUMENT
OVERVIEW
No matter how convincing a research proposal may become, if the researcher

failed to ensure the survey instrument’s consistency with the overall objectives of the
study, the results may become invalid. In this lesson, practical techniques in aligning the
survey instrument with the research objectives will be discussed.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this lesson, students are expected to:
• Design a survey instrument
COURSE MATERIALS
Designing a survey instrument
1. Identify the major parts of the survey instrument. The major parts of the survey
instrument should be aligned with the statement of the problem.
Based on the given statement of the problem, first part of the survey instrument
should be “profile of the respondents” which seeks to gather information about their age,
sex, civil status, highest educational attainment, and length of service in the company.
The second part of the survey instrument should be “HRM practices” of ABC Company
in terms of analysis and design of work, HR Planning, Recruiting, Selection, Training and
Development, Compensation, Performance Management and Employee Relations.
2. Add more items under each variables in Part 2 based on the collected literature and
studies.
3. Ensure that appropriate Likert scale is used to assess what is intended to measure.
In the example given, HRM practices is being investigated, meaning the researcher
intends to determine whether the HRM functions ( analysis and design of work, HR
Planning, Recruiting, Selection, Training and Development, Compensation,
50
Performance Management and Employee Relations.) are being practiced by the ABC
Company, therefore Likert Scale applicable are:
Always - 5
Frequently - 4
Sometimes - 3
Seldom - 2
Never - 1
Or
Strongly Agree - 5
Agree - 4
Somewhat Agree - 3
Disagree - 2
Strongly Disagree - 1
There are lots of Likert scales that can be utilized depending on what the
researcher wanted to investigate.
4. Ensure a short and concise survey instrument as not to discourage respondents to

answer.
ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT
Activity in this lesson is already part of the final exam.
51
GRADING SYSTEM
Class Standing 70%
Portfolio, Projects, Research Paper, Summative Tests
Midterm/Final Examinations 30%
100%
Midterm Grade + Final Term Grade = FINAL GRADE
52
REFERENCES
Anastas, Jeane W. Research (1999). Design for Social Work and the Human Services.
Chapter 5-6, Flexible Methods: Descriptive Research. 2nd ed. New York:
Columbia University Press
Atkinson, Paul and Martyn Hammersley. Ethnography and Participant Observation.

In Handbook of Qualitative Research
Bachman, Ronet. (2007). The Practice of Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice.
Chapter 5, Causation and Research Designs. 3rd ed. Causal Research Design:
Experimentation. Anonymous SlideShare Presentation. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Pine Forge Press
Bovaird, James A. and Kevin A. Kupzyk. Sequential Design. In Encyclopedia of

Research Design.
Cresswell, John W. Et al. Advanced Mixed-Methods Research Designs. In Handbook of

Mixed Methods in Social and Behavioral Research
Cuthill, Michael (2002). Exploratory Research: Citizen Participation, Local Government,

and Sustainable Development in Australia. Sustainable Development 10: pp 79-
89
Denzin, Norman and Locoln, Yvonna S. (2000). eds. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA:
SAGE, pp. 567-605.
Gall, Meredith (2007). Educational Research: An Introduction. Chapter 11,

Nonexperimental Research: Correlational Designs. 8th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson
Gall, Meredith (2007). Educational Research: An Introduction. Chapter 16, Historical

Research. 8th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson
Gall, Meredith (2007). Educational Research: An Introduction. Chapter 18, Action

Research. 8th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson
Hall, John (2008). Cross-Sectional Survey Design. In Encyclopedia of Survey Research

Methods. Paul J. Lavrakas, ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 173-174
Healy P, Devane (2011). D. Methodological Considerations in Cohort Study Designs.

Nurse Researcher 18, pp 32-36
Helen Barratt, Maria Kirwan (2009). Cross-Sectional Studies: Design, Application,

Strengths and Weaknesses of Cross-Sectional Studies. Healthknowledge,
Cross-Sectional Study.
Ivankova, Nataliya V (2006). Using Mixed-Methods Sequential Explanatory Design:

From Theory to Practice. Field Methods 18: pp 3-20
53
Kalaian, Sema A. and Kasim, Rafa M. (2008). Longitudinal Studies. In Encyclopedia of
Survey Research Methods. Paul J. Lavrakas, ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp.
440-441
Kemmis, Stephen and McTaggart, Robin. Participatory Action Research. In Handbook of

Qualitative Research.
Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Barbara (2006). Part 1, What Is Research Design? The Context of

Design. Performance Studies Methods Course syllabus. New York University
Labaree, Robert V. and Scimeca, Ross (2008). The Philosophical Problem of Truth in
Librarianship. The Library Quarterly 78: pp 43-70
Levin, Kate Ann (2003). Study Design IV: Cohort Studies. Evidence-Based Dentistry 7:
51–52; Study Design 101. Himmelfarb Health Sciences Library. George
Washington University, November 2011; Cohort Study.
Maykut, Pamela S (2013). Beginning Qualitative Research: A Philosophic and Practical

Guide. Washington, D.C.: Falmer Press, 1994; Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University.
McNabb, Connie. Descriptive Research Methodologies. Powerpoint Presentation;
Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, eds. (2006). (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage,
1994), pp. 248-261; Observational Research. Research Methods by Dummies.
Department of Psychology. California State University, Fresno
Ployhart, Robert E. and Vandenberg, Robert J. (2010). Longitudinal Research: The

Theory, Design, and Analysis of Change. Journal of Management 36, pp 94-
120; Longitudinal Study
Quinn, Patton Michael (2002). Qualitiative Research and Evaluation Methods. Chapter
6, Fieldwork Strategies and Observational Methods. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage
Reason, Peter and Bradbury, Hilary (2001). Handbook of Action Research: Participative
Inquiry and Practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
Rebecca Betensky, Harvard University, Course Lecture Note slides
Rosenbaum, Paul R. (2010) Design of Observational Studies. New York: Springer
Salkind, Neil J. (2010). ed. Sequential Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Savitt, Ronald (1980). Historical Research in Marketing. Journal of Marketing 44, pp 52-
58
Shuttleworth, Martyn (2008). Descriptive Research Design. Explorable.com website.
Tashakkori, Abbas and Teddle, Charles eds. (2003). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp.
209-240
54
Taylor, P. J., G. Catalano, and D.R.F. Walker (2002). Exploratory Analysis of the World
City Network. Urban Studies 39, pp 2377-2394; Exploratory Research.
Trochim, William M.K. (2006). Research Methods Knowledge Base.
Unisa Institutional Repository (UnisaIR), University of South Africa. Chapter 4, Research

Methodology and Design.
55
FINAL EXAM
Write a Thesis Proposal (Chapter 1-3 and Survey Instrument)
a. Identify a company through your relatives and friends (this will be done to ensure
that the conduct of your study will be assisted and accommodated by the
company, since Pandemic, students are not allowed to visit the company).
Seek approval to conduct study on the HRM practices or Marketing Strategies or

Financial Management of that company. You need not to mention the company
name in the title should the company won’t allow it. Provide assurance with
company that all information gathered will be treated with utmost confidentiality.
Example.
Title: “The Human Resource Management Practices of a BPO Company in

Ortigas, Mandaluyong City”
Title: “The Effectiveness of Managerial Practices on the Financial Performance of

Selected Banks in the National Capital Region”
b. Write a Thesis Proposal investigating the HRM Practices/Marketing Strategies/

Financial Management of the chosen company.
c. Design the survey instrument.
Part 1 should contain the profile variables
Part 2 should contain all variables (HRM practices or Marketing

Strategies) and sub-problem should be formulated under each variable
with corresponding Likert Scale.
56

BUMA 20053 BUSINESS RESEARCH Module

Uploaded by

Copyright:

You might also like

BUMA 20053 BUSINESS RESEARCH Module

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

BUMA 20053 BUSINESS RESEARCH Module

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

Dr. Cindy Fetalvero-Soliman

PUP A. Mabini Campus, Anonas Street, Sta. Mesa, Manila 1016

THE COUNTRY’S 1st POLYTECHNIC U

At the end of the semester, skills in writing a research proposal in business

Students are expected to answer all items under activities/assessment and

A printed University Thesis/Dissertation Manual should also be provided to the

Course Outcomes ............................................................................................................... 1

At the end of the semester, the students will be able to:

• Determine a research topic worth investigating related to human resource

INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS RESEARCH

Business research can be described as a systematic and organized effort to

This entire process by which we attempt to solve problems is called research.

At the end of this lesson, the student will be able to:

• Appreciate the importance of taking up the course

Research is simply the process of finding solutions to a problem after a thorough

THE EXCITEMENT OF RESEARCH AND WHY MANAGERS SHOULD KNOW ABOUT

Modern technology has made research an exciting and a relatively smooth

Moreover, knowledge in the business area is exploding and there is an

Business research is as an organized, systematic, data-based, critical,

TYPES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH: APPLIED AND BASIC

Consider the following two situations cited in Business Week.

It is obvious that Oxford has a multitude of problems and an outside consultant–

The above is an instance of basic research, where knowledge was generated to

As stated, the primary purpose of conducting basic research is to generate more

University professors engage in basic research in an effort to understand and

Being knowledgeable about research and research methods helps professional

1. Identify and effectively solve minor problems in the work setting.

In selecting a topic in conducting a research, a student should be able to focus

A common experience of all organizations is that the managers thereof

1. Employee behaviors such as performance, absenteeism, and turnover.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH TOPICS WORTH INVESTIGATING

If the student is taking up BSBA Major in Human Resource Management, then

Other topics may include investigating on the best practices organizations

2.1.1 Human Resource Management (HRM) Practices in a Fast Food Chain

ESSAY: 10 points each

THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

To further understand research proposal, the research should know and

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Discuss what includes a research proposal

2.1. WRITING THE CHAPTER 1: THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

Figure 1. Parts of Chapter 1

Source: PUP Thesis and Dissertation Manual

2.2.2 Theoretical Framework

Noe, et.al (2015) cited Human resource management (HRM) refers to

and performance. Many companies refer to HRM as involving “people practices.”

underlying these practices needs to be considered to maximize their influence on

designing work, determining human resource needs (HR planning), attracting

potential employees (recruiting), choosing employees (selection), teaching

and development), rewarding employees (compensation), evaluating their

performance (performance management), and creating a positive work environment

Figure 1. HRM Practices

should have an important tie to the strategy of an organization because the

same tasks. In addition, because many strategies entail the introduction of

associated with efforts to increase innovation. Recruitment is the process

through which the organization seeks applicants for potential employment.

company achieve its goals. Development involves acquiring knowledge, skills,

and behavior that improve employees’ ability to meet the challenges of a

acquisition of strategy-related skills is an essential element of the

implementation of strategy. Performance management is used to ensure that

employees’ activities and outcomes are congruent with the organization’s