BME365R

Neuro-Physiology Homework 2019

HW 6: due 10-15: Anatomy, Pain and Temperature

(a) Describe the nuclear origin, course, exit site and the function of all 12 cranial nerves.

Nuclear Origin Course Exit Site Function

I. Olfactory Cerebrum Olfactory receptor cells in olfactory Cribriform Smell/ Olfaction
epithelium of nasal cavity pass plate
through cribriform plate of
ethmoid bone to synapse in
olfactory bulb; fibers of olfactory
bulb neurons extend posterior,
olfactory tract runs beneath frontal
lobe to enter cerebral
hemispheres, nerve terminates
II. Optic Nerve Diencephalon From retina of eye to form optic Optic canal Vision from retina
nerve; passes through optic canal
of orbit, nerves converge to form
optic chiasm, nerves continue on as
optic tracts, tracts enter thalamus
and synapse, thalamic fibers run to
occipital cortex
III. Oculomotor Mesencephalon Fibers originate from ventral Superior orbital Lateral eye movement,
midbrain near junction with pons, fissure lens shape, pupil
pass through bony orbit via constriction
superior orbital fissure, exit at eye
IV. Trochlear Mesencephalon Fibers originate from dorsal Superior orbital Eye movement down
midbrain, move around midbrain to fissure towards the nose
enter orbit through SOF, travel with
oculomotor nerves
V. Trigeminal Mesencephalon a. fibers originate to pons via SOF a. Superior Sensations of the face
a. Ophthalmic Pons b. fibers originate to pons via orbital fissure and head, muscle
b. Maxillary foramen rotundum b. Foramen sense, chewing
c. Mandibular c. fibers pass through skull via rotundum
foramen ovale c. Foramen
ovale
VI. Abducens Pons Fibers originate in inferior pons, Superior orbital Eye movement (non-
leave and enter orbit via SOF, exit fissure lateral) down towards
in eye the nose
VII. Facial Pons Fibers originate from pons, enter Internal Facial expression, sense
temporal bone via internal acoustic acoustic of taste, efferent signals
meatus, run within bone and inner meatus for salivary and lacrimal
ear cavity, emerge through glands
stylomastoid foramen, nerve Stylomastoid
travels to lateral aspect of face foramen
 VIII. Medulla Fibers originate from equilibrium Internal Balance, hearing and
Vestibulocochlear apparatus in inner ear of temporal acoustic equilibrium
bone, through internal acoustic meatus
meatus to enter brainstem at pons-
medulla border, afferent fibers
form cochlear division and afferent
fibers form vestibular division
merge to form cranial nerve
IX. Glossopharyngeal Medulla Fibers originate from medulla, go Jugular Oral cavity sensory,
through the jugular foramen, and foramen baroreceptors and
exit skull to throat chemoreceptors in
blood vessels, parotid
salivary gland secretion,
parasympathetic
nervous system (heart),
efferent for swallowing
X. Vagus Medulla Fibers originate from medulla, go Jugular Sensory/efferent to
through skull via jugular foramen, foramen internal organs, glands,
down through neck region, and exit muscles
into thorax and abdomen
XI. Accessory Medulla Originate from ventral rootlets in Jugular Oral cavity muscles,
spinal cord, up along spinal cord foramen some muscles in
and enter skull as accessory nerves, shoulder and neck
enter skull via foramen magnum,
nerve exits from skull through
jugular foramen with vagus nerves
XII. Hypoglossal Medulla Originate from roots in medulla, go Hypoglossal Tongue muscles
through hypoglossal canal, and exit canal
skull via canal to the tongue

(b) Describe the production, circulation, and re-absorption of CSF.

Circulation of CSF:

1. Produced in choroidal plexus (mostly lateral ventricle)

2. Foramen of Monro (an interventricular foramen)

3. 3rd Ventricle

4. Aqueduct of Sylvius (cerebral aqueduct)

5. 4th ventricle

6. Foramen of Magendie (median aperture)

7. Foramina of Luschka (lateral apertures)

8. Travels in Subarachnoid space

9. Reabsorbed into venous sinus blood via arachnoid granulations in superior sagittal sinus

(c) Describe the chemical composition of CSF and how it is used to differentiate meningitis from multiple
sclerosis?

Glucose: 50 – 80 mg/dL

Protein: 15 - 45 mg/dL

Cells: no red blood cells, 1-2 white blood cells

In multiple sclerosis, CSF can have high levels of antibodies, higher IgG levels in CSF, the presence of
oligoclonal bands, and the presence of proteins that develop when myelin breaks down. In meningitis,
the CSF has more white blood cells and lowered glucose and protein concentrations.

(g) What is the difference between an ischemic stroke and a non-ischemic stroke? How do you make the
diagnosis in the ER? How are each treated?

 Ischemic strokes – occurs when blood flow to the brain blocked by a blood clot, more common
type, symptoms include facial droop, vision loss, and aphasia
o Treated with tPA (tissue plasminogen activator), thrombectomy for larger clots
 Non-ischemic stroke – occurs when weak blood vessel bursts and bleeds into the brain,
diagnosed by hemorrhaging in the brain
o Treated with surgical clip, craniotomy, or coiling to control bleeding and reduce ICP;
antihypertensive agents to reduce blood pressure
 Make diagnosis using CT scan in the ER

(h) Read and critique the article:

Cedric Peirs and Rebecca P. Seal, Neural circuits for pain, Science, 354 (6312) Nov 4 2016, 578-583.
The major conclusion was that the pain sensation encoded in the nervous system is very complex.
Also, many paths have been opened for the development of new types of therapies and treatments
for pain. The research is focused on improvements at the molecular, systems, and cellular level in
order to develop a better understanding of the sensation of pain. The research method was pretty
strong because other studies and results were discussed, and figures were included displaying
important information. There were not many statistics, but the facts referenced supported the
conclusion. The weaknesses in the article were that it was not structured like a regular research article
and did not have much numerical data to back up conclusions. The articles “Neural Circuits of Chronic
Pain”, “Dissecting Neural Circuits for Acute Pain”, “EFIC Satellite Symposium: Neural Circuits
Underlying Nociception and Pain and Their Plasticity”, and “Brain Circuits Mediating Opposing Effects
on Emotion and Pain” support the author’s conclusions. The future direction of research in this area
includes identifying the identity of the noxious mechanotransducers, the logic of nociceptor coding of
pain, and to address and examine more properties of the nociceptive network.
Is cannabis a viable alternative for opioid painkillers? See related articles in Science 354 (6312).

Research has shown promising signs that cannabis might relieve pain, but legal factors prevent
extensive clinical trials. Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the main psychoactive ingredient in cannabis
and binds to receptors on neurons involved in controlling appetite, pain, and mood. The variability in
the concentrations administered to patients is the problem with THC. There is also a natural variation
in the concentration of THC in different strains of marijuana. More in-depth research on how to
successfully use cannabis as an alternative for opioid painkillers can be done if the power of the Drug
Enforcement Administration to restrict clinical studies is reduced.

What is the cause of the opioid epidemic that we have in the USA and what are some of the possible
solutions?

The opioid epidemic started with the drug companies’ promoting opioids as a safe and nonaddictive
option for pain treatment and their aggressive marketing of high-dose opioids. Physicians in the
United States began frequently prescribing opioids for pain-management, which led millions of people
to become reliant on opioids. Then many drug cartels opened to sell other illicit drugs as a cheaper
alternative that didn’t need a prescription. Poor pain management has also caused this epidemic. It
has recently been discovered that opioids can occasionally intensify pain.

One solution is to develop a better understanding of the underlying opioid pain treatment mechanism
and look for less addictive and effective alternatives. Also, those that are addicted and those who
prescribe should not be criminalized as a solution. An alternative proposition that is being researched
is using cannabis as pain treatment.

(i) Read and critique the article:

Bertolero, Bassett, How matter becomes the mind, Scientific American, July, 2019, pp26-33.

The major conclusion of this article is that the new field of network neuroscience, which uses a branch
of mathematics, graph theory, allows us to answer the question of how does the brain give rise to
who we are? It also allows for the modeling of brain connections that let us move, think, and act.
Graph theory models the physical pathways that build functional networks from which our cognitive
capacities emerge. The research method was ok because not many other studies and results were
discussed, but figures were included displaying important information. There were not many
statistics, but the facts referenced supported the conclusion. The weaknesses in the article were that
it was not structured like a regular research article and did not have much numerical data to back up
conclusions. The articles “Connectome: Graph theory application in functional brain network
architecture”, “A method in graph theory”, “Graph theory methods: applications in brain networks”,
and “Functional Modules of the Brain” support the author’s conclusions. The future direction of
research in this area includes understanding how brain networks develop through childhood and
adolescence and into adulthood and knowing more about how personal genetics, early-life
development and environment determine one’s brain’s structure and how that structure leads to
functional capacities.
What are modules, hubs, and nodes in the network presented by the authors?

Modules: description of localized networks

Hubs: nodes where connections from the brain’s different modules meet

Nodes: represent the units of the network, such as neurons

Are you convinced that there are only seven brain modules? Could there be more brain modules and if
so what is missing?

I am convinced that there are only 7 brain modules because they cover such a wide range of tasks.
There are could be more brain modules because the way the seven categories are organized are
biased and can be narrowed down or expanded. For example, there isn’t a separate module for
processing of language which can be distinct from the other modules.

According to the authors, is the schizophrenia brain characterized by overabundance or lack of

connections between modules?

It is characterized by an overabundance of connections between modules

What modules are implicated in depression?

The frontoparietal control, salience and default mode modules

What is the meaning of rumination?

Rumination is the tendency to repetitively think about the consequences, causes, and situational
factors of one’s negative emotional experience