ELL701: MATHEMATICAL METHODS IN

CONTROL Online Lecture 5

M. Nabi

Control & Automation Group

Electrical Engineering Department,
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi

Oct 12, 2020

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Topics for today

1 Linear Dependence
2 Basis & Span
3 Coordinates
4 Dimensions
5 Direct Sum

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Examples: Ex. 1
Ex 1: Express the polynomial p(x) = (3x2 + 2x + 5) under the
following basis.
a) B1 : {1, x, x2 } b) B2 : {1, (1 − x), (x + x2 )}

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Examples: Ex. 1
Ex 1: Express the polynomial p(x) = (3x2 + 2x + 5) under the
following basis.
a) B1 : {1, x, x2 } b) B2 : {1, (1 − x), (x + x2 )}
Soln:
p(x) = 5(1) + 2(x) + 3(x2 ) = [5 2 3]TB1 (1)

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Examples: Ex. 1
Ex 1: Express the polynomial p(x) = (3x2 + 2x + 5) under the
following basis.
a) B1 : {1, x, x2 } b) B2 : {1, (1 − x), (x + x2 )}
Soln:
p(x) = 5(1) + 2(x) + 3(x2 ) = [5 2 3]TB1 (1)

p(x) = α1 (1) + α2 (1 − x) + α3 (x + x2 ) = [α1 α2 α3 ]TB2

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Examples: Ex. 1
Ex 1: Express the polynomial p(x) = (3x2 + 2x + 5) under the
following basis.
a) B1 : {1, x, x2 } b) B2 : {1, (1 − x), (x + x2 )}
Soln:
p(x) = 5(1) + 2(x) + 3(x2 ) = [5 2 3]TB1 (1)

p(x) = α1 (1) + α2 (1 − x) + α3 (x + x2 ) = [α1 α2 α3 ]TB2 (2)

= (α1 + α2 ) + (α3 − α2 )x + (α3 )x2 (3)

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Examples: Ex. 1
Ex 1: Express the polynomial p(x) = (3x2 + 2x + 5) under the
following basis.
a) B1 : {1, x, x2 } b) B2 : {1, (1 − x), (x + x2 )}
Soln:
p(x) = 5(1) + 2(x) + 3(x2 ) = [5 2 3]TB1 (1)

p(x) = α1 (1) + α2 (1 − x) + α3 (x + x2 ) = [α1 α2 α3 ]TB2 (2)

= (α1 + α2 ) + (α3 − α2 )x + (α3 )x2 (3)
(4)

or     
5 1 1 0 α1
 2  =  0 −1 1   α2  (5)
3 B 0 0 1 α3 B
1 2

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Ex. 2

Ex 2: A point (a, b, c, d) ∈ R4 would be represented, under standard

basis as simply
 
a
 b 
 
 c 
d

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Ex. 2

Ex 2: A point (a, b, c, d) ∈ R4 would be represented, under standard

basis as simply
         
a 1 0 0 0
 b   0   1   0   0 
  = a  + b  + c  + d  (6)
 c   0   0   1   0 
d 0 0 0 1

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Ex. 3

Ex 3: All 2 × 2 upper-triangular matrices

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Ex. 3

Ex 3: All 2 × 2 upper-triangular matrices

Soln: Let us take a/two vectors in the vector space
 
a b
;
0 d

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Ex. 3

Ex 3: All 2 × 2 upper-triangular matrices

Soln: Let us take a/two vectors in the vector space
   
a b d e
;
0 d 0 f

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Ex. 3

Ex 3: All 2 × 2 upper-triangular matrices

Soln: Let us take a/two vectors in the vector space
     
a b d e a+d b+e
; Adding ⇒
0 d 0 f 0 d+f

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Ex. 3

Ex 3: All 2 × 2 upper-triangular matrices

Soln: Let us take a/two vectors in the vector space
     
a b d e a+d b+e
; Adding ⇒
0 d 0 f 0 d+f

Dimension = ?

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Ex. 3

Ex 3: All 2 × 2 upper-triangular matrices

Soln: Let us take a/two vectors in the vector space
     
a b d e a+d b+e
; Adding ⇒
0 d 0 f 0 d+f

Dimension = ? 3

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Ex. 3

Ex 3: All 2 × 2 upper-triangular matrices

Soln: Let us take a/two vectors in the vector space
     
a b d e a+d b+e
; Adding ⇒
0 d 0 f 0 d+f

Dimension = ? 3 And basis = ?

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Ex. 3

Ex 3: All 2 × 2 upper-triangular matrices

Soln: Let us take a/two vectors in the vector space
     
a b d e a+d b+e
; Adding ⇒
0 d 0 f 0 d+f

Dimension = ? 3 And basis = ? The common choice:

     
1 0 0 1 0 0
; ;
0 0 0 0 0 1

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Ex. 3

Ex 3: All 2 × 2 upper-triangular matrices

Soln: Let us take a/two vectors in the vector space
     
a b d e a+d b+e
; Adding ⇒
0 d 0 f 0 d+f

Dimension = ? 3 And basis = ? The common choice:

     
1 0 0 1 0 0
; ;
0 0 0 0 0 1

Seems easy ! But may not be intuitive always. See next example.

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Ex. 4

All 2 × 2 matrices with trace = 0. Soln: Let us take a/two vectors in

the vector space
 
a b
;
c −a

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Ex. 4

All 2 × 2 matrices with trace = 0. Soln: Let us take a/two vectors in

the vector space
   
a b d e
;
c −a f −d

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Ex. 4

All 2 × 2 matrices with trace = 0. Soln: Let us take a/two vectors in

the vector space
     
a b d e a+d b+e
; Adding ⇒
c −a f −d c + f −(a + d)

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Ex. 4

All 2 × 2 matrices with trace = 0. Soln: Let us take a/two vectors in

the vector space
     
a b d e a+d b+e
; Adding ⇒
c −a f −d c + f −(a + d)
Dimension = ?

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Ex. 4

All 2 × 2 matrices with trace = 0. Soln: Let us take a/two vectors in

the vector space
     
a b d e a+d b+e
; Adding ⇒
c −a f −d c + f −(a + d)
Dimension = ? Basis = ? Exercise !

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Dimension & ‘Degree of Freedom’

Things in an object can vary in how many ways ?

Example:

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Inner Product spaces

‘Multiplication’ of vectors : V × V → R
Dot(Scalar) -product of physical vectors

u · v = |u||v| cos θ

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Inner Product spaces

‘Multiplication’ of vectors : V × V → R
Dot(Scalar) -product of physical vectors

u · v = |u||v| cos θ (7)

= u1 v2 + u2 v2 + u3 v3

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Inner Product spaces

‘Multiplication’ of vectors : V × V → R
Dot(Scalar) -product of physical vectors

u · v = |u||v| cos θ (7)

= u1 v2 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 (8)
= < u, v > (9)

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Inner Product spaces

‘Multiplication’ of vectors : V × V → R
Dot(Scalar) -product of physical vectors

u · v = |u||v| cos θ (7)

= u1 v2 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 (8)
= < u, v > (9)

Abstraction:
A function V × V → R is an inner-product if
Symmetry: < u, v > = < v, u >
Homogeneity: < αu, v > = α < u, v >
Bi-linearity: < u + v, w > = < u, w > + < v, w >
Positive definiteness: < u, u >≥ 0, with equality iff u = 0.

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Examples: Few common inner products

Euclidean Inner Product in Euclidean Space: For u, v ∈ Rn

X
< u, v >= u1 v2 + u2 v2 + . . . un vn = uT v

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Examples: Few common inner products

Euclidean Inner Product in Euclidean Space: For u, v ∈ Rn

X
< u, v >= u1 v2 + u2 v2 + . . . un vn = uT v

A symmetric matrix A ∈ Rn×n is defined as Positive Definite if

xT Ax ≥ 0 with ‘ =0 iff x = 0. Then

< u, v >= uT Av

is an inner product.

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Few more inner products

If Pn is the space of all polynomials, and p(x), q(x) be two

polynomials, then

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Few more inner products

If Pn is the space of all polynomials, and p(x), q(x) be two

polynomials, then
Z b
< p, q >= p(x)q(x)dx
a

with a < b, is a (real) inner product.

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Few more inner products

If Pn is the space of all polynomials, and p(x), q(x) be two

polynomials, then
Z b
< p, q >= p(x)q(x)dx
a

with a < b, is a (real) inner product.

If f (t) & g(t) are from the space of continuous functions, then
Z ∞
< f, g >= f (t)g(t)dx
∞

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Orthogonality

In an inner-product (vector) space, any two vectors u, v are said to be

orthogonal, if
< u, v >= 0
.
Euclidean Space : Obvious
Continuous Functions :
Z ∞
< f, g >= f (t)g(t)dx = 0
∞

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Generalization to Complex Scalars

Abstraction:
A function V × V → R is an inner-product if
Symmetry: < u, v > = < v, u >∗
Homogeneity: < αu, v > = α < u, v >
Bi-linearity: < u + v, w > = < u, w > + < v, w >
Positive definiteness: < u, u >≥ 0, with equality iff u = 0.

Inner Product in Unitary Space: For u, v ∈ Rn

X
< u, v >= u1 v2 + u2 v2 + . . . un vn = u∗ v

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Generalization to Complex Scalars

Abstraction:
A function V × V → R is an inner-product if
Symmetry: < u, v > = < v, u >∗
Homogeneity: < αu, v > = α < u, v >
Bi-linearity: < u + v, w > = < u, w > + < v, w >
Positive definiteness: < u, u >≥ 0, with equality iff u = 0.

Inner Product in Unitary Space: For u, v ∈ Rn

X
< u, v >= u1 v2 + u2 v2 + . . . un vn = u∗ v

Z ∞
< f, g >= f (t)g ∗ (t)dx
∞

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-

Next day ...

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