Lecture #3 : MSW

Disposal & Resource

Recovery
Zaifah Binti Che Wil
Politeknik Sultan Idris Shah
Dept. of Civil Engineering
 Chapter Outline

1) Explain MSW disposal; sanitary landfill

2) Explain physical transformation of solid
waste
3) Explain chemical transformation of solid
waste
4) Explain biological transformation of solid
waste
 Solid waste disposal
Open dumping

Incineration

Landfill
Sustainability of Landfills

Landfilling is the least

preferred method in the
hierarchy of integrated
solid waste management.

Source: WASTE INCINERATION (2010) and AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT BANK (2002)

4
Is a Landfill an Open Dump?

Source: SUSANA on Flickr 2009

5
Is a Landfill an Open Dump?

Source: SUSANA on Flickr 2009

It is not an open dump, it is an

engineered facility in order to
protect the environment and
human health!
Source: LATROBE CITY COUNCIL (2005)

6
The Dump
Impacts from Dumps

Landfill Gas
Rainwater
Odor, Dust, Noise

Polluted Surface
Water Surface Water

Leachate

Polluted Groundwater Groundwater

 From Dump to Sanitary Landfill
Definitions

• Dump = Waste is discharge open without any management

causing hazards to human and environment

• Controlled Landfill = Waste is discharged in a pit and covered every day

• Engineered Landfill = Liner, cover, leachate treatment and gas

extraction (energy production or flared)

• Sanitary Landfill = engineered landfill + landfill gas extraction +

groundwater monitoring + highly trained staff +
water treatment facility + ...
 Landfill

• A landfill is an engineered method for land disposal of

solid and hazardous waste.
• Landfilling is the term used to describe the process by
which solid waste is placed in the landfill.
• The purpose of landfilling is to bury/ alter the chemical
composition of the waste so that they do not pose any
threat to environment/public health.

• Landfills for the disposal of hazardous wastes are called

secure landfills.
 Sanitary Landfill
• An engineered facility for the disposal of municipal solid waste (MSW) designed and operated to
minimize public health and environmental impacts.
• Sanitary landfills are sites where waste is isolated from the environment until it is safe. It is
considered when it has completely degraded biologically, chemically and physically.
In high-income countries, the level of isolation achieved may be high.
 SITE SELECTION

HYDROGEOLOGICAL ISOLATION FORMAL ENGINEERING

• Lining materials must be used to reduce
leakage and contamination of groundwater and
surrounding soil. The used liner can be as soil
synthetic material. Leachate collection and
treatment system must be provided as a basic
requirement.
PREPARATIONS
• These preparations must investigate for local
geological and Hydrogeological before develop
landfill site. Other than that, waste disposal
plan and final restoration plan are developing in
the formal engineering preparation.

PLANNED WASTE EMPLACEMENT

AND COVERING
• Waste emplacement planned should be spread
in layers and compacted. A small working area
is covered daily helps make the waste less PERMANENT CONTROL
accessible to pests and vermin. Landfill
• Permanent control is focuses on staff trained
classification in Malaysia
at the landfill to supervise site preparation and
construction, the depositing of waste and the
• Type I - control dumping regular operation and maintenance.
• Type II - Sanitary Landfill with daily
cover
• Type III - Sanitary Landfill with leachate
circulation
• Type IV - Sanitary Landfill with leachate
treatment
 Sanitary MSW Landfill Site selection

 Large enough to accommodate the SW needs of the area it serves (lifetime, 10 yrs, ...)
 Compatible with the local SW management programs
 Site must protect public health, safety, welfare, & environment
 Minimize adverse impacts on surrounding area
 Minimize adverse impacts on property value
 Minimize impacts on traffic flow
 Minimize potential for fire, spill, accidents
e.g. outside the 100 year flood plain
 Far from airports (birds) - jet airports, other airports
 Provide emergency response plan including notification, evacuation, & containment
procedures
 Sanitary MSW Landfill Site selection

 Land availability
 Haul distance
 Impact on SW management program
 Soil conditions and topography
 Geological conditions - unstable areas, seismic activity
 Hydrologic conditions (surface and ground water)
 Climatic conditions (rainfall and wind)
 Environmental and ecological conditions
 Public input and concerns
 Potential use after closure
 Characteristics of Landfill

1. Solid waste is placed in a suitably selected and prepared (lined) landfill site in a carefully
prescribed manner.

2. Waste built up in layers and compacted.

3. Wastes covered daily with soil, geo membranes, or other cover materials to
prevent lightweight wastes, dust, and odors from escaping and to discourage
vermin.

4. Most important feature of modern sanitary landfill design is the technology

used to prevent GW pollution.

5. It relies on containment rather than treatment.

Landfill planning, design and operation
Layout and design
Cell
• Volume of material placed in landfill during one operatingperiod
(usually in one day).
Daily cover
• Native soil or alternative material applied to working face of
landfill at the end of each operating period (6-12 in).
• To control the blowing of waste materials, to prevent rats, flies
and other disease vectors from entering or exiting the landfill.
• To control the entry of water into the landfill during operation.
Landfill planning, design and operation
Layout and design
Lifts
• Complete layer of cells over the active area of landfill.
•Landfills are comprised of a series of lifts.
Bench
• Used to maintain the slope stability of the landfill for the
placement of surface water drainage channels and location of
landfill gas recovery piping.
•Used when the height of the landfill will exceed 50-75 ft.
Final cover layer
• Applied to the entire landfill surface after all landfilling operations
are complete.
• The final cover usually consists of multiple layers of soil and/or
geomembrane materials designed to enhance surface drainage,
intercept percolating water and support surface vegetation.
 Landfill planning, design and operation
Operation and management

Definition sketch for landfill operations andprocesses

 Landfill planning, design and operation
Development and completion of landfill
Excavation and installation of landfill liner
Landfill planning, design and operation
Development and completion of landfill
Landfilling
Landfill planning, design and operation
Development and completion of landfill
Completed Landfilling
Landfill planning, design and operation
Landfill gas
• Mixture of gases found within a landfill.
• Consists of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
• Others include nitrogen, oxygen, ammonia and trace organic
compound.
Leachate
• Liquid collect at the bottom of the landfill.
• Results from the percolation of precipitation, uncontrolled runoff
and irrigation water into the landfill.
Landfill planning, design and operation
Landfill Liner
• Material used to line the bottom
area and below grade side of the
landfill.
• Usually consists of a layers of
compacted clay and/or
geomembrane material designed
to prevent migration of landfill
leachate and gas.
 Landfill planning, design and operation

Landfill Control Facilities

• Include liners, landfill leachate collection and extraction systems, landfill gas
collection and extraction systems and daily and final cover layers.
Environmental monitoring
• Involves the activities associated with collection and analysis of water and air
samples, that are used to monitor the movement of landfill gases and leachate at
the landfill site.
Landfill closure
• Step taken to close and secure a landfill site after the filling operation is completed.
Post-closure
• Activities associated with long term monitoring and maintenance of completed
landfill (30-50 years).
 Landfill Design

How landfill works?

 Methods of landfill

Excavated Cell/Trench method (Below ground level)

Area method (Above ground level)

• At the end of each days operation a 150-300 mm of layer of cover material is placed over the
completed landfill.
• A completed lift, including the cover material is called a cell
Canyon/depression method

• Technique involves placement and compaction of SW in canyon/ depression.

• Control of surface drainage is often a critical factor in this method.
• Filling starts at the headed of canyon and ends at mouth, to prevent accumulation of water
behind the landfill.
Canyon landfill
 Decomposition of refuse in landfills
Three main reaction occur in landfill which is:
1. Biological.
• Involve organic material which produce gas and liquids.

2. Chemical.
• Involve landfill material and biological conversion product.

2. Physical.
• Involve the gases and leachate.
 8.3.4 Reactions - biological
• Biotransformation of organics into landfill gases and„liquids.
• Starting with aerobic, then followed by anaerobic processes.
• Occur aerobically for short period after deposition of solid
waste until the present of oxygen depleted.
• Main gas produce is CO2 during aerobic decomposition. Aerobic
process produces CO2 and H2O„.
• Once the O2 depleted, decomposition become anaerobicand
the organic matter is converted to CO2, CH4, NH3 andH2S.
 8.3.4 Reactions - chemical
• Important chemical reaction occur:
1. Dissolution and suspension of material and biological product
in the liquid percolating through the waste.
2. Evaporation and vaporization of chemical compound and water
into the evolving landfill gas.
3. Sorption of organic compound into landfill material.
4. Dehalogenation and decomposition of organic.
5. Oxidation- reduction of metal.
6. Solubility of metal salts.
• Other than reaction occur between the waste, there also
reaction between organic compound and clay liner (affect the
structure and permeability).
 8.3.4 Reactions - physical

• Mostly due to:

1. Lateral diffusion and emission of gases to the surrounding
environment (build up of internal pressure which crack the
landfill cover, may also pose combustion or explosion hazard).
2. Movement of leachate within the landfill and into underlying
soils. (migrate downward and sweep down other compound,
also occupied pore spaces in landfill).
3. Settlement cause by consolidation and decomposition of waste.
 Decomposition of refuse in landfills

• Decomposition results in the release of:

– liquids (leachate)
must be contained in the landfill and treated prior to
release
– gases
must be managed as they escape through the landfill
cover, or are collected for burning or storage
Leachate collection system

• Leachate may be defined as the

liquid that has percolated through
solidwaste and has extracted
dissolved or suspended materials
from it.
• The rate of seepage of leachate from the bottom of a
landfill is estimated by Darcys law. Leachate collection conduits

• The use of clay has favored in reducing the leachate

percolation .
 Liner systems

Single liner Composite liner

Double liner

Example

Sand Gravel Geonet

Landfill gas

• In most of the cases as the anaerobic

decomposition of the wastes
predominates the decomposition process
the gases obtain are Carbon dioxide and
methane.
• Carbon dioxide as result of its density
will move towards the groundwater
which can lower the pH of the
groundwater and increases the hardness
and mineral content in the ground water.
 Composition Of Landfill Gas

Gases % dry volume basis

Methane 45-60
Carbon dioxide 40-60
Nitrogen 2-5
Ammonia 0.1- 1
Oxygen 0.1- 1
Hydrogen 0-0.2
Carbon monoxide 0-0.2
Gas venting system

• The lateral movement of gases produced in a landfill Can be controlled by installing vents made of
materials that are more permeable than surrounding soil.

• The spacing of vents depends on width of waste cells but usually varies from 18 to 60 m.
Outlet for Gas venting system

• Barrier or well vents also can be used to

control the lateral movement of gases.

• Well vents also can be used to control

the lateral movement of gases.
• The movement of landfill gases through
adjacent soil formations can be
controlled by constructions of Barriers
that are more impermeable than soil

Eg; bentonites, butyl rubber, illites etc;

THANK YOU…..
 Transformation means a process of reduction of waste by volume and weight and
recovering the energy from them.
 Energy recovery from waste is the conversion of non-recyclable waste materials into usable
heat, electricity, or fuel through a variety of processes, including combustion, gasification,
pyrolization, anaerobic digestion and landfill gas recovery. This process is often called
waste to energy.
 Typically waste transformations are used to improve the efficiency of solid waste and
management systems, to recover reusable and recyclable materials, and to recover
conversion products and energy which include the following method they are -

1) Physical transformation
2) Chemical transformation
3) Biological transformation
 Physical Transformations
• The principal physical transformations that may occur in the
operation of solid waste management systems include:
– component separation
– mechanical volume reduction
– mechanical size reduction

• Physical transformations do not involve change in phase

(e.g., solid to gas), unlike chemical and biological
transformation.
• All three of these processes are often classified as volume
reduction processes
Component separation or sorting
• Done mechanically or manually, at source or at a transfer station
• Key process to recover recyclables and remove Hazardous waste components

Mechanical volume and size

reduction
• Reduces storage, transport and disposal costs
• Paper, cardboard, plastics, and aluminum cans
are baled using balers (photo)
• Waste collection vehicles are equipped with
compaction mechanisms
• Fireplace logs from recycled paper and
cardboard (re-use) Baling
 Chemical Transformations
Thermal treatment involves conversion of waste into gaseous, liquid and solid
conversion products with concurrent or subsequent release of heat energy. Three
types of systems can be adopted, namely:

1. Combustion (Incinerator)
 Thermal processing with excess amounts of air.
 Key products are N2, CO2, H2O, O2, Ash, and
 Heat is generated (exothermic reactions)
 Used for waste to energy plants
 Chemical Transformations
2. Pyrolysis
 Thermal processing in complete absence of oxygen (low temperature).
 Endothermic reactions (heat is sucked by the reaction)
 Organic fraction transforms into H2, CH4, CO2, trace gases, tar

3. Gasification
 Thermal processing with less amount of air (high temperature).
 Partial combustion of carbonaceous fuel to generate combustible fuel
gas rich in CO, H2, saturated hydrocarbons (CH4)
 Internal combustion engine can be used to burn the combustible fuel
gas to generate energy
 Energy Recovery from the Combustion of
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)

• The most common and proven methods used to combust solid

waste are
– Mass Burn Facilities
– Modular Systems
– Refuse Derived Fuel Systems (RDF)
 Mass Burn Facilities
– Mass burn refers to the incineration of unsorted municipal waste in a Municipal Waste
Combustor (MWC) or other incinerator designated to burn only waste from municipalities.

– These plants can vary in size and can process between 25 and 3,000 tons per day depending on
their size and demand.

– All waste received at the facility is shredded into small pieces and fed into the incinerator. Steam
produced in the incinerator's boiler can be used to generate electricity or to heat nearby buildings.

– The residual ash and unburnable materials, representing about 10-20 percent of the original
volume of waste, are taken to a landfill for disposal.

– The ash created from the combustion process is collected from beneath and through a air
Pollution control system above so to prevent air pollutants from escaping.
 Modular Systems
– Modular Systems burn unprocessed, mixed MSW. They differ from mass burn facilities in that they
are much smaller and are portable. They can be moved from site to site.
– Modular incinerator units are usually prefabricated units with small to medium capacities of
between 5 and 120 tons of solid waste per day.
– Due to their small capacity, modular incinerators are generally used in smaller communities or for
commercial and industrial operations.
– The majority of modular units produce steam as the sole energy product.

The lower chamber operates at low interior

gas velocities under controlled temperature
conditions. The upper chamber completes
the oxidation reactions of the combustible
products. Source: CONSUTECH (2004)
 Refuse Derived Fuel Systems
– Refuse-derived fuel (RDF) is a solid fuel
produced by shredding municipal solid
waste (MSW). Noncombustible materials
such as glass and metals are generally
removed prior to making RDF. The
residual material is sold as-is or
compressed into pellets, bricks, or logs.

– RDF processing facilities are typically

located near a source of MSW, while the
RDF combustion facility can be located
elsewhere. Existing RDF facilities process
between 100 and 3,000 tons per day.
 Effect of thermal process to
the environment
ADVANTAGES OF THERMAL /
INCINERATION
Efficient use of space
Elimination of groundwater
contamination
Energy generation
Lower carbon footprint
Can accept a wide range of wastes.
DISADVANTAGES OF THERMAL /
INCINERATION
High incineration plant costs
Emissions of toxic pollutants
Pollution control equipment is
expensive
Ash produced (approximately 10% of
input mass dependent upon
constituents), may enquire to be
disposed of in a hazardous waste
landfill due to heavy metal content
 Biological Transformations
• The biological transformations of the organic fraction of Solid Waste may be used:
a) to reduce the volume and weight of the material
b) to produce compost, a humus like material that can be used as a soil
conditioner
c) to produce methane , CO2, traces gas

• The principle organisms involved in the biological transformation of organic waste are
bacteria, fungi, yeasts and actinomycetes.

• These transformation may be accomplished either aerobically or anaerobically depending on

the availability of oxygen.

• Biological Processes (used for the conversion of the organic fraction of MSW)
(1) Aerobic composting
(2) Anaerobic Digestion
(3) High-solid anaerobic Digestion
 Biological Transformations
1. Aerobic Composting
•Decomposition of organic fraction of waste in presence of oxygen
• The rate of degradation is a function of these key factors: organic fraction in
waste, temperature, moisture content, and available nutrients
• Key reaction products include: resistant organic matter (containing lignin),
CO2, H2O, NH3, sulfates, and Heat

2. Anaerobic Digestion
• Decomposition of organic fraction of waste in absence of oxygen (an-aerobic)
• Key reaction products include: resistant organic matter, CH4 and CO2, H2S,
NH3, sulfates, and Heat
• Odor issues due to formation of methane
• CH4 and CO2 equally constitute about 99% of total gas production
• Resistant organic matter is a sludge with relatively high water content. Hence,
needs dewatering before disposal or transportation.
Biological Process of Composting: Aerobic
Aerobic Decomposition: is the process where organic matter is digested by
microorganisms under aerobic conditions resulting in a rise in temperature and the
formation of carbon dioxide and water in addition to humus-rich compost.

Microorganisms + OM -------> H2O + CO2 + Heat + Humus

4 phases under optimal conditions

(1) Mesophilic - slightly rotted material exists, in which mainly bacterial degradation of
easily degradable substances takes place (~40oC)
(2) Thermophilic - fresh compost is produced where further degradation of easily
degradable materials as well as degradation of cellulose, (55oC–65oC)
(3) Cooling phase - Finished compost. A decrease in microbial activity and temperature
occur in this phase.
(4) Maturation phase - Matured compost. Very low microbial activity with further
formation of humid substances and stabilization take place.
 Composting
It is an aerobic, biological process which uses naturally occurring microorganisms to convert biodegradable
organic matter into a humus-like product

Composting organisms require four equally important

things to work effectively:

Carbon — for energy; the microbial oxidation of carbon

produces the heat, if included at suggested levels. High
carbon materials tend to be brown and dry.

Nitrogen — to grow and reproduce more organisms to

oxidize the carbon. High nitrogen materials tend to be
green (or colorful, such as fruits and vegetables) and wet.

Oxygen — for oxidizing the carbon, the decomposition

process.

Water — in the right amounts to maintain activity

without causing anaerobic conditions.
A large compost pile that is steaming with the
heat generated by thermophilic microorganisms.
Types and Method of Composting

• Onsite Composting
• Vermicomposting
• Aerated (Turned) Windrow Composting
• Aerated Static Pile Composting
• In-Vessel Composting
 Onsite Composting
• Organizations that are going to compost small amounts of wasted food can compost
onsite.
• Composting can significantly reduce the amount of wasted food that is thrown away.
• Yard trimmings and small quantities of food scraps can be composted onsite.
• Animal products and large quantities of food scraps are not appropriate for onsite
composting.
 Vermicomposting
• Red worms in bins feed on food scraps, yard
trimmings, and other organic matter to create
compost.
• The worms break down this material into high quality
compost called castings. Worm bins are easy to
construct and are also available for purchase.
• One pound of mature worms (approximately 800-
1,000 worms) can eat up to half a pound of organic
material per day.
• The bins can be sized to match the volume of food
scraps that will be turned into castings.
• It typically takes three to four months to produce
usable castings. The castings can be used as potting
soil.
 Aerated (Turned) Windrow Composting
• Aerated or turned windrow composting is suited for large
volumes such as that generated by entire communities and
collected by local governments, and high volume food-
processing businesses (e.g., restaurants, cafeterias, packing
plants).
• This type of composting involves forming organic waste into
rows of long piles called “windrows” and aerating them
periodically by either manually or mechanically turning the
piles. The ideal pile height is between four and eight feet
with a width of 14 to 16 feet. This size pile is large enough to
generate enough heat and maintain temperatures. It is small
enough to allow oxygen flow to the windrow's core.
• Large volumes of diverse wastes such as yard trimmings,
grease, liquids, and animal byproducts (such as fish and
poultry wastes) can be composted through this method.
 Aerated Static Pile Composting
• Aerated static pile composting produces compost
relatively quickly (within three to six months).
• It is suitable for a relatively homogenous mix of
organic waste and work well for larger quantity
generators of yard trimmings and compostable
municipal solid waste (e.g., food scraps, paper
products), such as local governments, landscapers, or
farms. This method, however, does not work well for
composting animal byproducts or grease from food
processing industries.
• In aerated static pile composting, organic waste
mixed in a large pile. To aerate the pile, layers of
loosely piled bulking agents (e.g., wood chips,
shredded newspaper) are added so that air can pass
from the bottom to the top of the pile.
 In-Vessel Composting
• In-vessel composting can process large amounts of waste
without taking up as much space as the windrow method and it
can accommodate virtually any type of organic waste (e.g.,
meat, animal manure, biosolids, food scraps).
• This method involves feeding organic materials into a drum,
silo, concrete-lined trench, or similar equipment.
• This allows good control of the environmental conditions such
as temperature, moisture, and airflow.
• The material is mechanically turned or mixed to make sure the
material is aerated. The size of the vessel can vary in size and
capacity.
• This method produces compost in just a few weeks. It takes a
few more weeks or months until it is ready to use because the
microbial activity needs to balance and the pile needs to cool.
Biological Process of Composting: Anaerobic
Anaerobic digestion is a degradation of organic material by bacteria in the absence of
air (anaerobic). Thereby, the organic material is transformed into biogas, a renewable
and green energy. Four stages:

•Hydrolysis
◦ Cleavage of a chemical compound through the reaction with water.
◦ Insoluble complex molecules are broken down to short sugars, fatty acids and amino
acids.
•Fermentation (Acidogenesis)
◦ Products from hydrolysis are transformed into organic acids, alcohols, carbon dioxide
(CO2), hydrogen (H) and ammonia (NH3).
•Acetogenesis
◦ Organic acids and alcohols are converted into hydrogen (H2), carbon dioxide (CO2) and
acetic acid (CH3COOH). Therefore, oxygen is consumed and anaerobic conditions are
created
•Methanogenesis
◦ Methanogenic bacteria (methanogenesis), transform the acetic acid, carbon dioxide and
hydrogen into biogas.
 Be oxygen free

Not contain
Have a constant inhibiting salt
solids loading (may be heavy
rate. metals or excess
ammonia)

REQUIREMENT FACTOR FOR FACTOR FOR

ANAEROBIC
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION TO DIGESTION
KEEP IN DYNAMIC Be temperature
REQUIREMENT
TO KEEP IN
EQUILIBRIUM steady at either
Mesophilic or
DYNAMIC
EQUILIBRIUM IS
Have a 6.5 < pH
< 7.5
thermophilic
conditions

Have sufficient
Be of adequate
nutrients
alkalinity, 1500 to
phosphorus and
7500 mg/L
nitrogen
 Anaerobic Digester
Source: HOLLIGER
1. Airtight chamber, filled with green waste (2008)

2. Anaerobic digestion takes place

3. Sludge settles on the bottom
4. Gas bubbles to the top where it is collected

Reaction temperature is > 35 to 55 °C: mesophilic or thermophilic range

Either continuous or in batch mode:

• Batch: filled and left for digestion; After the hydraulic retention time (HRT) emptied
and filled again for a new cycle
• Continuously-stirred tank reactor (CSTR): continuous in/out flow and mixing
• Plug-flow reactor: the sludge moves through the reactor much like a train to a tunnel,
with a velocity corresponding to the minimal HRT
Examples: Small-scale digesters

Household
floating-drum
http://www.open2.net/blo
gs/media/blogs/Biogas_pla
nt_Kerala.jpg
digesters

Source: F.
HEEB

Portable
reactors form
the Indian
NGO BIOTECH

http://images01.olx.in/ui/4/96/20
http://colli239.fts.educ.msu.edu/wp- /67509620_1-Install-biotech-
content/uploads/2009/05/biotech2007cc.jpg [Accessed: 04.06.2010] portable-biogas-plants-and-
convert-food-waste-to-biogas-
Vazhuthacaud.jpg [Accessed:
04.06.2010] 71
Examples: Large-scale digesters

Source: BRUYN (2006)

http://www.klima-sucht-schutz.de/mitmachen/klima-
quiz/lexikon.html []Accessed: 04.06.2010

Source: BRUYN (2006) Source: BRUYN (2006)

72
What is Biogas ?

Biogas is a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide.

The properties of biogas are similar to the ones of natural gas.
Biogas is the common name for the mixture of gases released from anaerobic
digestion.
Typically biogas is composed of:

Methane (CH4) 50 to 75 %
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 25 to 50 %
Hydrogen (H) 5 to 10 %
Nitrogen (N2) 1 to 2 %
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) Traces
Sources: YADAV & HESSE (1981); FAO (1996); PIPOLI (2005); GTZ (2009
Source: MUENCH (2008)

Methane is the valuable part of the biogas. Biogas that contains about 60 to 70 % of
CH4 has a calorific value of about 6 kWh/m3 what corresponds to about half an L of
diesel oil. (ISAT/GTZ 1999, Vol. I)
73
Factors Influencing Composting Process

• Nutrient Balance
• Particle Size
• Moisture Content
• Oxygen Flow
• Temperature
 Design considerations for composting systems
Item Comment

Carbon to Initial C/N ratio should be 20:1 to 35:1 by weight*. The ratio
nitrogen ratio reduces during composting process because of carbon loss and
nitrogen accumulation
Air requirements Air with at least 50% oxygen remaining should reach all parts of the
composting material
Moisture content Moisture content of the composting mixture should not be > 60%
for static pile and windrow composting and not > 65% for in-vessel
composting
pH control pH should be 6 to 9; optimally 7 to 7.5

Temperature Temperature should be 50 to 55°C for the first few days and 55-
60°C for the remainder of the active composting period
Control of To kill all pathogens, temperature must be maintained between 60
pathogens and 70°C for 24 hours
Mixing and Material should be mixed or turned on a regular schedule
turning
* See table slide after next for some example C/N values (be aware that it is not so easy to measure
the C/N ratio: you will require access to a laboratory for this)

Source: Metcalf & Eddy (2003), page 1552

 Advantages of Composting
• Reducing the weight and the size of the solid waste dumped
in landfills, and thus increasing the design life of landfills
• Return of organic matter and nutrients to the natural cycle
through the application of compost to the soil.
• Stabilization of organic matter in the waste to become a
non- degradable material when land filled. This makes
landfills more stable and reduces biogas production to a
great extent.
• Material gain from selling the compost and reduce
unemployment.
THANK YOU…..

THE END OF CHAPTER 3 ~

ASSESSMENT ;TEST 2
NEXT CHAPTER 4 : 3R CONCEPTS