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bio:​ lt #1 ; 1st sem  communit - all populations that occupy the same 
c. life maintains internal constancy 
  > ​homeostasis  
y  region   
- a cell or organism maintains this state of internal constancy 
1.1 what is life?  - all populations in savanna   
or equilibrium  
> ​cell ​- basic unit of life  - ability to sense and react - vital part of homeostasis 
-> every ​organism ​consists of one or more cells   ecosystem  - living and non living components of an  ** shiver- go outside on a cold day  
-> has an outer membrane that separates it from its  area - the savanna  ** lips & fingertips turns blue- circulatory system sends blood 
surroundings   away from your body’s surface  
-> ​encloses the water and other chemicals   biosphere  - global ecosystem- parts of the planet and  ** sweat- hot day; helps cool your body  
-> cells use genetic instructions to ​produce proteins​- carry  its atmosphere where life is possible    
out their functions    
   
> ​emergent properties  d. life reproduce, grows & develops   
a. life is organized  -> reproduction ​transmits ​DNA from generation to generation  
​- new functions that arise from interactions among a system’s 
levels of biological organization:  components  >> defines the inherited characteristics of the offspring  
-> apparent in all life    
- explain why structural organization is closely tied to function  
> single-celled bacteria - contain DNA, proteins, & other  two basic ways of reproduction: 
** when a function is interrupted, the corresponding structure 
molecules that interact in highly organized ways   1. ​asexual reproduction  
eventually breaks down 
atom  - smallest chemical unit of a type of pure  ** biological function & form are interdependent   -> genetic info from 1 parent  
-> all offspring are virtually identical  
substance    
- ex. Carbon atom   ** multicellular organisms 
b. life requires energy   ** strawberry plants - “runners” sprout leaves and roots  
> ​metabolism  
 
molecule  - group of joined atoms   - chemical reactions that sustain life  
2. ​sexual reproduction 
- ex. dna   - allows organisms to acquire and use energy and nutrients to 
-> genetic material from 2 parent individuals unites to form an 
build new structures, repair old ones, and reproduce  
offspring  
organelle   - a membrane-bound structure that has a   
-> new combination of inherited traits  
specific function within the cell   LIFE IS CONNECTED  
-> produces tremendous diversity in populations  
- ex. chloroplast  -> all organisms extract energy and nutrients from the 
** genetic diversity -enhances the chance that some indiv will 
non-living organisms 
survive even of conditions change  
cell  - fundamental unit of life  -> decomposers recycle nutrients back to the non-living 
** very successful strategy  
- multicellular organisms consist of many  environment 
 
cells    
​e. life evolves  
- unicellular organisms consist of one cell  producers  - ​autotrophs   > ​adaptation  
- ex. leaf cell  - make their own food by extracting  - inherited characteristics or behavior that enables an 
energy & nutrients from non-living  organism to survive and reproduce successfully in the 
tissue  - collection of specialized cells that function  sources   environment  
in a coordinated fashion   ** plants - capture light energy from the  >> ​natural selection  
- multicellular life only   sun   - populations produce many offspring that will survive 
- ex. epidermis of a leaf  ** some bacteria - chemical energy from  to reproduce  
the rocks   ** must compete for limited resources (food & 
organ  - consist of tissues organized to interact and  habitat) 
carry out specific functions   consumers  - ​heterotrophs   - No organisms are exactly the same  
- multicellular life only   - obtain energy and nutrients by eating  ** ​genetic mutations ​- changes in an organism’s 
- ex. Leaf.   other organisms, living or dead  DNA sequence  
** humans   ** generate variability in all organisms, even in 
organ  - connected physically or chemically that  asexual repro  
system  function together    decomposers  - ​heterotrophs   - ​survive long enough to reproduce? ​best adaptations to the 
- ex. aboveground part of a plant   - absorb energy and nutrients from  current environment ; best traits in the new environment  
wastes of dead organisms   - enhanced reproductive success of certain indiv from a 
organism  - single living individual - ex. one acacia  ** fungi & bacteria   population based on inherited characteristics  
tree   
  >> if antibiotics are present- drug kills most of the unmutated 
-> energy transfers are ​not 100% efficient   cells  
population   - group of same species of organisms living  ** energy is always lost in the form of heat   -> mutated cells is unaffected and can reproduce  
in the same place and time    ** heat represents a permanent loss from the cycle of life   -> after many generations of exposure to the drug, 
- multiple acasia trees   -> all ecosystem depend on ​a continuous stream of energy  antibiotic-resistant cells ​ are common  
from the ​sun    
 
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> ​evolution   - highly coordinated biochemical activities carry out the basic  - nutrients, water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and waste products 
- change in the genetic makeup of a population over multiple  functions of life   enter or leave through its surface  
generations     - each cell must have abundant surface area to 
- single most powerful idea in biology   a. single lenses revealed the first glimpses of cells   accommodate these changes  
** all species have evolved from a common ancestor     >> ​small size maximizes the ratio of surface area to volume  
** molded the life that has populated the planet since the first  >> low surface area minimize the exchange of materials or 
cells have formed   robert hooke  - cork (oak tree)  heat with the environment  
> ​CHARLES DARWIN- ​theory of evolution by natural selection  - “cells” - looked like cubicles    
  - new field of science: biology 
3.2 diff cell types characterized life’s 3 
1.2 tree of life - 3 main branches  domain 
mathias j, schleiden  - used diff observations in plant & 
> ​taxonomy   > ​prokaryotes  
theo- containsdor  animal cells to formulate the cell 
- science of naming and classifying organisms   - simplest and most ancient forms of life  
schwann   theory  
** scientific names help taxonomists and other biologists  - lack a nucleus  
>> all organisms are made of one 
communicate with each other   ** pro - before ; karyon - kernel  
or more cells 
> ​species   >> referring to the nucleus  
>> cell is the fundamental unit of 
- designates a distinctive “type” of organism    
all life  
> ​genus   > ​eukaryotes  
- closely related species are grouped  - contain a nucleus  
  rudolf virchow  - all cells come from preexisting 
cells   - other membranous organelles  
3 DOMAINS   
PROKARYOTES   >> the cell theory is ​potentially falsifiable ​yet many lines of  > ​charles woese  
>> DNA is free in the cell and not confined to an organelle  evidence support each of its components   - key molecules in many cell types  
called a ​nucleus   >> one of the most powerful ideas in biology   - prokaryotes actually include 2 forms of life that are distantly 
> ​domain bacteria     related to each other  
- Cells lack nuclei (prokaryotic) 
b. microscopes magnify cell structures  >> 3 domains: bacteria, archaea, eukarya  
- Most are unicellular   - cells are typically smaller than this lower limit of human   
> ​domain archaea  vision  
- Cells lack nuclei (prokaryotic) 
a. bacteria & archaea contain prokaryotic organism  
>> require that cells be killed    
- Most are unicellular   >> they produce only black-and-white images  
    BACTERIA  most abundant and diverse organisms  
DOMAIN EUKARYA   ** bacteria living in your skin and inside your 
-> cells contain nuclei (eukaryotic) 
c. all cells have features in common  
intestinal tract are essential for good health  
-> unicellular or multicellular    
-> cells contains nucleus   DNA   cell’s genetic information  NUCLEOID  - area where the cell’s circular DNA 
  molecule congregates  
> ​protista (multiple kingdoms)  RNA   participates in the production of proteins   ** bacterial nucleoid is not bounded by a 
- unicellular or multicellular   membrane  
- autotrophs or heterotrophs  
PROTEINS  essential to life because they carry out all 
>> huge collection of unrelated species   CELL  - surrounds the cell membrane  
of the cell’s work; processing energy, 
>> a convenient but artificial “none of the above:”  WALL  - protects the cell ; gives shape 
regulating what enters & leaves the cell 
  - prevents it from bursting if it absorbs too 
 
> ​kingdom animalia   much water  
- multicellular  
- heterotrophs (by ingestion)  RIBOSOMES  structures that manufacture proteins  
FLAGELLA   - tail-like appendages that enable these 
 
CELL  - plasma membrane; lipid-rich   cells to move  
> ​kingdom fungi  
MEMBRANE   - forms a boundary between the cell and  - bacterial flagella rotate like a propeller, 
- most are multicellular  
its environment   moving the cell forward or backward  
- heterotrophs (by external digestion) 
>> archaean cells- resemble bacterial cells 
 
CYTOPLASM   - includes all cell contents   in some ways  
> ​kingdom plantae  
>> except the nucleus, in cells that have  - Smaller than most eukaryotic cells 
- multicellular  
one   - Lack a nucleus and other 
- autotrophs  
organelles  
 
- one - celled organism  
3.1 cells are the units of life  CYTOPLASM   - fluid portion of the cytoplasm  
** archaeas have their own domain, build 
> ​cells     their cells out of biochemicals 
- all organisms consist of one or more microscopic structures   > ​why cells are tiny? 
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** ribosomes- share similarities with those of  transport proteins   - create passageways  - between the nucleus, and the cell 
bacteria & eukaryotes   through which ions,  membrane  
** archaea are ​closest relatives ​of  glucose, & other polar  ** ​CYTOSOL​ - watery mixture of ions, 
eukaryotes   substances pass in and out  enzymes, RNA and dissolved 
substances  
  ** ​CYTOSKLETON ​- organelles and 
enzymes  - facilitate chemical 
b. domain eukarya contains org with complex cells   reactions   arrays of protein rods and tubules  
> eukaryotic cells - large size    
> cytoplasm - divided into organelles (carry out specialized  >> ribosomes that produce proteins for 
functions)  recognition proteins  - carbohydrates attached to 
cell surface   use inside the cell are free floating in the 
> organelles  cytoplasm  
- keep related biochemicals close enough to make them  - “name tags”- help immune 
function properly   system recognize its own 
cells   ENDOPLASMIC  - network of sacs and tubules 
 
RETICULUM  composed of membranes  
COMPARTMENTALIZATION  
adhesion proteins   - enable the cells to stick  - originates at the nuclear envelope and 
- cell maintains high concentrations of each biochemicals  
together   winds throughout the cell  
- without alerting or harming other cellular contents  
>> endoplasmic = “within the cytoplasm” 
 
>> reticulum = network  
  receptor proteins   - bind to molecules outside 
3.3 membrane separates each cell from  the cell and trigger a 
response inside the cell   ROUGH ER  - ribosomes give these membranes a 
surroundings   rougher appearance  
> ​cell membrane    
- separates the cytoplasm from the cell’s surroundings   3.4 eukaryotic organelles divide labor  SMOOTH ER  - synthesizes lipids 
- transport substances in and out the cell   > ​endomembrane system   - houses enzymes that detoxify drugs 
- receives and responds to external stimuli   - consists of interacting organelles   and poisons  
- ​“fluid mosaic”​ - many molecules draft laterally within the   
bilayer   > ​vesicles   GOLGI  - stack of flat membrane-enclosed sacs 
  - small membranous spheres that transport materials inside  APPARATUS  that functions as a processing center  
> ​phospholipids   the cell   >> proteins from ER passes through 
- organic molecules that resemble triglycerides  - “bubbles” - pinch off from the organelle   GOLGI => complete their intricate folding 
>> triglyceride- 3 fatty acids attach to 3 carbon glycerol    & be functional  
molecule   a. nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi- secrete  - ​sorts & packages ​materials into 
- ​glycerol bonds to only 2 fatty acids ; third carbon binds to a    vesicles, ​move ​towards the membrane  
phosphate group attached to only 2 fatty acids 
  NUCLEUS   - contains DNA in eukaryotic cells    
>> ​DNA: ​informational molecule that  b. lysosomes, vacuoles, peroxisomes- digestion 
“head”  “tails”  specifies the “recipe” for every protein of   
the cell can make  
- attracted to water   - two fatty acids   >> ​mRNA: ​messenger ; copied code is  LYSOSOMES  - containing enzymes that dismantle and 
- HYDROPHILIC   - HYDROPHOBIC   encoded here   recycle food particles, captured 
-> ​selective permeability   -> exit through the nuclear pores   bacteria, worn-out organelles, debris 
-> some but not all substances can  >> ​lyse = ​cut apart  
pass through   - ​originated ​from rough ER  
NUCLEAR  -> holes in the double-membrane 
** lipids & small, nonpolar molecules,  - detects it by the ​sugar attached  
PORES  nuclear envelope  
O2 & CO2 pass freely   - vesicles -> lysosomes 
  -> highly specialized channel that 
** blocks ions & polar molecules  - lysosome’s enzymes 
consists of dozen of proteins  
from passing through  > break down the large organic 
molecules into smaller subunits by 
  NUCLEAR  -> separates the nucleus from the  hydrolysis = ​cytosol for the cell to use  
-> PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER: a double layer of phospholipids   ENVELOPE  cytoplasm    
-> ​steroid molecules ​- membrane’s fluidity as the    * lysosome’s membrane maintains the 
temperature fluctuates   pH of the organelle’s interior at about 4.8 
-> ​proteins   NUCLEOLUS  - dense spot that assembles the  much more acidic  
- especially important to its function     components of ribosomes  ** a cell injured by extreme cold, heat or 
  physical stress may initiate its own death 
  CYTOPLASM  - remainder of the cell   by bursting all of its lysosomes at once  
>> ​white blood cells ​- many lysosomes; 
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  - Impart shape, regulate cell volume, and prevent 
engulf and dispose of debris and  ENDOSYMBIOSIS THEORY  bursting when a cell takes too much water  
bacteria   -> mitochondria & chloroplasts- ​own DNA and ribosomes   ** cellulose- fibers = great strength  
** liver cells = lysosomes -> burn  >> both surrounded by double membrane    
cholesterol     > ​PLASMODESMATA  
   - Communicate with neighbors  
VACUOLES   -> plant cells - ​central vacuole = ​watery  - Tunnels in the cell wall  
solution of enzymes that degrade and 
3.5 cytoskleton supports eukaryotic cells  
> ​CYTOSKELETON    
recycle molecules and organelles   >> animal cells have no cell walls  
> as the vacuole acquires water, it exerts  - an intricate network of protein “tracks” and tubules  
- structural framework with many functions   ** complex extracellular matrix that holds them together and 
pressure (turgor pressure)  coordinates many aspects of cellular life  
** ​TURGOR PRESSURE​- helps plants stay  -> ​transportation system  
- provides physical support necessary to maintain the cell’s   
rigid and upright   TYPES OF JUNCTIONS  
-> vacuole’s solution is ​somewhat acidic   characteristic 3D shape  
-> ​aids in cell division   TIGHT  - fuses animal cell together 
- helps connect cells with one another   JUNCTION  - impermeable barrier between them  
PEROXISOMES   - contain several types of enzymes that 
  - allow the body to control where 
dispose of toxic substances  
> ​3 MAJOR COMPONENTS   biochemicals move  
- originated from ER  
 
- concentration is high that the proteins 
condense into easily recognized crystals   MICROFILAMENTS  - thinnest component   ANCHORING  - connects animal cells to its neighbors  
** in liver & kidney- help dismantle toxins  - part of nearly all  JUNCTION   - extracellular matrix  
from the blood   eukaryotic cells   - hold skin cells in place  
** break down fatty acids and produce  - strength for the cells to 
cholesterol and some other lipids   survive stretching &  GAP  - links the cytoplasm  
compression   JUNCTION   - analogous to plasmodesmata in plants  
  - help anchor to one  ** link heart muscle cells to one another, 
  another   allowing groups of cells to contract 
c. mitochondria extract energy from nutrients   together 
> ​MITOCHONDRIA  
​INTERMEDIATE   - made up of variety of   
- use a process called cellular respiration to extract 
FILAMENTS   proteins    
this needed energy from food  
- maintain a cell’s shape by   
- all ​eukaryotic cells ​ have mitochondria  
forming an internal scaffold   
2 membrane layers:  
in the cytosol and resisting   
- outer membrane  
mechanical stress   
- intricately folded inner membrane that encloses the 
- bind some cells together   
mitochondrial matrix  
>> within the matrix is DNA- encodes proteins   
essential for mitochondrial function; ribosome  MICROTUBULE   - protein = tubulin    
> ​CRISTAE  - “trackway” - which   
- folds of the inner membrane   substances move within the   
- add tremendous surface area to the inner  cell   
membrane - houses enzymes that catalyze the  - split a cell’s duplicated   
reactions of cellular respiration   chromosomes apart during   
  cell division    
d. photosynthesis occurs in chloroplast      
> ​CHLOROPLAST   > ​CENTROSOMES    
- site of photosynthesis in eukaryotes   - Organize the microtubules  
  - Contains 2 centrioles  
-> ​stroma​ - two outer membrane layers enclose an  >> produce the extensions that enable some cells to 
enzyme-rich fluid   move: CILIA & FLAGELLA  
->​ thylakoids​ - third membrane system folded into flattened  ** cilia - short, enable cells to swim  
sacs   ** flagellum - longer than cilia, tails, whiplike 
-> ​grana​ - stacked like pancakes to form structures   movement propel cells  
-> ​chlorophyll​ - embedded in the thylakoid membranes    
 
> ​plastids ​- 1 representative of a larger category of plant 
3.6 cell sticks together & communicate w/ 
organelles   one another 
- contains DNA and ribosomes   > ​CELL WALL