ANAPHY

Chapter 1: The Human Organism

Anatomy

 Body structure
 Means to dissect
Physiology

 Processes, functions
 Systemic physiology
 Cellular physiology
Importance of Anatomy and Physio:
Understand how the body:

 Responds to stimuli
 Environmental changes
 Environmental cues
 Diseases
 Injury
 Maintains stable, internal conditions despite continually changing environment
Types of Anatomy
1. Systemic – studies body systems
2. Regional – studies body regions (med school)
3. Surface – studies external features e.g. bone projections
4. Anatomical Imaging – using technologies (x rays, ultrasound)
Structural and Functional Organization
Six levels from chemical to organism:
1. Chemical
 Smallest level
 Atoms, chemical bonds, molecules

2. Cellular
 Cells: basic unit of life
 Compartments and organelles
 E.g., mitochondria, nucleus, ribosomes, cytoplasm

3. Tissues
 Groups of cells with similar structure and function plus extra cellular substances they release:

Four types:

 Epithelial –

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 o covers the body surface and forms the lining for most internal cavities.
o Its major function is protection, secretion, absorption and filtration.
 Connective –
o most abundant and widely distributed.
o Provides structure and support to the body.
 Nervous –
o forms the nervous system
o Contains two kinds of nerve cells: Neurons and Neoroglia
 Muscle –
o differs from other tissues since it contracts.
o Made up of muscle fibers
o 3 kinds of muscle tissues:
 Skeletal – attached to bones and cause movement
 Cardiac – found in the heart
 Smooth – lines the walls of the blood vessels and certain organs
4.Organs
 Two or more tissue types acting together to perform a function
 E.g. stomach, heart, liver, ovary etc

5.Organ System
 Groups of organs contributing to some function
 E.g. digestive, reproductive

6.Organism
 All organ system working together
 Includes associated microorganisms such as intestinal bacteria

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Characteristics of Life:
Collectively, all living species show:

 Organization
 Functional interrelationships between parts
 Metabolism
 Sum of all chemical and physical changes sustaining an organism
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  Ability to acquire and use energy in support of these changes
 Responsiveness
 Ability to sense and respond to environmental changes
 Includes both internal and external environments
 Growth
 Can increase in size
 Size of cells, groups of cells, extracellular materials
 Development
 Changes in form and size
 Changes in cell structure and function from generalized to specialized (differentiation)
 Reproduction
 Formation of new cells or new organisms
 Generation of new individuals tissue repair
Homeostasis

 Maintenance of constant internal environment

Variables

 measures of body properties that may change in value

 examples: body temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose levels, blood cell counts, respiratory
rate

 Set Point
 normal, or average value of a variable

 Normal Range
 normal extent of increase or decrease around a set point
 example: over time, body temperature fluctuates around a set point of about 98.6 Fahrenheit
 Set points for some variables
Can temporarily be
Adjusted depending on
Body activities

Examples: Common cause of change

Body Temperature fever

Heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate exercise

Negative Feedback
 Mechanism that maintains homeostasis
 Negative feedback response:
Detection: of deviation away from set point and
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 Correction: reversal of deviation toward set point and normal range
Components of Negative Feedback:
1. Receptor
 Detects change in variable

2. Control center
 Receives receptor signal
 Establishes set point
 Sends signal to effector

3. Effector
 Directly causes change in variable

Positive Feedback

 System response causes progressive deviation away from set point, outside of normal range
 Not directly used for homeostasis
 Some positive feedback under normal conditions
Example: childbirth
 Generally associated with injury, disease
 Negative feedback mechanisms unable to maintain homeostasis

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What if Homeostasis FAILS?

 Hypothermia or heat stroke

 Hypocalcemia or hypercalcemia
 Dehydration
Terminology and Body Plan

 Anatomical Position
 Person standing erect with face and palms forward
 All relational descriptions based on the anatomical position,
regardless of body orientation
DIRECTIONAL TERMS:

 Supine
 Person lying face up
 Prone
 Person lying face down
 Superior
 above
 Inferior
 below

 Anterior (Ventral for animals)

 Front
 Posterior (Dorsal for animals)
 Back
 Medial
 Close to midline
 Lateral
 Away from midline
 Proximal
 Close to point of attachment
 Distal
 far from point of attachment
 Superficial
 Structure close to the surface
 Deep
 Structure toward interior of the body
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BODY PLANES

 Sagittal
 Vertical plane, between right and left surfaces
 Midsagittal
 Sagittal plane along the midline, divides
 body into equal left and right halves
 Transverse
 Horizontal plane
 Frontal
 Vertical plane, between lateral surfaces

BODY REGIONS:

 Upper Limbs
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  Upper arm, forearm, wrist, hand
 Lower Limbs
 Thigh, lower leg, ankle, foot
 Central Region
 Head, neck, trunk

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Body Cavities

 Thoracic Cavity
 Space within chest wall and diaphragm
 Contains heart, lungs, thymus gland,
esophagus, trachea

 Mediastinum
 Space between lungs

 Abdominal Cavity
 Space between diaphragm and pelvis
 Contains stomach, intestines,
liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys

 Pelvic Cavity
 Space within pelvis
 Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs,
part of large intestine
Serous Membranes
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  Line trunk cavities, cover organs
 Structure: visceral serous membrane covers organ
Parietal serous membrane
Cavity between the above, fluid-filled

Pericardium
 Around heart
 Visceral pericardium
 Covers heart

 Parietal pericardium
 Thick, fibrous

 Pericardial cavity
 Reduces friction

Pleura
 Around lungs
 Visceral pleura
 Covers lungs

 Parietal Pleura
 Lines inner wall of thorax

 Pleural cavity

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  Reduces friction
 Adheres lungs to thoracic wall

Peritoneum

 Around abdominopelvic cavity and its organs

 Visceral Peritoneum
 Covers, anchors organs
 Double layers called mesenteries

 Parietal peritoneum
 Lines inner wall of abdominopelvic
cavity

 Peritoneal cavity
 Reduces friction

Chapter 2: The Chemical Basis of Life

COMPOSITION OF MATTER

 Matter
 anything that occupies space and has mass (solid,
liquid, gas)
 Mass
 amount of matter in an object
 Weight
 gravitational force acting on an object
 Element
 simplest form of matter (C, H, O, N, Ca, K, Na, Cl)
 Atom
 Smallest particle of an element
 Contains protons, electrons and neutrons
 Proton
 + charge, inside nucleus
 Electron
 - charge, outside nucleus
 Neutron
 Neutral, inside nucleus
 Atomic Number
 Number of protons in each atom
 Mass Number
 Number of protons and each neutrons in each atom

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CHEMICAL BONDS:

 Occurs when outermost

electrons are transferred or
shared between atoms

 Ionic Bond
 Attraction between two
positively charged ions (NaCl)
 Ion
 Charged particle (Na+)
COVALENT BONDS

 Bond in which one or more pairs of electrons are shared by two atoms

 Polar Covalent Bonds – unequal sharing of electrons (H2O)

 Nonpolar Covalent Bonds – symmetrical electric charge

HYDROGEN BONDS

 Molecule
 2 or more atoms chemically combine (H2O)
 Compound
 Chemically combination of 2 or more different types of elements (NaCl)
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

 Formation or breaking of chemical bonds

 Reactants – what is put into reaction A+B C+D
 Products – end result of reaction Reactants Product
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

 Synthesis Reaction
 Build a new molecule
 Energy requiring
 Ex. ADP + P -> ATP
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  Decomposition Reaction
 Break down molecule
 Energy-releasing
 Ex. ATP -> ADP + P

 Exchange Reaction
 Combination of synthesis and decomposition reactions
 Ex. AB + CD AC + BD
 Ex. HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O

 Reversible Reactions
 Chemical reaction that can proceed from
reactants to products and from
products to reactants
ENERGY

 Ability to do work
 Kinetic Energy
 Energy in motion
 Potential Energy
 Stored energy
 Chemical Energy
 Energy stored in chemical bonds (food)
 Glucose
 Sugar found in food
 Glucose is used to make ATP (energy)
 Glycogen
 Stored glucose
 Stored in liver, skeletal muscle and fat

ATP

 Adenosine triphosphate
 Stored energy
 When ATP is broken down (ATP -> ADP + P) energy
is released

Acids

 Donate H+ (proton)
 Below 7 pH
 Ex. HCl (hydrocholoric acid)

Bases Neutral: 7 pH

 Accept H+ (proton)
 Above 7 pH
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  Ex. NaOH (sodium hyrdroxide)

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

 Substances that do not contain carbon and hydrogen (O2 and CO2)
INORGANIC SUBSTANCE:

 Water
 Important role in transporting chemicals in the body
 Absorbs and transports heat
 Oxygen (O2)
 Used by organelles to release energy from nutrients in order to drive cell’s metabolic activities
 Necessary for survival
 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
 Waste product released during metabolic reactions
 Must be removed from the body
 Inorganic Salts
 Abundant in body fluids
 Sources of necessary ions (Na+, Cl-, K+, Ca2+ etc)
 Play important roles in metabolism

EXAMPLES OF INORGANIC CHEM IN MED

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CARBOHYDRATES

 Contains C, H, O
 H:O is a 2:1 ratio (Ex. C6H12O6)
 Monosaccharides are the building blocks
 Monosaccharide
 Simple sugar
 Ex. Glucose and fructose
 Disaccharide
 2 sugars
 Glucose + fructose = sucrose
 Glucose + galactose = lactose
 Polysaccharide
 Many sugars
 Starch, grain, vegetables, glycogen etc
 Two monosaccharide s can form a glycosidic bond through a dehydration reaction to create a
disaccharide (ex. Sucrose/table sugar, lactose/milk)
 When many monosaccharides are linked together they form polysaccharides

Functions of Carbs

 Short-term energy storage

 Converted to glucose quickly
 Glucose is used to make ATP (energy)
 Brain cells require glucose

PROTEINS

 Contains C, H, O, N
 Building block is amino acid (aren’t stored so a daily supply is required)
 20 different amino acids
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  Amino acids contain an amine (NH2) group and carboxyl group

LEGOS OF LIFE
AMINO ACIDS
 Small organic compound with an amine group, carboxyl group
and an R group

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  Twenty different amino acids

Peptide

 A short chain of amino acids

Polypeptide

 Proteins consist of polypeptides that are hundreds or even thousands of amino acids long

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STRUCTURAL HIERARCHY

 Primary Structure
 Amino acid sequence, from beginning to end

 Secondary Structure
 Together with the laws of physics and chemistry,
polypeptides fold into a more compact structure
 Depending on the intermolecular interactions, peptides
could fold into
α-helix or β-pleated sheets
 Α-helix polypeptide backbones forms a repeating helical
structure that is stabilized by hydrogen bonds
 β-pleated sheets regions of the polypeptide lie in parallel to
each other which then forms hydrogen bonds
 Some regions along polypeptide chains
do not assume any α-helix or β-pleated
sheets and are just called random coils
 Tertiary Structure
 The polypeptide then folds and refolds
onto itself to assume a complex
three-dimensional structure

 Quaternary Structure
 Functional proteins that are composed of two or more tertiary structured proteins

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Functions of Proteins

 Used to make skin, hair, nails, muscles

 Hemoglobin
 Act as enzymes
 Immune system functions
 Muscle contractions (actin and myosin)
 Part of cell membrane
ENZYMES

 The rate of chemical reactions are increased in three

general ways only one of which could be done by any
organism:
o Increasing the temperature
o Increasing the concentrations of reacting
substances
o Adding a catalyst
 Function as biological catalyst

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  Most enzymes are highly specific for
their reactants (substrates) known as the lock and key model

 Proteins that speed up reactions

LIPIDS

 Contains C, H, O
 NO 2:1 ration of H:O
 Insoluble in water
 Ex. Fats, oils, cholesterol,
triglycerides,
phospholipids
 Glycerol and fatty acids
are the building blocks
Functions of Lipids

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  Long term energy storage
 Insulates against heat lost
 Protective cushion for organs
 Cholesterol is part of the cell membrane structure
 Pad and insulate the body

 Saturated
 Single covalent bonds between
carbon atoms
 Ex. Beef, pork, whole milk, cheese, eggs
 Unsaturated
 One or more double covalent bonds between carbons
 Ex. Olive oil, fish oil, sunflower oil

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PHOSPOLIPIDS

 Contains hydrophilic head and two hydrophilic tails

 The opposing characteristics of this molecules gives rise to the cell membrane aptly called the lipid bilayer

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EICOSANOIDS

 Important regulatory molecule derived from arachidonic acid

 Prostaglandis
 Dilate or constrict blood vessels can regulate inflammation
 Thromboxanes
 Facilitate platelet aggregation
 Leukotrienes
 Mediator of inflammatory response stimulation of vascular permeability

 Waxe
s
 Complex, varying mixture of lipids with long fatty acid tails bonded to alcohols or carbon rings
 Plants secrete waxes to restrict water loss and keep out parasite and other pests
 Other types of waxes protect, lubricate and soften skin and hair
 Molecules that pack tightly so waxes are firm and water repellent

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NUCLEIC ACIDS

 Composed of C, H, O, N, P
 Ex. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA
(ribonucleic acid)
 Nucleotides are the building blocks
 Nucleotides composed of nitrogen base,
phosphate and 5 carbon sugar

The language of life

 Nucleotides are five-carbon monosaccharide ring:

ribose or deoxyribose
 Nucleotides are five-carbon monosaccharide ring
bonded to a nitrogenous base: purine or pyrimidine

 DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

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  Consists of two chains of nucleotides
twisted into a double helix
 Contains the blueprint for life

DNA RNA

Adenine Adenine

Thymine Uracil

Cytosine Cytosine

Guanine Guanine

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