Tkachev 1

Jessica Tkachev

KPE 314.1

May 2, 2014

Mechanical and Anatomical Analysis of Spiking

Volleyball was invented in 1895 by William J. Morgan. In the Philippines around the year

1916, the set and spike offensive attack was first introduced to the country. Volleyball became

recognized as an Olympic sport in 1964 and started to become very popular around the world

in the 80’s and early 90’s. Since then, the volleyball spike has been a central element of the

game.

Spiking is a necessary maneuver to score into the opposing court effectively and

aggressively. The primary objective of a

spiker is to execute the full hit is to produce

terminal maximum force, accuracy, control,

and consistency in each hit. This paper

provides a mechanical and anatomical

analysis of the instep shot for the benefit of

the athlete. Spiking is the prime skill used in

attacking the opposing team. It is a fatal contact that depends on the players able to control the

first two contacts.

 Tkachev 2

The spike is divided into four phases based on the gross motor action: the preparation

phase (ready position), the approach phase, jump phase, and the arm swing phase.

In the preparation phase, it is necessary for the spiker to move away from the net so

that they can use as many steps of the approach pattern to generate high forward speed. In the

picture above, it is illustrated that body builds momentum in preparation to leave the ground.

At the top of the reach, the player must perform an arm swing, which uses the middle power

body to add power to the swing. The spiker should be in a flexed position with one foot

forward, leaning toward the approved direction. The arms should be hanging in a relaxed state

from the shoulders and the weight of the body is stable, but prepared to change over the lead

foot. Eyes should concentrate on the player who is setting or the situation they will face.

In the approach phase, usually a four-step approach is used, where created speed, arm

action of the jump and the power of the jump itself, are the most important factors in lifting the

player up. Those who hit with the right hand start on

their right foot and left-handed with the left foot.

Correct arm movements are particularly important

for the approach and jump phase to generate the

maximum force; however the movements must be

more natural and relaxed leading up to the spike. The

spiker needs to produce as much power in the jump as probable, so when the foot moves out

on the third step, both arms ought to reach as far back as possible.
 Tkachev 3

During this entire process, the arms should be straight and the hands relaxed. As the

fourth step is introduced, arms swing directly forward in a full sweeping motion. In the picture

above, it is shown that the body must be propelled into the air, toward the ball to improve the

player’s performance. Though most players use the three step approach because of the need of

fast response, it depends on how well a player can coordinate their arms for the approach

phase.

Starting the jump phase, the player should be as vertical as probable. To achieve

maximum jumping height, the player must push directly downward upon takeoff. The direction

of counterforce is opposite to the applied force. The applied force is most effective when it is

perpendicular to the surface that supports the player because what is given is minimized.

Flexion of the knees and ankles varies with each player. Too little flexion is desirable to too

much and too high flexion deals with little or no pre-loading of the quadriceps, hamstrings, and

hip flexors. These provide the force for the jump whereas little flexion affects the jump to a

slower exchange of power therefore causing loss of momentum. Lifting the arms forward is to

be coordinated with straightening the legs. For example, if the arms swing too quickly and get

to the chest level before the legs are

straight, a braking effect takes place,

constraining how high the player can

jump. If the spiker was lifting the center of

gravity before lowering it, this would

indicate that the jumper forfeits acceleration and speed. The farther back the player’s arm is,

the greater the angular velocity. It is important to increase force and speed when pulling arm
 Tkachev 4

back. It is also important to maximize the force because the total force at impact depends on both the

momentum of the jump and the momentum of the arm.

The last phase is the arm swing and contact phase. It

is useful to think of the arm as a whip and the hand as its tip.

The snap of the whip starts with the shoulder and because of

the body torque created by the planted foot, the hitting

shoulder is away from the shoulder. The ipsilateral rotation is

used in the arm swing. Right handed volleyball players rotate

their bodies around an axis/fixed point that is their left side.

In the picture shown to the right, professional volleyball

player for the USA, Clay Stanley, moves his total left upper limb through a hip flexion rotation.

This creates a mechanical advantage and thus improves his performance. To gain maximum

speed and force, the hand must be open and relaxed. The shoulders are to move quickly to the

point of contact, followed by the elbow and then by the hand. While this process is occurring,

the hips must rotate with the shoulders. Contact made with the ball should be as high and as

far from the player. As the hand touches the top of the ball, the heel of the hand has to contact

it first, and then the whole hands spreads out over the ball consequently.

Newton’s third law of motion is used in the swing phase. The law of reaction is related

to spiking in that whenever you spike the ball, you apply force to the ball. The law states that

the ball will also exert an equal force on the person’s skin that creates a net external force that

stings the hands. The volleyball player absorbs force as their hand spikes the ball, which is

where the sting occurs. The conservation of angular momentum is used by the player to
 Tkachev 5

transfer power to the ball. When angular momentum remains constant, an increase in angular

velocity must occur and a decrease in the moment of inertia must follow.

The follow-through should be natural since gravity controls the way a ball should go. But

the player must control the point at which they land on and the finishing arm position. The

flight path relatively stays the same if the player is consistent with how they approach and hit

the ball. Spikers should adjust to how close they would have to get to the net in order to get the

ball over without touching the net—a shortened arm swing, a slowed or standing jump, or a

rotation along the net.

In the volleyball spike, for the spike five joints are used: ankle, elbow, shoulder, hip, and

knee joint. The ankle joint is a diarthrosis joint, synovial condyloid, and is biaxial. It carries out

the movements such as flexion, extension, and circumduction. This action of the volleyball spike

occurs in the sagittal plane and bilateral

axis. The elbow is also a diarthrosis joint,

synovial hinge, but is uniaxial. Its actions

are only flexion and extension. In the

shoulder joint, it is classified as a

diarthrosis joint, synovial ball and socket

joint, and is in the triaxial section. The

movements it creates are flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and rotation. The hip is a

diarthrosis joint, ball and socket, and is upon a triaxial axis. Its movements are also flexion,

extension, abduction, adduction, and rotation. Lastly, in the knee, it is also classified as a
 Tkachev 6

diarthrosis joint, hinge, and is in the uniaxial section. The only movements allowed are flexion

and extension.

Reflexes are autonomic, involuntary responses to changes within or outside the body.

Reflexes help conserve balance and posture, especially in volleyball. Many muscles are used in

the volleyball spike. Force summation requires all body parts to move in sequence. In order for

maximum force to be produced, a volleyball player needs a good stable form to start the

movement towards a spike. The spike starts with the flexion of the knee created by the

hamstrings. Then the extension of the knees and flexion of the hip starts the effort; which are

both initiated by the quadriceps.

During the approach phase, as flexion occurs in the trunk area, rectus abdominus and

the external and internal obliques are used as the player jumps up. The ankle, knee, shoulder

and other joints undergo eccentric contraction in the

sagittal plane, bilateral axis. In the arms, many muscles are

used. In elbow extension, the triceps are used. In

forearm pronation, the pronator teres and the

pronator quadratus are used. In medial rotation, the

teres major and subscapularis are used. During

hyperextension as the arm is drawn backwards, the

posterior deltoid and latissimus dorsi are used. When the shoulder is flexed, the anterior

deltoid and pectoralis major muscles are used. In the head and neck, when it is hyperextended
 Tkachev 7

as the player gets ready to hit the ball, the sternocleidomastoid is used. In the hip and upper leg

many muscles are also used in the spike.

As that area undergoes flexion, the psoas major, ilacus, quadriceps femoris, sartorius,

recuts femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus intermedialis, and vastus medialis muscles are used.

When extension occurs, semimembranosus, semitendinosus, and the biceps femoris muscles

are used. When the knee and ankle undergoes extension, the gastrocnemius, soleus, and

plantaris muscles are used. When the foot

undergoes plantar flexion it undergoes

eccentric contraction. As the player is about

to go into midair, the extensor digitorum

longus, extensor hallicus longus, abductor

digiti minimi, flexor digitorum brevis,

adbuctor hallicus, tibialis anterior, and the

peroneus tertius muscles are used.

The spike occurs in the sagittal plane and frontal axis. The spike uses the second class

lever. During the jump phase, the trunk undergoes extensions. The Golgi tendon organ is a

specialized muscle fiber that detects the change of length in a muscle. When the muscles are

stretched the muscle spindles are also stretched. The main function is to prevent injury to the

muscle so when the organ senses a force that is too excessive for the muscle, contraction is

inhibited. The erector spinae, transversospinalis, and interspinales muscles are used. When the

arm undergoes shoulder flexion, the anterior deltoid and the pectoralis major muscles are used.
 Tkachev 8

The shoulder produces eccentric contraction. In the head and neck, the sternocleidomastoid

muscle is used as it is hyperextended. In the hip and upper leg the same muscles are used as in

the horizontal momentum. In the knee and ankle, when flexion occurs the same muscles are

used as in the horizontal momentum plus the Achilles tendon. And as the foot goes into plantar

flexion the same muscles are used as in the horizontal movement.

To maximize the volleyball spike, many exercises and correct movements can help the

player improve. As the body is in the air during the swing phase, the arm continues to swing to

progress towards the ball. In the trunk, the erector spinae, transversospinalis, and interspinales

muscles are used. As the arm undergoes horizontal

abduction, the posterior deltoid, infraspinatus, and

teres minor muscles are used. When the elbow is

flexed, the brachialis, biceps brachii, and

brachioradialus muscles are engaged. During lateral

rotation, infraspinatus, teres minor, and posterior

deltoid muscles are used. In the heck and neck, the

sternocleidomastoid muscle is used again and

undergoes eccentric contraction. In the hip and upper leg, the same muscles are used as in the

horizontal and vertical momentum. These joints also undergo eccentric contraction. When the

hip undergoes flexion rotation, torque is created by drawing the arm back while also drawing

the waist back to generate a sufficient amount of force in the swing. In the knee and ankle the

identical muscles are used as in the previous motions. When the body is in the air it is in the
 Tkachev 9

transverse plane and the vertical axis as the torso is being rotated. In the lower and upper

extremities, the body is in the sagittal plane and the frontal axis.

In the downward movement of the spike, the body is returned to the ground and the

ball loses contact with the hand as in shown in the picture. The muscles used in the downward

movement of the trunk are the rectus abdominus, external oblique, and internal oblique. The

muscles that are the used in the arm and wrist are the posterior deltoid, latissimus dorsi, teres

major, and pectoralis major. The

muscles in the head and neck are

the splenius capitis, splenius

cervicis, and errector spinae. The

muscles used in the hip and

upper leg are the psoas major,

iliacus, quadriceps femoris, sartorius, rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, medialis, intermedius,

semimembranosus, semitendinosus, and biceps femoris. The muscles that are used in the knee

and ankle when extended are gastrocnemius, soleus, Achilles tendon, and plantaris. When the

body is in plantar flexion the muscles that are used are plantar fascia, extensor digitorum and

hallicus longus, abductor digiti minimi, flexor digitorum brevis, abductor hallicus, and tibialis

anterior. This motion occurs in the sagittal plane among the frontal axis.

The mechanical objective of the volleyball spike is to demonstrate advanced, form and

control when combining and altering movement skills to generate the greatest possible force,

accuracy, control, and consistency in each hit. It is important for the player to understand how
 Tkachev 10

to move correctly and why it is necessary. When players learn to move more effectively,

proficiently, and certain in their performance, they are more likely to be successful in each hit.

Line of gravity is one of the forces used in volleyball that can be shown by portraying a

straight line from the center of gravity to the

ground (Applying Biomechanics to Sports). In

volleyball, it is essential to keep a low center of

gravity to increase the stability of the player.

Players are more stable when the line of gravity

falls through the center of the base of support.

This is because it increases the distance that the

center of gravity can be moved before balance is

weakened. Moving the line of gravity towards the edge of the base of support reduces a body’s

stability. The further off-center from the base of support the center of gravity is, the less stable

the body.

The base of support is the area by which the body is supported. When a volleyball player

stands with their legs apart, the area between their feet is their base of support. The greater

the area of the base support is, the greater the stability (Biomechanics Fundamentals).

However, it is important to notice that the body may be stable in one direction but not the

other. For this purpose, it is vital to consider the location of the base of support in relation to

the force being applied. It is difficult to maintain balance when standing or shifting weight to

one foot more than the other (Applying Biomechanics to Sports).

 Tkachev 11

Momentum is the product of mass and the velocity of an object. Newton’s second law

of motion explains the relationships linking force, mass, and acceleration which are linked to

momentum. The law of acceleration is related to spiking via hitting the ball hard enough will

change the velocity into being greater and the ball will travel further (Newton’s Laws). On the

other hand, if the force applied isn’t as strong or if the ball is heavier, the ball wouldn’t travel as

far. The harder force and higher acceleration rates, results in a stronger net external force.

Accelerating during the approach phase, allows momentum to be transmitted into the flight

phase (Applying Biomechanics to Sports). The approach steps must be potent and low to allow

for the greatest amount of force in a jump. At take-off, the feet are firmly planted to allow

momentum to be transferred up through the body, the muscles of the legs and the gluteus

maximum contract, and the arms swing through, as the player takeoffs into the air.

The summation of forces allows more momentum to be created when the sum of all

muscle action produces an end result of the most potential power (Applying Biomechanics to

Sports). When the volleyball player is in motion, it has a certain mass and velocity which is

known as the momentum. Velocity also affects momentum. Volleyball players who want to

achieve a successful spike will hit the ball

at a correct stance, with a higher velocity,

when hitting the ball to apply more

momentum to the ball (Biomechanics

Fundamentals). By increasing the velocity

of the arm swing, they can hit the ball

further. In volleyball, it is necessary for momentum to be transferred to another object or body

 Tkachev 12

part. The greater the momentum an object has, the greater its influence on other objects it

collides with. A volleyball player will gather as much momentum as necessary during the swing

by summating forces and then transporting this momentum to the ball being spiked

(Biomechanics Fundamentals). Momentum is also increased in the approach phase, shifted to

the jump, which allows a larger distance to be attained.

For momentum to be well transferred the player has to be stabilized or else some of the

momentum will be moved to other movements not planned. Players will take a large, approach

step before pushing themselves upright into the air. If the player is not completely stable

before the jump, they will not be able to effectively transfer the horizontal momentum of the

run-up to the vertical movement (Applying Biomechanics to Sports).

According to Newton’s third law of motion, for every action there is an equal and

opposite reaction. When an object is rotating around a fixed axis in a circular path, two

opposing forces are at work: centripetal force and centrifugal force (Newton’s Laws).

Centripetal force is the force that causes rotating objects to move towards the center, or axis,

of rotation. Centrifugal force is the force that

causes rotating objects to move away from the

center, or axis, of rotation. Both forces working

together ensure that an object will remain on a

circular path while rotating around a fixed point

(Applying Biomechanics to Sports). Swinging the

arm more quickly to hit the ball will increase

 Tkachev 13

centrifugal force, causing the ball to fly out of your hands. Centripetal force is needed to

maintain the grip. If the rotational momentum is too great, the centrifugal force can cause the

player to lose their grip and cause the ball to fly elsewhere.

Linear motion occurs when a human body, limb or object, propelled by a human, moves

in a straight line (Applying Biomechanics to Sports). When a volleyball player pushes themselves

to run straight forward, they propel in a straight line. The legs of the players help them push

forward and upward as they prepare to swing the arm to hit the ball. The swinging arm hitting

the ball creates linear motion, if the ball is hit correctly; it goes in a straight line to where the

player wishes to place it.

Two types of levers can be used in the spike; second-class levers and third-class levers.

In a second-class lever, the resistance is between the force and the fulcrum. As the volleyball

player approaches the net, they body swings upward using its feet to perform that action. For a

quick second, the body is in a tip toe position, lifting the weight of the body from the back of

the heel. The length of the foot is the arm of the lever, the ball of the foot is the fulcrum, and

the calf muscle provides the force (The Levers). In a third-class lever, the force is between the

resistance and the fulcrum. The arm of the player acts as this lever, with the elbow as the

fulcrum. This helps the player generate speed because of the position of the elbow (The

Levers). Lengthening the lever will increase speed and range of motion. As a result, more force

generates from the end of the lever.

Creating topspin when spiking is important

because the spin creates control and accuracy. To

 Tkachev 14

generate a spin to the spike, the player must contact the ball in a claw-like hand position

(Wikihow). When the ball spins through the air about an axis perpendicular to the line of flight,

this is called the Magnus effect. The spinning ball causes the air pressure on one side of the ball

to be less than the other side. Velocity increases on the side of the ball that goes in the same

direction as the air and decreases on the other side where it moves against the direction of the

air flow (Biomechanics Fundamentals). The effects of the different velocity and air pressure

cause the ball to spin and curve towards the side with the higher velocity. Different factors can

also affect the flight of the ball. If a volleyball game is played outside, air resistance can affect

the flight and accuracy. In addition, angle, height and speed of release affect the flight of the

ball (Applying Biomechanics to

Sports). A factor that does not

produce the spin on the ball is

by applying torque from an

external factor not acting

through the axis of rotation. As shown above, the spike is produced by the palm of the hand

contacting the ball first and then the fingers wrapping over the top of the ball (Applying

Biomechanics to Sports). This has an advantage of being able to hit with a greater velocity and

at flatter angles. Also, it has an unpredictable flight path which makes it harder for the

returning team (Aerodynamics).

The angle of rebound of a projectile equals the angle at which it approaches a surface,

but can be affected by elasticity and spin (Projectiles in Sports). In spiking, topspin causes a

lower angle of rebound. Moment of inertia measures how difficult it is to spin an object or to
 Tkachev 15

alter the spinning motion of an object. This depends on the mass of the volleyball and how that

mass is distributed to the axis of rotation. When the mass of the volleyball is focused closer to

the axis of rotation it’s easier to create the spin on the ball. Spikes can produce great ball

speeds because the ball is contacted higher above the court. A flatter initial projection angle

can be imparted to the ball and when the projection angle has a lower and increased projection

speed both results in a reduced flight time yet both increase the difficulty for the receiving

team (Applying Biomechanics to Sports).

The law of inertia states that an object at rest remains at rest and one in motion will

continue at a constant speed unless acted on by a force. Various forces are applied in spiking:

throwing the ball to the setter, the setter setting the ball, and

spiker spiking to get the ball over the net. The spike itself

produces a force that changes the ball’s velocity. The opposing

player, who stops the spike or hits the ball that goes over the net,

feels the law’s effect on their hands which stings from the spike.

The blocker’s hands acted as an unbalanced force that stopped or

changed the direction of the ball.

The center of gravity can shift very rapidly in volleyball.

The center of gravity can shift depending on the position or movement of the player. It is an

imaginary point within or outside the body around which it is balanced. Having a low center of

gravity will create more stability in an athlete as they play or approach the object (Applying
 Tkachev 16

Biomechanics to Sports). But as they jump into the air, the center or gravity rises to keep the

body stable as the player focuses on getting the maximum force and speed (Volleyball Science).

Friction occurs when the player is approaching the spike, running to the net, generating

friction between the feet and ground. Friction is

also created when sliding on the ground, on knees

or entire body to hit the ball. Spiking the ball

creates friction resisting the direction it was going

and hitting it over the net. When the volleyball is

airborne, air friction is created, putting a top-spin

on the ball which reduces time and speed. The magnus effect makes the ball become

aerodynamic, pushing the ball downward (Volleyball Science). The friction that results between

the ball and the air uses the air into going in the course that the ball in spinning.

Poor body position indicates to mechanical errors. Players will often find themselves

exhausted during matches and won’t notice that the cause of the lack of ability to maintain the

proper mechanics. Poor posture is a result of structural abnormalities along with an imbalance

in spinal erectae, teres minor, teres major,

latissimus dorsi, and other muscles (5 Step

Guide). As you approach the spike, the upper

extremities cannot be straight but arms

should be relaxed and arms directly

downward and insubstantial. The support

 Tkachev 17

between the legs should not be narrow because it creates less support and balance for the

player. The center of gravity is affected because it is too high or not low enough when these

errors occur.

In effect, the force of summation is not as great and the angle of release will be vertical

(Applying Biomechanics to Sports). The picture above shows the correct stance in the approach

phase: player is low, so the center of gravity is low and they have a stable base support because

of the wide area between the legs. The heels walkouts first and the shoulders are in maximum

hyperextension above the horizontal with the trunk slanting forward (Sweat Pit).

Another error that can be made is during the jumping phase, when the player’s center

of gravity is higher than normal, their height of jump is close to the

ground and the legs aren’t raised up. Also there is no angle of jump

and reverse “c” position, and the arm isn’t pulled back as far as

possible to create the greatest force to spike the ball. As seen on

the picture to the right, the player has achieved the perfect “C”

position to spike the ball. When an error is made, it is important to

give extrinsic feedback, mostly descriptive if the players are pro

athletes. If the players are learning prescriptive feedback is necessary to explain to the players

what you think based on what you saw.

Volleyball players should correctly apply force to the ball. A common mistake is to hit

the ball while the body is going down. This happens most likely because of the timing of

executing the back-swing and forward swing too late. When a player is about to jump, they
 Tkachev 18

must swing both arms as far back as possible to

generate the most force to jump. As shown in

the picture, there must about a 90 degree angle

in between arms and back. The legs have a wide

range in between. While jumping, it is important

to keep the arms straight and hands relaxed. Another minor error easily made is not flexing the

knee during the swing phase. If the knee does not flex, this increases rotation inertia and

decreases velocity (Applying Biomechanics to Sports). The knee should be flexed to decrease

rotation inertia thus increasing velocity.

Deceleration occurs when the muscles of the rotator cuff and scapula must resist the

forward motion of the humerus after the ball is spiked to stop the ball from going to an

undesirable area on the court and to make sure the hand doesn’t touch the net (The Upper

Extremity). If the shoulder is made stiffer

during deceleration, it is more stable and

the risk of injury is reduced (Volleyball

Injuries). Stiffness works together in the

stretch shortening cycle, and the player

can use eccentric training for the rotator

cuff and scapula muscle to gain greater

strength and size, thus increasing the ability of the muscle to control the force and reduce

injury (Biomechanics Fundamentals).

 Tkachev 19

In this paper, I researched, learned, and was able to teach the most effective way in

spiking the volleyball. While it is necessary to maintain the correct form in approaching the ball,

it is also vital to how the player will spike the volleyball, using all knowledge and power.

Researching volleyball injuries and detecting errors was crucial in knowing how to prevent

future injuries and coach those who are unaware of them. It was also important for me to

research and review information I found critical and necessary to become an expert in this

sport action. I found many different types of literature and sources to be compelling and easy

to understand so that I myself could fully understand the mechanical and anatomical analysis of

spiking the volleyball.

 Tkachev 20

Works Cited

Rice, Emmy. "Movement Analysis: Spike." prezi.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2014.

<http://prezi.com/y6yxcwfkojqb/movement-analysis-spike/>.

Mann, Mark. "The Biomechanics of the Volleyball Spike/Attack ." Sports Biomechanics 2 (2008):

n. pag. Sports Biomechanics. Web. 6 Feb. 2014.

"The Biomechanics of Volleyball: The Arm Swing (Part 2.1 of many)." Precision Physical Therapy

Fitness. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Mar. 2014. <http://prefitpt.com/blog/2013/08/14/the-

biomechanics-of-volleyball-the-arm-swing-part-2-1-of-many/>.

Kirk, David, and Robin Limerick. Senior physical education: an integrated approach. 2nd ed.

Champaign, Ill: Human Kinetics, 1998. Print.

Alexander, Marion, and Adrian Honish. "An Analysis of the Volleyball Jump Serve - The Sweat

Pit." An Analysis of the Volleyball Jump Serve - The Sweat Pit. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Feb. 2014.

<http://www.sweatpit.com/forum/ubbthreads.php?ubb=vbjs>.

Dayton, Leigh, and Nicole Jeffery. "Applying Biomechanics to Sports." Biomechanics. N.p., n.d.

Web. 4

Feb.2014.<https://www.oup.com.au/titles/secondary/health__and__physical_education/physi

cal_education/queensland/9780195573862/03_RUS_QSPE_3pp.pdf>.

"CHAPTER 10: THE UPPER EXTREMITY." The Upper Extremities in Sports. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Apr.

2014. <http://www.chiro.org/ACAPress/The_Upper_Extremity_CB.html>.
 Tkachev 21

"Why not eccentric exercises for shoulder injuries? | FITS TORONTO." FITS TORONTO. N.p., n.d.

Web. 2 Mar. 2014. <http://www.fitstoronto.com/shoulder-pain-in-overhead-athletes-why-not-

eccentric-exercises/>.Harris, William. "How Newton\u0027s Laws of Motion Work."

HowStuffWorks. HowStuffWorks.com, 29 July 2008. Web. 1 Apr. 2014.

<http://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/scientific-experiments/newton-law-of-

motion3.htm>.

"Centrifugal force." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 28 Apr. 2014. Web. 6 Mar. 2014.

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrifugal_force>.

"The Lever." Untitled Document. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Mar. 2014.

<http://www.ohio.edu/people/williar4/html/haped/nasa/simpmach/lever.htm>.

"How to Spike With Topspin." wikiHow. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Mar. 2014.

<http://www.wikihow.com/Spike-With-Topspin>.

Pallis, J.M.. "Aerodynamics and hydrodynamics in sports." SPORTS BALL AERODYNAMICS Mar. -

Apr. 2008: 7. Aerodynamics and hydrodynamics. Web. 4 Mar. 2014.

"Projectiles in Sports: Principles about Sport Objects in Flight." Projectiles in Sports: Principles

about Sport Objects in Flight. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Apr. 2014. <http://www.sports-training-

adviser.com/projectiles-in-sports.html>.

"Torque and rotational inertia." Torque and rotational inertia. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Mar. 2014.

<http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/py105/Torque.html>.
 Tkachev 22

"Volleyball and Physics." The Science of Volleyball. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Apr. 2014.

<http://volleyballscience.weebly.com/volleyball-and-physics.html>.

"THE 5 STEP GUIDE TO IMPROVING A VOLLEYBALL PLAYER'S VERTICAL JUMP." MAXSC.

WordPress, n.d. Web. 20 Mar. 2014. <http://www.maxsc.net/the-5-step-guide-to-improving-a-

volleyball-players-vertical-jump/>.