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 YOUR VOICE: APPLIEDSCIENCEOF VOCAL ART

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The author-Douglas Stanley-was born and educated in England.
He conducted his researches in the United States, and resides in
New York City, where he teaches. He is a Fellow of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science and a Fellow of the
Acoustical Society of America.

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DOU G LAS ST AN LEY, M.S., Mus. D.

YourVoice:
Applied
Science
of Vocal
Art
THIRD EDITION

PITMAN PUBLISHING CORPORATION

NEW YORK • TORONTO • LONDON

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 /; 7
I -

CoPYRICHT , @ 1945, 1950, 1957

BY
PITMAN PUBLISHING CORPORATION

All rights reserved . No part of this book

may be reproduced in any form without
the written permission of the publisher .
3.1

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 56-12806

Associated Companies
Sm lsAAC PITMAN & SoNs, L'm .
London Melbourne Johannesburg
Sm ISAAc PITMAN& SoNs (CANADA), LTD.
Toronto

PmNTimIN THE UNITEDSTATES OF AMEIIJCA

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 PREFACETO THE REVISEDAND
THIRD EDITIONS

Since the publication of the first edition of this book I have

discovered various further facts about the technic of singing. I am
therefore adding appendices in order to set these down. Many of
my new findings deal with breathing and with the action of the
tongue. The importance of these phases of the technic is very great.
I find it necessary to discuss them in much more detail here.
I am also endeavoring to set down further information with re-
gard to manipulations and to developments in the use of these
manipulations which have arisen as a result of many years' expe-
rience in their employment.
I also discuss, in some detail, certain psychological findings with
regard to the training of pupils' voices, in addition to mentioning
the latest teaching procedures which I employ. I feel that careful
consideration of what I have said in these appendices will be of
considerable assistance to both the serious vocal student and the
vocal teacher.

vii

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 PREFACETO THE FIRSTEDITION

This book is the result of years of research, years of practical

teaching, and the priceless co-operation of many scientists and hun-
dreds of pupils.
The thousands of readers who so cordially received my former
books will find here a further development of those pioneer state-
ments of scientific principles upon which our knowledge of vocal
technic is based.
Herein are the most modem developments in vocal training care-
fully tested and scientifically proven. The latest teaching procedures
are combined with a clear statement of the fundamental principles
of registration, resonance adjustment, vibrato, and so on, on the basis
of immutable, scientific laws.
The two books-The Voice-Its Pro<J.uctionand Reproduction and
The Science of Voice-contain a detailed discussion of the scientific
principles upon which the training of the voice is based. Relatively
little was said about the application of these principles to the actual
work of the vocal teacher. Now-with the vitally important new
discoveries and procedures which have been made during the inter-
vening years-this matter has been taken up in considerable detail.
The practical application of the fundamental scientific findings has
improved immeasurably as they have been applied to the training
of many hundreds of voices.
The need for a statement of these applications, together with a
description of the latest methods and devices which can be em-
ployed, renders the publication of the book imperative at this time,
for the benefit of not only those teachers and singers who are follow-
ing the teachings laid down in the earlier books, but also those
new readers who may wish to follow them. Every effort has been
made to render the entire subject as clear , definite and concrete as
possible. All figurative or imaginative language has been avoided.

i
It is desirable, even essential, for anyone who wishes to follow the
chings laid down in the earlier books to read this book.
Complete understanding of the scientific principles involved and
proper application of the devices and procedures employed are
essential in order that tbe pupil's voice may be radically improved.
ix

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Furthermore, the competent teacher must also possess a specially
trained ear-an ear capable of detecting minute quality variations
and of translating them into the physical adjustments of which they
are the aural manifestations. This is imperative to ultimate success.
Furthermore, the teacher must exercise judgment constantly. Per-
functory or casual teaching may be disastrous. In any field whatever,
"A little learning is a dangerous thing."
Naturally, it is to be expected that any conscientious effort to
bring order to such a chaotic field as vocal teaching will meet with
determined-even organized-opposition from those incapable of
scientific, well-ordered and disciplined procedures. In anticipation
of such opposition, this book moves carefuJ1y along paths which
have been thoroughly defined and charted by painstaking, precise,
scientific investigation.
To make the material herein most widely effective, both teacher
and pupil are addressed. The technical points involved and the
procedures applicable in each step are stated from the teacher's
point of view. These are followed by clarifying statements to the
student which reveal the part each student must play, the errors to
avoid and the end to be achieved by each step.
Always, both student and teacher must realize that their personal
integrity has a large part in any pennanent success. Freak singers
rise and fall with the seasons, but a voice carefully, properly and
conscientiously trained and used will remain a rich asset until the
general health fails permanently because of old age.
Statements herein are proven and conservative. The procedures
outlined are applicable to adults and children of both sexes. Careful
application will bring results which are often startling and always
both satisfying and beneficial.
Included in this book is a considerable portion of the text which
appeared in The V o.ce-lts Production and Reproduction. This ma-
terial is printed in smaller type in order to distinguish it from the
more recent subject matter.

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 CONTENTS
PAGII
PREFACE TO THE REVISED AND
THIRD EDITIONS vii
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION ix
TECHNICAL GLOSSARY 1
ACOUSTICAL GLOSSARY 33.
JUDGMENT OF VOICE TECHNIC AND
PERFORMING TALENT 42
INTRODUCTION 51
CHAPTD

1. GENERAL REMARKS
Manipulations vs. Old Process ·( 65)--Poor Tone Quality No
Longer Necessary (66)--The Teacher's Ear (67).

2rPENING THE THROAT (THE TONGUE) 68

v Resonator (68)--Tongue Muscles (73)--Dark Tone (74)--
Tongue Instrument (75)--Equilibrium (78)--Tongue Posi-
tion (79)-:lThe Tongue and Throatiness (81)--Hyoid Bone,
Position of Larynx (82)--Hyoid Bone Manipulation (84)--
Proper Use of Tongue Instrument (85).

3. DEVELOPMENT OF THE LARYNGEAL MUSCLES 86

L, Registration ( Control of Intensity) ( 86 )--Thyroid Manipula-
tion, Development of Lower Register Muscles (97)--Value of
Thyroid Manipulation ( 100)--0ctave Relationship Between
Registers ( 100 )--Illegitimate and "Squeak" Tones ( 101 )--
Balancing of Registers ( 102).

4. DEVELOPING THE VOICE ( MANIPULATIONS) 100

Evenly Rising Scale of Intensity (103 )--"Opening" ( 104 )--
Sudden "Openings" ( 104)--"0penings" and Quality Changes
(105)--Meeting the "Opening" (106)--"0pening" and Psy-
chological Problems ( 107 )--Loud Singing ( 108 )--Incorrect
Teaching Methods and Muscular Development ( 109 )--Mixed
Registration ( 110)--Separation of Hyoid Bone and Thyroid
Cartilage (111 )--Manipulations for Displaced Larynx ( 111)
--Working With Mixed-register Voices ( 112 )--Unbalanced
Registration ( 114 ) .
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 CBAPTD PAOB
5. THE ATTACK-INTONATION 115
Laryngeal Pharynx (Throat) ( 115 )--Attack ( 117 )--Relaxa-
tion before Attack ( 117)--Pre-tension ( 118 )--Tongue Instru-
ment and Attack ( 118)--Tongue-tie ( 118)--Breathing
Muscles and Attaclc ( 119 )-Inspiration ( 119 )-"Out" Ges-
ture, to Establish lnspiratory Tension (122 )--Tension on
Laryngeal and Pharyngeal Muscles in Attack ( 124)--Mainte-
nance of "Hold" ( 124 )--"Give" on the Breathing Muscles
( 125)-Pre-tension and Interference ( 125)--Work Done in
Production of Tone (125)--Fallacies in Tensing Extraneous
Muscles ( 126)--"Timing" of Tension ( 127)--"Timing" and
Changes of Tension (Pitch) (128)--Throaty Technic and
Slurring (128 )--Equilibrium ( Larynx, Tongue, Thorax) ( 129)
--Balanced Development and Energy ( 130)--Development
of Balance ( 130 )--Pure Registration Essential ( 131 )--Abso-
lute Co-ordination, Final Stage of Perfection ( 131 ).

6. THROATINESS 132
V Neck Muscles ( 132)--Tension and Neck Muscles Causes Nod-
ules (134)--Cure of Nodule, ( 135)--Forcing of Voice and
Neck Control (135)--Saving of Voice Unnecessary with Cor-
rect T echnic ( 135 )--Sterno-mastoid Muscles and Throatiness
( 136 )-Reduction of Sterno-mastoid Tension by Manipulation
( 136)--Excessively Dropped Larynx and Neck Muscles (136)
--Thyroid Manipulation and Excessively Dropped Larynx
{137)--Throaty Singing (137)--Head, Chest and Neck
Muscles (137)--Head and Spine Alignment (138)--Relaxa-
tion of Neck Muscles Essential ( 139).

Y HEJAWMANIPULATION
Dropping the Jaw (140)--Middle
Muscles ( 140 )--Tongue
(142)--Jaw Tremolo (142)--Jaw
.
or Lock Position and Neck
and Jaw Lock ( Middle Position)
and Lips (143)--Drop-
140

ping the Jaw (145)--Passing Through Jaw Lock (147)--

Jaw Manipulation (147)--Co-ordination (150)--Throaty
Technic, Neck Whistling ( 150).

8. ESTABLISHING TECHNICAL IMPROVEMENTS

( PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS) 152
Conscious Control of Muscles Used in Phonation Impossible
(152)--Limit to Use of Manipulations (153)--Psychologi-
cal Factor (153)--Faulty Ear and Bad Technic (153)--In-
hibition and Bad Technic (154 )--Self-listening ( 154 )--
Sterno-mastoid Muscles and Self-listening ( 155 )--Technical
Practising Outside Studio Harmful (155)--Futility of Fine
Voice Without Interpretive Ability (155).

9. PROBLEMS OF REGISTRATION 157

Going Through the Falsetto ( 157 )--Intensity Rises with Ad-
dition of Lower Register (158)--No Intensity Overlap of
Registers (159 )--Thyroid Manipulation in Going Through
Falsetto (159 )--Vowel Must Be Held Constant ( 159 )--
Hyoid Bone Manipulation and Going Through Falsetto ( 16()).
-Balancing Registers in Women's Voices-( 160)--Helatively
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CBAPTD
9. PROBLEMS OF REGISTRATION ( Continued)
Weak Middle Tones Unavoidable at First (162)--A Little
Lower Register More Dangerous than None ( 163)-Lower
Register Must Be Carried Up to Proper Pitch ( 164 )--Perma-
nent Mixed Registration ( 164)--Temporarily Induced Mixed
Registration ( 164 )--Elimination of Mixed "Middle" Register
( 165 )--Use of Falsetto for Middle Tones (165 )--Octave Re-
flection in Performance ( 165 )--Use Songs of Limited Range
in Early Stages ( 166)--Maintain Normal Tessitura ( 166).

10. JIBRATO AND TREMOLO 167

V Vibrato ( 167)--Elimination of Tremolo ( 175)--Violent
Tremolos ( 176)-Quality, Voice Movement and Reproduction
( 176)--Difference of Vibrato from Tremolo (177)--Vibrato
in Reproduction ( 177 )--Great Voices Relatively Steady ( 178)
--Coloratura Technic-Vibrato and Tremolo ( 178 )--Pianis-
simo Singing ( 179 )--Constriction Particularly Destructive to
Great Voices ( 180 )--Control of Intensity ( 180 )--Falsetto
and Vibrato (Male) ( 181 )--Falsetto and Vibrato (Female)
( 181 ).
11. MIXED REGISTRATION 183
Length and Tension of Vocal Cords Controls Pitch (183)--
Thyro-arytenoid Muscles ( 183 )--Equilibrium of Laryngeal
Muscles ( 184)--1\tb:ed Registration and Thyro-arytenoid
Muscles (184)--Muscular Explanation of Octave Reffection
( 18.5)--Effect of Lower-register Elimination ( 190)--Length
of Vocal Cords and Quality ( 192)-'--Volume of Mixed-regis-
ter Voices ( 193 )--"Breaks" Are Not Necessarily Bad ( 193)
--Intonation and Quality ( 193)--Similarity of Mixed and Co-
ordinated Registration ( 194)--Complete Co-ordination Sel-
dom Attained (194)--Premature Elimination of Break Elimi-
nates Voice (194)--Pure "Open" Registration Establishes
Good Quality ( 195)--Elimination of Either Register Is De-
structive ( 195 )--Relationship of Hyoid Bone and Thyroid Car-
tilage ( 196 )--Mixed Registration and Pitch Adjustment ( 196)
--Proper Technic More Difficult Than Throaty Technic ( 197)
--Pure Falsetto and Mixed Registration (Male) ( 198 )--
Mixed-register Coloraturas ( 198)--Balanced Development of
Both Registers-Proper Stringing (200)--Unbalanced Regis-
tration Leads to Mixed Registration ( 200 )--Opening the Voice
in Stages (201)--lnitial "Opening" Very Pronounced (201)--
Sound of a Mixed-register Tone ( 202 )--One-register Singing
and Mixed Registration (204)--"Middle Register" and Blend-
ing the Registers ( 204).
12. CONNECTING TONES ( MELODIC LINE) 206
Flexibility and Legato Singing ( 206 )--Characteristics of a
Tune ( 207 )--Connecting Tones ( 207 )--Portamento and the
Vibrato Run ( 208 )--Intensity Rise with Ascending Pitch
(208)--Rhythmic Pattern (209)--Moving from Tone to Tone
(209)--"Timing" (209)--"Timing" and Major Triad (210)
--"Gives" and Jerks (211 )--Value of Tongue Instrument for
:\fajor Triad ( 212 )--"Opening" Voice Slowly ( 212 )--
"Giving" and Slurring ( 213 )--Accuracy of Intonation ( 213)
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}2. CONNECTING TONES (MELODIC LINE) (Con-
CIIAPTD ·-

tinued)
--Lower-register Triads for Women's Voices ( 214 )--Use of
Vowels in Major Triad (214)--Real Teaching Hard Work
( 214 )--Falsetto Triads for Female Voice (215)--Vowels
Used (216)--Major Triad and Opening the Mouth (216)--
0pening the Mouth and Tongue Adjustment (218)--Major
Triad and Jaw Manipulation ( 218 )--Manipulations ( 219 )-
Jaw, Tongue Instrument and Major Triad (221)--Jaw and
Manipulations for Major Triad ( 221 )--Major Triads and
Register Change (Female) (222)--Use of Lower Register in
Performance ( 223 )--Changing Register at Lower Pitch ( 224)
--Constant Throat Adjustment and Register Change (224)--
Use of Broken Tonic Chord in Register Change (224.).....-In-
tensity <?.fMid_dJeand High. filfilto-.Tones ( 225 )--Importance
of "Opening" at Register Transition Point (226)--Fallacy of
Special Quality Characteristics ( 227 )--True Pitch Character-
istic of Well-produced Voice (228)--"Personal Quality" and
Technic ( 228 )--Quality Cannot Be Divorced from Accurate
Intonation ( 228 )--Establishment of Pitch Consciousness ( 229)
--Rhythm and Pitch Definition ( 229 )--Importance of Cues
( 230 )--Male Voices, Lessons Generally Start with Falsetto
(232)--When to Use "Going Through the Falsetto" (232)
--Register Change and Pitch Transition Similar ( 233 )--
Falsetto-derived and Lower-register-derived Tones ( 234 )--
"White" Low Tones Should Be Avoided ( 235 )--Elimination
of "Noisy" Middle Tones (235)--Well-produced Voice Never
Noisy (236)--Carrying Quality and Sustaining Tone (237).
13. INTERPRETATION 238
What the Singer Should Know ( 238 )--How to Study and In-
terpret a Song (242)--Interpretation (248)--The Music Is
of First Importance (248)--Complete Understanding of Musi-
cal Structure Vital ( 249 )--Recitatives Require Accuracy ( 249)
--Free Passages (250)--Stress and Melodic Line (250)--
Melodic Line Is Basic (250)--Intensity (251)--Soft Effects
(251)--Color and the Text (252)--Vowels and Pharyn-
geal Resonance Adjustment (252)--Mouth Vowels (253)--
Defining Pitch and Vowels (253)--Accents and Beats (254)
--Diction (254)--Color, Vibrato and Emotion (254)--Tes-
situra (255)--Expanding Cadence (255)--Musical Figures
and Color Contrasts (256)--Many Singers Lack Musicianship
(256)--Throaty Singer Cannot Color (257)--A Man's Voice
Should Not Sound Like a Woman's (257)--Tremolo Cannot
Be Used for Interpretation ( 257 )--Tricks Are Inartistic
(258)--Substitution of Speech for Singing (258)--Mere
Decrescendo of Held Tones Conveys No Emotion ( 258)
--Shifting of Climactic Point Destroys Effect (259)--Hum-
ming Consonants and Slurring Is "Hamming" ( 260 )--Slur-
ring Destroys Music ( 260 )--Recital Singers ( 261 )--Tradition
and Musical Distortion (262)--Traditional Aspects of Singing
( 263 )--Artistic Interpretation Requires Proper Technic ( 263)
---Throaty Singing Requires No Talent ( 264 )--Sustaining of
High Tones Should Be No Struggle ( 264 )--Changes of Ad-
justment and Throatiness (265)--Lower Register (Female) and
the Musical Line (266)--Recordings (266).
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~HE SPEAKING VOICE ·-
268

15. UNSCIENTIFIC TEACHING METHODS 21e.

Lack of Power, Present-day Characteristic (277)--Teachers of
the Past (277)--Pseudo-scientific Methods (277)--Famous
Names ( 279 )--Singing in the Masque ( 280 )--Scholarships
(290)--Scientifically Unsound Concepts (290)--Facts Re-
garding Sound (291)--Loud Singing (292)--Dropped
Larynx Wrong (292)--Coaches Who Become Teachers (293)
"Relaxation" Fallacy ( 293 )--Faulty Methods Result in Early
Loss of Voice (294)--Natural Voice vs. Technic (296)--
Vocal Teaching Is a Process Not a Method (296)--Manipula -
tions and the Speaking Voice ( 297 )--Jaw, Breathing Muscles
and Speaking Voice ( 297 )--Amplification Has Harmed Vocal
Technic (298)--Well-produced Voice Reproduces Best (299)
--Great Artists Are Rare (299)--Choosing a Teacher (300)
--Work Is the "Royal Road" to Good Singing ( 301 ) .

APPENDIX TO THE REVISED EDITION 303

Importance of Proper Breathing (303)--New Pupils Never
Breathe Prorrly (303)--How to Inspire (304)--Breathing
Muscles an Inspiration ( 304 )--Pre-tension and Breathing
Muscles ( 304 )-Inspiration and lnsf.iratory Tension ( 305 )-
Sound of Air Being Inspired (305)-- 'Breath Control" and Con-
striction (306)--Full Inspiration (306)--lncorrect Breathing
and Vital Capacity (307)-Constriction and Inability to In-
spire Properly (307)--How to Inspire Completely (307)--
The Tongue and Throaty Technic (308)--Compressed Air and
Deep Breathing ( 308 )-Constriction and Blowing Breath ( 309)
--Tongue Muscles in "Open" vs. Throaty Technic (309)--
Tongue and Neck Muscles in "Open" vs. Throaty Technic
(310)--Incorrect Muscular Actions and Inspiration (310)--
"Sensing,. Inspiratory Tension ( 311 )--Chest Gesture and Con-
striction (311)-Inspiration and Tension (312)--Extreme
Tongue Tension and Forced Inspiration (312)--Physical Ges-
ture vs. Proper Breathing ( 313 )-"Leading with the Throat"
and Tension on Tongue ( 313 )--Holding "Opening" Tongue
Tension ( 314 )-"~ning Hold" and Musical Line ( 314 )--
Controlled "Opening, • Pitch Definition, Register Co-ordination
and Technical Development ( 315 )-Glotteal Closure and At-
tack (315)-Changing Intensity and Tongue Control (316)
-Loss of Inspiratory Tension and Tongue Constriction ( 316)
--Inhaling Smoke and Breathing (317)--Holding the Breath
before Attack (317)--Partial Inspiration and Holding Inspira-
tory Tension (318)-Tongue Tension and Inspiration (318)-
Manipulations-Not Easy to Make Properly (319)--Register
Break, High Tones and Incompetent Teachers ( 320 )--Entire
Voice Based upon Properly Developed Middle Voice ( 321 )--
Faulty Low Tones and Throatiness (322)-Psychological De-
velopment and "Opening" ( 323 )-More about Use of Tongue
Instrument ( 323 )--Use of Instrument on Own Tongue Harm-
ful (325)--Another Use of Tongue Instrument (325)-
Tongue-tie and Tongue Instrument ( 325 )-More about Laryn-
geal Manipulations (325)-Uneven Closure of Hyoid Bone and
Thyroid Cartilage (326)--Dropped Hyoid Bone and Breathing
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 (327)-Triads and the Tongue (327)-The Permanently
Locked Jaw (328)-More about the Jaw Manipulation (328)
-Opening law in Mild Tension (329)-Lock Position of Jaw
and Teeth 329 )-Manipulation for Relaxing Neclc Muscles
( 380 )-Pupils' Resistance to Manipulations ( 330 )-Use of
Proper Degree of Tension in Singing ( 331 )-illustration and
Energy (Ml)--illustration Harmful when Teacher's Voice Is
Throaty (332)--~g" vs. Constrictor Tension (332)-
Excessive Tension and Breathing Muscles (332)-Breath
Needed for •0pen• va. Throaty Singing (333)-Rapid Inspira-
tion (333)-Rapid Inspiration ancf Throaty Technic (334)-
Posture and Attack (334)-Slow and Rapid Reactions (335)
-•Grabbing with the Tongue" (335)-Combating "'Tongue-
grab" (336)-"'Tongue-grab" and Listening (336)--
"'Tonpe-grab" and Tongue Instrument (337)-"Tongue-
gra!> ana •eo1ng Through the Falsetto" (337)-"'Tongue-
grab" and Connecting Tones ( 338 )-"Tongue-grab" and
Consonants (338)-The Sudden Opening and the Pupil
( 339 )-Personal Quality-Only Throatiness ( 340 )-Persorial
Quality and lnteq>retation (340)-0pera and "'Personality"
( 341 )-Effect of Broadcasting Opera ( 342 )-The Pupil
and Vocal Improvement (343)--The Falce Vocal Teacher
(343)-Effect of Falce Teaching on Pupil's Attitude (344)
-Following the Teacher's Directions ( 344 )-Reliance upon
Teacher's Directions ( 345 )-Loud Throaty Voices ( 346)
-Pupil Resistance to Quality Changes (349)--Work on Co-
ordination of Registers (350)-Danger of Self-Anal~is (350)
-Constant Directions (352)-Use of the Proper Sense" in
Learning (352)-Practicing at Home-Dangerous (354)-
Ranges of Human Voices (355)-Teacher's Taste (355)-
Perverted Singers and Teachers (355)-Suggestion to Man-
agers (356)-Slnging Will Live Onl (357).

APPENDIX TO THE THIRD EDmON S58

INDEX 367

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YOUR VOICE: APPLIEDSCIENCEOF VOCAL ART

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 TECHNICAL GLOSSARY

This section of the glossary has been arranged in alphabetical order.

Explanations are brief and concise, and technical terms are avoided
wherever possible. Where physiological matters have been discussed, the
language employed has been designed with a view to making the subject
matter as clearly understandable to the layman as possible. These explana-
tions are not set down for the physiologist, who will understand all that
has been written in this book without the necessity of reading these
explanations.
A
Antagonistic Tension-Whenever we make a movement we tense mus-
cles. When we make the reverse movement another group of muscles
comes into tension. Thus, if one moves his arm outward, the muscles
which accomplish this gesture come into tension and the muscles which
move it inward are relaxed. If the arm is then moved back again-
inwards-the muscles which accomplish this gesture come into tension
and the muscles which moved it outward are relaxed. Hence, these
two groups of muscles-the muscles which move the arm inwards and
those which move it outwards-are in antagonism, i.e., they are antago-
nistic muscles.
Similarly, the inspiratory muscles are antagonistic to the expiratory
muscles. Again, the thyro-arytenoid muscles are antagonistic to the
crico-thyroid muscles and the arytenoid muscles. Equilibrium is estab-
lished when both sets of muscles are in the proper balance of tension.
The same thing applies to the muscles of the tongue.
In incorrect technic the antagonistic muscles come into tension and
the ~uscles which should be in tension relax. Thus, for examrle, when
the muscles of the chest come into tension, the muscles o the dia-
phragm and the back ribs relax, i.e., inspiratory tension is lost. Exces-
sive tension on the thyro-arytenoid muscles is associated with relative
relaxation of the crico-thyroid and the arytenoid muscles. Tension on
the neck muscles is associated with relaxation of the genio-hyo-glossus
muscles. The antagonistic muscles which change the physiological
pattern of phonation should be relaxed. The muscles which should
take part in phonation must be developed in their proper co-ordination.

Atmospheric Pressure is the pressure of the air particles which sur-

round the individual. It varies with the temperature, elevation, etc.
Sound is transmitted through the air by means of periodic variations
of pressure brought about by the movements in space of the vibrator.
The voice is actuated by means of the breath pressure, i.e., the breath
1

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 pressure is higher than atmospheric pressure and the air above thf'
larynx is at atmospheric pressure-the loss of pressure supplies the
energy which actuates the voice.

Attack means the inception, or start, of the tone. When the attack is
executed properly, all the muscles used in phonation, i.e., the musdes
of the larynx, pharynx and thorax {inspiratory and expiratory), come
into properly "timed" tension as a single unit at just the proper moment.
Proper attack implies instantaneous {actually in the time interval of
one sixth of a second) establishment of the center of pitch of the tone
to be sung. This pitch should be attacked in the ·center of loudness
with a definite and clearly defined vowel, or quality.
Expanding the Diaphragm Through the Attack-The tension on the
laryngeal muscles must occur a split fraction of a second before the
establishment of the tension on the muscles of the thorax: Diaphrag-
matic and back rib muscles must come into tension-move out-
while the attack is occurring, and this gesture must be continued for
a short interval of time {a fraction of a second) , after the sound
has started.

Jerked-The term "attack" is not a good one to use. It implies that

the tone should be started with a blow or sudden jerk. In properly
accomplished attack the singer goes smoothly from relative relaxa-
tion {optimum tonus) into opening tension. This opening tension
must be initiated with the proper timing and must be established
and held.
In the jerked attack the singer goes with a jerk from tension-
pre-tension, which has been established beforehand-into reverse
tension. Thus, if he jerks the attack he will establish constrictor ten-
sion. The harder he jerks, the more pronounced this wrong tension
will be.
All jerked attacks are associated with a pitch slur. This slur may
be rapid, but the slur occurs; therefore, the adjustment is incorrect
from the laryngeal as well as from the pharyngeal point of view.

Leading with the Throat-It is true that all the muscles used in
phonation should come into tension simultaneously at the mbment
of attack, but the tension at the larynx should occur a split fraction
of a second before the establishment of tension on the muscles of
the thorax, i.e., before the "out" gesture of the diaphragm and the
lower ribs has been completed. Thus, the singer should '1ead," i.e.,
start the tension, with the throat. He should not establish the breath-
ing tension first and then endeavor to close the glottis. If he does he
will inevitably blow breath, because the glottis has not been closed
for the attack. As a result of this, he will go into constriction. "Lead-
ing" indicates that tension on the larynx starts the attack, even
though the time interval is very slight indeed.

Slurred-There are two or even three types of slurred attack. They

generally occur simultaneously. Pitch may be slurred; intensity may
2

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 be slurred. l.e., the singer may start softly and build up the loud-
ness of the tone; the vowel may be slurred, l.e., the resonance adjust-
ment may change during the attack and after the tone has been
started.
Because proper co-ordination of the laryngeal muscles depends
upon pitch and intenslty, this adjustment is incorrect if either one
is slurred. If the vowel sound is not established at the moment of
attack, the resonance cavities are not properly shaped for the given
vowel and the resonance adjustment is inaccurate.
Pitch, vowel and intensity should be established, and absolutely
defined at the moment of attack, otherwise the tone cannot be pro-
duced properly.
B
Balanced Tension-When two groups of muscles which function an-
tagonistically in phonation come into equalized tension, they are
balanced. When balanced tension occurs, the system is in equilibrium.
Thus, when the "out and back" tension on the back rib muscles is
equalled by the "out and forward" tension on the diaphragm, these
two groups of muscles are balanced. When the thyroid pull is equal-
ized by the arytenoid pull, i.e., the registers are equally developed,
the larynx is in balanced tension, etc: In correct technic, the tensions
are balanced.
Breath-Equilibrium of the Breathing Muscles-When the voice is pro-
duced properly, the breathing muscles are in equilibrium: Expiratory
tension is balanced by inspiratory tension; also the "forward and out"
pull of the diaphragmatic muscle is balanced by the "backward and
out" pull of the muscles of the lower ribs.
When equilibrium of the breathing muscles has been established,
at the moment of attack, it must be retained during phonation. The
"hold" must not be lost. The diaphragm and ribs must not move-in,
up, down or out. Any movement whatever of these members indicates
a relaxation of the inspiratory muscles.
Thus, the singer who produces his voice properly "holds his breath"
while he is singing and increases the tension of this "hold" in order
to sing more vigorously, i.e., raise the pitch or lessen the intensity.
Breath expulsion is, then, only the exhaust. The air which escapes has
lost its pressure above atmospheric pressure. It escapes because the
vocal cords (valve) have opened slightly in the opening phase of their
vibration.
Vocalized Breath-Some vocal teachers have propounded a fantastic
theory. They state that breath is blown out by means of the expira-
tory muscles and that after it has passed through the glottis ( vocal
cords), it becomes "vocalized breath." They think that the breath
carries sound, but sound travels at 1100 feet a second; for the
breath to travel at this speed (750 miles an hour), the singer would
have to blow more than ten times as hard as the worst hurricane:
to blow the audience out of the hall-to blow the auditorium itself
into bits.
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 From this ridiculous notion, they tell pupils to direct this stream
of "vocalized breath" into, or against, some part of the mouth, head,
etc. Theories of "voice placement," "nasal resonance," "singing in
the masque," "focussing the voice," "placing the voice against the
hard palate," "placing the voice forward," etc., are all, more or less,
based upon this fallacy. Voice is in the throat-it cannot be "placed"
or "put" anywhere.

Breath Control is employed by teachers who believe that the voice

should be "driven," or actuated, by means of a blast of air, which is
controlled by means of the breathing muscles.
When the inspiratory muscles are tensed and the expiratory muscles
are relaxed, and vice versa, the glottis opens reffexly and the breath
can then be checked only by means of constriction (i.e., tension on the
muscles of the tongue) . When this tongue tension has been established,
sound can be produced by blowing the breath through this constriction.
Under these circumstances the intensity of the tone is proportional to
the speed of the breath expulsion.
When the voice is produced properly, intensity is not dependent
upon the breath expulsion. In fact, the amount of breath expelled ( the
exhaust) becomes less as the intensity increases from pp to f, provided
the throat is opened and the neck muscles are relaxed.·

Breath Expulsion is the rate at which the breath is expelled, or exhausted

during phonation.
When technic is correct, and the muscular system of the voice is
highly developed and properly co-ordinated, breath expulsion is very
low. It is a function of the laryngeal muscles. A singer whose voice is
really well produced can hold almost any tone in his voice, at normal
intensity, for about 26-30 seconds. In correct technic breath expulsion
increases as intensity drops, so that one cannot hold aslong at lower
intensities. However, one can sustain a tone long enough to sing easily
any musical phrase that has ever been written. A ten-second phrase
is actually a long one in music.
Breath expulsion is apt to rise when the voice is in the process of
"opening up ." When a sudden "opening" occurs it is apt to rise sud-
denly to a distressing degree, because the control of the constriction
has been lost and the arytenoid muscles have not developed sufficient
strength to close the glottis at this stage of laryngeal development.
Further development-training-alleviates this condition.
When the voice is throaty the breath expulsion may be very low
indeed-in fact, in certain cases, the throatier the voice, the lower
the breath expulsion. At an extreme stage of constriction a singer may
be able to produce a most unpleasant little noise for as long as 50-60
seconds.
It is good when breath expulsion is low provided the throat is open.
It is bad when the throat is closed.

Breath Pressure-The air above the larynx is at atmospheric pressure.

Air in the lungs is above atmospheric pressure ( compressed) because
the glottis is closed and the breathing muscles are in tension. The
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 pressure of the breath below the larynx depends, primarily, upon the
closure of the glottis-the space between the vocal cords. If the glottis
is closed, the breath pressure can be raised by means of tension on the
inspiratory and the expiratory muscles. The glottis does not close, if
the inspiratory muscles are relaxed, except to the degree to which it
is squeezed together because of tension on the muscles of the neck.
The force which actuates the voice is the pressure of the breath-
not the breath itseH ( not a breath blast )-provided the voice is pro-
duced properly . It is the loss of pressure that is changed into sound
energy. This is similar to a steam engine driven by means of the pres-
sure of the steam-not by means of a blast of steam.

Breathing is the inspiration ( taking in), and expiration ( letting out)

of air . It is not phonatioo. In the breathing act the glottis (the space,
or opening, between the vocal cords) is opened. The breath can
be drawn into and expelled from the lungs only when it is opened .
The individual would die of suffocation if the glottis were to close
during the breathing act. The glottis must be closed for phonatioo.
When the breath is inspired the inspiratory muscles become tense
and the lungs expand. At the same time the expiratory muscles relax.
When the breath is expired the expiratory muscles become tense and
the lungs contract as the inspiratory muscles relax. Because this act
continues all during life, the co-ordination of muscles which occurs
for it, has become reflex. When part of the reflex co-ordination is
initiated, the other part occurs reflexly. This is why both inspiratory
and expiratory muscles must be in tension for phooatioo. If only one
set of these muscles becomes tense, the breathing act is initiated, the
glottis opens and the production of sound, without external interfer-
ence, is impossible.

Balanced Tension of the breathing muscles occurs when the expira-

tory tension is equaled by the inspiratory tension. Also, the "out
and forward" pull of the diaphragmatic muscle is equaled by the
"'out and backward" pull of the muscles of the lower ribs, i.e., the
torso does not move.

Blowing Breath through a constriction occms when the techoic is

throaty . This constriction is established by drawing the tongue back
into the throat against the posterior wall of the laryngeal pharynx,
and tensing the neck muscles, which are so tense that they actually
squeeze the larynx. This constriction enables the throaty singer to
produce sound by blowing breath.
Io correct technic the breath is "'held," not blown.

"Holding the Breath'\-For inspiration, the inspiratory muscles tense

and the expiratory muscles relax. The expiratory muscles tense and
the inspiratory muscles relax, when the breath is expired.
Io pbonatioo neither of these two conditions occur. If they did,
the glottis would open and phooatioo would be impossible without
the application of external pressure on the larynx. Therefore, in
phonation both the inspiratory and the expiratory muscles must be
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 tensed. When the singer phonates, he does not breath~ •holda
his breath."
"Holding the breath" requires tension on the inspiratory muscles
for legitimate phonation, during which the inspiratory and expira-
tory tensions must be in equilibrium.
Neck, Chest and Shoulder Mwcles take part in respiration when it is
accomplished improperly. These members are not involved in phona-
tion or respiration, when the technic is correct.
The lower part of the lungs is far larger than the upper. Thus, it is
expansion of the lower part of the lungs that is essential. If the neck,
chest and shoulders take part in phonation, the voice is throaty.
Plenty of breath can be inspired if the lower part of the lungs is
filled. When only the upper part is filled, relatively little breath is
actually inspired.
When the upper part of the lungs-the small part-is not involved
in the breathing act, the loss in vital capacity is insignificant. When
it is involved, the singer will inevitably produce throaty (bad) tones.
The important factor in breathing is the establishment of equilibrium
and the "hold" on the breathing muscles-the actual amount of
breath taken is relatively unimportant.
"Out" Gesture in breathing occurs when the breath is drawn into the
lungs by means of the inspiratory muscles. When the breath is in-
spired properly, this "out" gesture occurs with the diaphragm and
lower rib muscles. The chest and shoulders should not be involved
in this gesture nor in respiration or phonation. The attack should
always be made on the "out" gesture, which should continue through
the attaclc.

C
Constriction refers to throaty (incorrect) singing.
A tone is constricted when the base of the tongue drops back so
that it virtually touches the posterior wall of the laryngeal pharynx.
At the same time the muscles of the neck are in tension and the jaw
is "set"-generally in· the middle position-while the muscles of the
chest and shoulders are tensed. The breath is blown through the con-
striction thus formed. The mouth acts as the resonator of the vowel.
When the singer produces his voice under such conditions, the
registration is mixed, provided that he endeavors to sing loudly. Con-
trol of intensity is a function of the degree of constriction-closure-of
the throat. When constriction occurs, the proper function of the voice
is completely altered, and is incorrect in every particular.

Singing on Constriction-An incorrectly trained singer deliberately con-

stricts his throat in order to control tone. Schools of technic based
upon such notions as "singing in the masque," "building on the soft,"
"head voice," "covered tones," "breath control," etc., intentionally
seek this end.
The singer who produces his voice "on constriction," starts the
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 tone softly, generally below the pitch, and swells into it. Thus, he
establishes absolute constriction. He drops his head. He raises his
shoulders and breathes with his chest, which he also raises. He pulls
his diaphragm in-thus losing the hold on the breathing muscles.
He may even press his tongue against his lower teeth, thus forcing
its base back against the posterior wall of the laryngeal pharynx. In
some cases he deliberately drops his laryox-hyoid bon~as far
down his throat as possible. He then proceeds to squeeze his voice
in and out (crescendo and decrescendo) by actually regulating the
degree of constriction of his throat.

Coon Shouting, Blues Singing, Torch Singing come from an unco-ordi-

nated, or mixed, lower register and a mouth resonance adjustment. In
the cases where the pure lower register is used, the vocal apparatus
may remain healthy, provided that the voice is not "held back." The
sounds emitted are unpleasant, b~t they are not nearly so injurious
nor, in the opinion of the author, so unpleasant as the throaty "croon-
ing" or mixed falsetto screaming of some more serious singers. The use
of the unco-ordinated lower register is not actually as harmful as the
use of the falsetto (posterior and lateral crico-aryteooid muscles)
only.
C.oup De Gloue employed by certain singing teachers some years ago,
is still used to describe a click supposeaiy caused by the vocal cords
coming together (the glottis closing) which occurs when the tone is
attacked under certain conditions. The click is actually caused by the
tongue striking against the posterior wall of the laryngeal pharynx. The
click occurs only when the tone is attacked in absolute constriction.
It is, therefore, very injurious. If it were possible for the vocal cords
to click together-an extremely unlikely assumption-this action would
undoubtedly be injurious, because it would jar them, and probably
cause the development of nodules. Actually, this form of attack may
cause the development of nodules, not because the vocal cords
/'
strike together, but because it engenders active throatiness.
' ·'
"C.0,ered Tones" are much the same as "head tones" (see Registration-
Head Register).
The singer "covers" the tone, when he sings the middle tones with
a white, shouty techoic and then goes deliberately dark-throaty
( drops the tongue by relaxing the genio-hyo-glossus muscles) for the
upper tones.
Some teachers tell their pupils to "place the tone in the head" or
to "cover the tone" through the entire range. This means: "Drop the
tongue, hyoid bone and larynx and make every tone in the voice dark-
throaty." When the throat is closed (constricted) the singer has the
impression of "something happening in the head." This sensation is
m~ely a manifestation of constriction and mouth resonance adjustment.

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 E
Edge is a shrill, wlute, piercing tone characteristic of the throaty, mixed
register soprano or tenor, although other voices sometimes produce
such tones. An "edgy" tone is mixed in a greater or lesser degree. Some-
times it is mixed lower register and sometimes mixed falsetto.
Many actively throaty singers ascend the scale "on edge" (by pro-
ducing tones which are progressively whitened, mixed and shrilled).
Under such circumstances, the pitch is changed by thyro-aryteooid
tension ( mixed registration). Singers whose voices are white and
throaty also increase the intensity of a tone by means of "edge," i.e.,
by shrilling and mixing it as they swell. The resultant sound may be
relatively loud for the upper tones, but it is extremely throaty, most
unpleasant, more or less off-key (often sharp) and the intonation is
apt to waver.

Equilibrium-When two or more forces pulling against each other are

balanced so that the system is stabilized ( does not move) , these forces
are in equilibrium.
For example: In phonation, the breathing muscles are in equilibrium
when the "forward and out" tension on the muscle of the diaphragm
balances with, and is equal to, the "backward and out" tension on the
muscles of the lower, back ribs, i.e., when the breathing muscles do
not move.
Again: Equilibrium in the larynx is established when the tension on
the crico-thyroid muscles is balanced by, and equalized with, the ten-
sion on the arytenoid muscles. This means that the registration action
must be balanced if true, constant pitch is to be maintained. ·
Furthermore, the tension on the diverse muscles of the tongue and
hyoid bone must balance and hold the shaping of the pharyngeal
resonance cavity constant for the resonation of the tone.
Thus, each of the three areas of tension of the vocal apparatus-the
breathing muscles (actuator) , the laryngeal muscles (vibrator) and
the muscles of the tongue and hyoid bone (resonator)-must be in
equilibrium during phonation and they must also be in equilibrium
with each other. Therefore, when the vocal apparatus is functioning
properly, it is a static or stationary machine. Excessive development
of any one part of the vocal apparatus ( breathing muscles, laryngeal
muscles or tongue muscles) destroys the equilibrium of the entire sys-
tem and the efficiency of the vocal organs is impaired or destroyed.

F
Flexibility is important but not as an end in itself. It depends upon the
action of the true vibrato, which does not appear until the technical ,
development is advanced . All voice movements are made on the
vibrato. They cannot be accomplished legitimately before the appear-
ance of the vibrato . They are easy to accomplish, when the proper
vibrato has been established. Practising for flexibility, before the true
vibrato has been established, only leads to ill-defined fluttering up and
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 down the scale on the tremolo, and this is very harmful to the voice
because it engenders throatiness.

?
Focussing the Voice-Light can be focussed and sound can be focussed
if suitable sound reflectors are used, •.e., suitably designed, properly
arranged bard, re8ecting surfaces. That no such re8ectors form part
of the vocal apparatus, or indeed any part of the human body, is
patently apparent . However, if the individual bases his conceptions of
' voice upon the notion of "vocalized breath" (see Breath-Vocalized
Breath), the notion of focussing this extraordinary phenomenon might
arise.
The term indicates nothing scientifically.

\ Forcing or Pushing the Voice-Some people believe that the voice is

~d when the singer produces full, powerful tones. This is abso-
'% l':1te~yuntrue. Actually, most forcing occurs during soft, constricted
smgmg.
The voice is forced when it is throaty. If the breath is forced or
pushed out in a blast against a constriction, the voice is forced and
the more vigorous the blasting of the breath becomes, the more
viciou,slyis the voice forced and strained.
-:::--The well-produced tone cannot be forced. The first requirement for
• forcing is throatiness, or constriction. Any loud tone produced under
conditions of constriction (mouth resonance adjustment) is badly
forced. The tone cannot be forced when the breath is held. In train-
ing the voice, when the tone is established softly at first and then
"built," the singer forces his voice, because the initial, soft tone is
completely throaty, and the building process is merely progressive
forcing.
All women who use only the falsetto force their vokes. AU men
who have no falsetto co-ordination force their upper tones. All •head,"
«covered," "masque" or "placed" tones are forced. All singers who
employ a radio technic and those who sing what is known as "mezza
voce" force their voices if they swell even to the slightest degr~
and they are likely to do this sometimes.
Forward Voice Production-"Forward voice production" or "placing the
voice forward" might mean dissecting the larynx and grafting it in the
mouth or head-however this factual interpretation of a meaningless
phrase can hardly be accepted. The most probable, intelligent, inter- /
pretation would be for it to mean a mouth resonance adjustment. The{;.{., :h\,,
notion of "forward voice production," "getting the voice out of the ~ ---
throat" or "placing the voice forward" can only result in deliberately
throaty singing.

G
"Give" conveys the idea of a muscle which should be in tension, relaxing,
or a member which should be holding in equilibrium, moving.
For example: When the inspiratory muscles relax during phonation,
the diaphragm is said to "give" and the diaphragmatic muscle is
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 said to have "given." When the registration mixes, the laryngeal muscles
are said to have "given." When the muscles of the tongue relax and
the tongue moves back into the throat, it is said to have "given." The
muscles used in phooatioo must not "give."

H
"Ham" Actor-The "ham" actor is not so prevalent as he was in the Vic-
( torian era but, unfortunately, his place has been taken by the "ham"
j singer.
\ J' Characteristics of the "'ham" actor are: 1. He hums the consonants
\\ , \ "'m," "n," and '1." 2. He moves the pitch on one vowel (slurs) . 3. He
\ ', enunciates one word or syllable at a time and does not weld the sen-
tence together as a single unit. 4. He over-articulates and over-enun-
ciates. 5. He over-equalizes the syllables and words. 6. He endeavors
to make each and every word and syllable clear and distinct and thus
destroys the pertinence and meaning of the sentence. 7. lo over-articu-
lating he adds vowel sounds to final consonants which should be elided
and not broken off from the word.
"Ham" singers do all of these things and thus destroy the import of
the music and the emotional meaning of the text.

Hea_«!,Jteagoaw:e seems to indicate resonance taking place in the brain

---cavity. This phenomenon could only occur if this cavity were to be
emptied of its contents (the brains) and if its walls ( the very hard
skull) could be moved into diff ereot postures, or shapes.
Head Voice means much the same thing as ''head register" ( see Regis·
tratioo-Head Register).
The feeling of "the voice being in the head" is experienced when
the technic is deliberately throaty and the throat is closed. Many singers
who employ this techoic imagine that they "feel the voice in the head."
If sufficient constriction is set up, some such sensation can be ex-
perienced, because the sound is transmitted more effectively through
h.!&_hly
tensed m~ ( see Singing in the Masque).

Held Back indicates the process of controlling the tone by means of con-
striction. The throaty singer can "hold" the tone by means of tension
on the neck muscles, when the tongue has been drawn back against
the posterior wall of the laryngeal pharynx. The inhibited student is
always apt to ''hold back" because he is afraid to allow his voice to
ring out freely, and because he loses the abortive sense of "control"
which is provided by constriction.
Hold conveys the idea of muscles "holding," or maintaining, their ten-
sion in balanced equilibrium. Thus, the muscles of the thorax "hold"
when the "forward and out" pull of the diaphragm balances with the
"backward and out" pull of the back rib muscles to establish equili-
brium, and inhibit any movement of the thorax. The muscles of the
larynx''hold" when the tension on the arytenoid muscles and the thyroid
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 muscles retain their balanced tension and maintain a defined pitch
The muscles of the tongue "hold" when the resonance adjustment
"holds" constant, i.e., the resonance cavities assume their proper pos-
ture and retain this posture while the tone is being sung.
The term "hold" also refers to the "holding" of tension on all the
muscles used in phonation during the singing of any group of tones.
Humming Consooants--The consonants "m," "n," and "'I" are hummed
when the hum vowel associated with them is oversustained. The hum
must be present, but it should never be prolonged. A great many
"ham" actors and singers deliberately hum these consonants to a
ridiculous degree and seem to glory in this unpleasant form of bad
diction. It inevitably makes the voice throaty, and shuts it off, because
the intensity level of humming is far below that of normal singing, and
the musical line is uneven unless the tones sung with the mouth open
are "held back," constricted and produced at the low level of intensity
established by the intensity of the hum.

Interfering Tension-Interfering and antagonistic tension are very closely

associated. Certain muse~ which do not take part in phonation come
into tensio!} during phonation. Such tensions co-ordinate with incor-
rect technical adjustments. When such interfering tensions have become
associated with phonation for a prolonged period, they become reflex.
Then, tension on these muscles reflexly brings into tension the an-
tagonistic muscles and changes the pattern for the proper technic to
an incorrect pattern, i.e., throaty singing. Furthermore, such interfering
tensions may mechanically hinder the proper production of the tone.
Interfering tension must be eliminated. / / c.........t.
'-- .

Intonation designates the pitch definition of a tone. This question is

complicated because of the vibrato, or tremolo, pitch variation. How-
ever, it is the ce~ter pitch point of the vibrato that we perceive as
"intonation." This middle ,pitch point of the vibrato should remain
constant during the entire duration of the tone. The ability to establish
and maintain true intonation is primarily technical-it depends upon
the proper "stringing" of the vocal cords (proper registration action)-
provided that the ear is not faulty. It also depends upon resonance
adjustment, because if the resonance cavities are not properly coupled
acoustically with the vocal cords, the intonation is likely to be inac-
curate.
Absolutely true intonation is rare. When a tone has vibrato, or for
that matter, tremolo, the accuracy of the intonation becomes some-
what obscured, because the pitch range covered by the movement
may pass through the tone which is supposed to be phonated. This
may give to the uninitiated a false impression of true intonation.
When the singer slurs he is virtually never really in tune, because the
pitch memory pictures become blurred. Accurate intonation is possible
only when these pitch memory pictures are absolutely defined-when
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 the pitch impressions in the mind are like the keys of the piano key-
board.
Pleasing quality depends primarily upon accurate intonation.

M
Masque-Singing in the Masque is actually a grandiloquent name for a
throaty, nasal technic. When the voice is really .well-produced no
tangible sensation is experienced, because it is perfectly "free." When
the voice is impaired, because of technical faults, sensations arise, and
as the voice deteriorates, these sensations become progressively more
clearly defined. Sensation can be "felt" in the nose, between the eyes
or "in the masque" if the jaw is set and tensed in the middle position.
This tension is directed to the front of the face during phonation. This
sensation is greatly abetted when the neck muscles are in a high degree
of tension, and this can be engendered by dropping the head and by
developing tension on the muscles of the chest and shoulders.
The sensation of something happening "in the masque" is associated
with the transmission of sound through constrictor tension. It serves
only to destroy the quality and power of the tone and eliminate the
voice. It has nothing to do with resonance.

.Mellow Tone is a tone of very fine quality. It can be produced only when
the technic has reached a high stage of development and it is the
result of a very highly developed resonance system. Thus, the genio-
hyo-glossus muscles must be developed very highly and the registers ·
developed and co-ordinated completely, or almost so. The tone is not
white, but it is not overly dark and tends to be whitish. The resonance
adjustment involves the use of a large, widely opened laryngeal
pharynx. Before the stage of development has been reached at which
legitimate, mellow tones can be produced, the pupil has to sing with
a somewhat overly dark quality, especially in the middle part of his
range. The late Enrico Caruso was the perfect example of mellow
singing.
Any attempt to produce mellow tones at too early a stage in the
technical development leads to a dropped tongue, hyoid bone and
larynx and to throatiness-even active throatiness. Therefore, it is dan-
gerous.
N
Nasal Resonance is patently absurd because the nasal cavity is a non-
adjustable, highly damped cavity which could not, under any circum-
stances, function as a resonator.
The nasal pharynx does form o pharyngeal resonance
system, but this is not the nose-i · behind th nose.
The feeling of something happenin · nose is experienced when
the jaw is locked in the middle position and this locking tension is
directed into the front of the face ( the nose) , and when the neck
muscles plus the muscles of the chest and shoulders are in a high degree
of tension.
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Nasality is induced primarily by m,,._- .. a jaw lock. The jaw is locked
in the middle position, or n y shut, d !ension is reflected to tl1e
nose {front of the face) from · · .
A nasal tone is always a badly-produced tone, despite the fact that
it is apt to sound ringing and pleasant to the singer himself. Many
singers who produce nasal tones actually dilate their nostrils in order
to help along this most unpleasant technical fault.
Nasality is not resonance. It is merely the effect of an undue trans-
mission. of sound waves through the nose induced by tension on the
jaw, neck, chest and shoulders.
Natural Voice is a voice which is "naturally" well produced . It iz not a
peculiar physical phenomenon. A fine voice, even a great voice, can
be made if any given voice is trained properly and the technical con-
ditions {muscular developments and co-ordinations) , which pertain to
a great natural voice are induced.
Thus, any voice can, theoretically, be made into what has hereto-
fore been designated as a great natural voice, provided that the pupil
is able to learn-this proviso is, however, a big one. Generally speak-
ing, talent-not "natural voice"-of a high order is a necessary con-
comitant of being able to learn the technic.
0£ course, there is also the actual, physical structure of the voice.
The type of voice is determined by the size and structure of the
vocal organs. A soprano voice is of different structure from a con-
tralto whose larynx, for example, is larger, and whose cavities {the
structure of the head and neck) are different. A bass usually has a long
neck and face and a big larynx. A tenor generally has a short neck, a
broad, narrow face and a relatively small larynx, etc. However, the
natural sound of the voice is not revealed until a certain stage of tech-
nical proficiency has been attained. If the technic is bad enough, a
baritone or even a bass, may sound like a tenor, i.e., if the registration
is mixed and the technic throaty. Many a so-called contralto is merely
a thickened soprano and many a contralto sings soprano because her
lower register is undeveloped and her voice is shrilled and throaty .
Proper training reveals the natural voice, in this sense of the word. In
borderline cases {dramatic sopranos and heroic tenors), the natural
voice is not revealed until a high stage of technical proficiency has
been reached . Actually, a well-trained voice may be preferable to a
"natural voice," because the individual who possesses the former is
far less likely to lose it.

Nodules are cornlike growths which appear at the edges of the vocal
cords. In severe-cases it may be impossible for the student to sustain
a tone, because this growth stops vibration of the vocal cords. Even
the speaking voice may be affected. Nodules can be removed by
means of surgery, but this operation is apt to be dangerous, because
if even a small portion of the cord it~elf is removed, the individual will
never sing acceptably again.
Proper training is an almost sure cure, because nodules are caused
by the rubbing together of the edges of the vocal cords as a result 0£
constriction. If the voice is properly "opened up" and registered,
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 nodules can never form. li they have formed they disappear in a
relatively short time.
The formation of nodules is always associated with consbiction and
generally with \mixed registration. The victim of the radio technic
teacher and of the "singing in the masque" teacher, etc., especially
if he insists upon the practice of pianissimo and "mezza voce" singing,
is likely to develop this ailment. Surgery affords only a temporary cure,
unless the technic is radically changed, because if the cause is not
removed, recurrence is almost inevitable.

Noise indicates any actively unpleasant tone--especially loud sounds

which are shrill, screamy, throaty, thick, mixed register, etc. All such
sounds are produced under conditions which render it impossible for
the singer to really maintain the center of pitch while he is sustaining
the tone. Thus, a loud, noisy tone is always associated with a "drifting"
pitch.
Many singers, especially women, swell the tone by going "white"
and shrilling or "edging" it-this is merely noise. When the singer
ascends the scale by shrilling-a very common fault-5he is merely
noisy.
p
Phonation means the act of producing tone with the human voice. Legiti-
mate phonation means singing with a proper technic. In contrast to
true phonation, we find throaty singing which has been termed "neck
whistling." Indeed, when the technic is really throaty, this process of
producing sound is more nearly akin to whistling than it is to legitimate
singing.)
,___Pre-tenaion indicates tension on muscles ahead of time (incorrectly
"timed" tension); for example, the tensing of muscles used in phona-
tion before the moment of attack, or premature changes of tension,
which should occur at the proper moment for the changes of pitch,
before these changes take place.
This term is also used to convey the idea that the singer has built
up tension throughout the muscular system of his body, consciously or
unconsciously ( tonus) , before he starts to phonate.

Pull indicates the muscular tension which brings any part of the vocal
apparatus into action. Antagonistic muscles which act in opposing
directions, are said to "pull" against each other. Thus, the muscles of
the back ribs "pull" against the muscle of the diaphragm. The arytenoid
muscles "pull" against the thyroid muscles. The thyro-arytenoid muscles
"pull" against both the crico-thyroid muscles and the arytenoid muscles
The chest muscles "pull" against the diaphragmatic muscle, etc.
When the voice is produced properly, all the "pulls" balance each
other, equilibrium is established and the muscles used in phonation do
not "give" (move) .

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 R
Reftex Action-There are two main types of muscular tension: consciously
controlled and reflex. A reflex action occurs without the conscious
direction of the mind.
Breathing is a conscious act which has become reflex. We can breathe
at will, i.e., when and how we desire to do so. The digestive process
is altogether reflex.
When the singer attacks and produces the tone correctly a certain
number of times, his technic become1t-Bioreor less reflex. The correct
1

technic becomes second natur(i_(reflex . here incorrect adjustments

have become reflex, these undesira e reflexes must be broken down-
if the singer is ever to produce his voice properly.
Registration denotes the arrangement, or co-ordination, of the muscles~

J,J ,
of the larynx which stretch the vocal cords and hold them in tension :_---...
against the pressure of the breath. There are two sets of muscles which 1.

. stretch the vocal cords. There are, therefore, two, and only two, regis- '---
ll"I. ters-the Falsetto Register (posterior and lateral crico-arytenoid mus-
(v Ocles) and the Lower. Register (crico-thyroid and thyro-arytenoid
muscles). The registration action is primarily the mechanism for regu-
lating the intensity of the tone when the technic is correct.
Registration does not primarily control pitch ranges but rather inten-
sity. It is true that the falsetto register becomes progressively weaker
as the pitch descends and does not go as far down as the lower register.
It is also true that the falsetto register can be carried an octave higher
than the lower register. Nevertheless, the two registers overlap through-
out the main body of the voice and the function of the registration )
action pertains, primarily, to the control of intensity. Th~ _falsetto /
register is responsible, in a large measure, for the range, quality, and
soh effects of the voice. The lower register gives strength, power and /
health to the vocal apparatus.

Balanced-In working out the voice both registers must be isolated

and balanced (opened together) . The falsetto must not be carried
up more than an octave above the highest tone which can be pro-
duced in the lower register. Furthermore, a proper intensity balance
must be established and maintained between the two registers in
all stages of the development. When one register is definitely
stronger than the other, the equilibrium of the larynx is destroyed
and the voice will deteriorate.
The registration action may be paralleled to the stringing ~f a
piano. The piano string is attached, at the back, to a little metal peg
and, at the front, to the pin. The string is tightened, and the pitch
raised, when the pin is turned in a clockwise direction, and vice versa.
This tightening action corresponds to the crico-thyroid tension. The
firmness of the little peg at the back corresponds to the arytenoid
tension. If the peg were to • give" (move) , or if the pin block is
cracked, the piano cannot hold its tuning . Also, if the bridge is
cracked the piano will not hold its pitch-the bridge also constitutes
the back attachment of the string. The back and front attachments
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 ot the string must be firm and hold, if the piano is to retain its tuning·.
Both arytenoid and thyroid muscles must be strong if the larynx
is to hold its tuning. Furthermore, the strength at both front and
back ends must hold and, if either one outpulls the other, the string-
ing is destroyed and the pitch will waver and become untrue .
Break-There is a ''break," or "gap," between the two registers until
a very high stage of development has been attained. The break
occurs because the loudest tone which can be produced in the
falsetto, at any given pitch, is not strong enough to meet the softest
tone which can be produced, without constriction, in the lower
register, at the same pitch. The break is more noticeable in a woman's
voice because she uses both registers in performance. However, when
she can use the lower register up to about middle A or B flat, it is
hardly apparent, provided that the registers are matched properly
and the resonance adjustment is pharyngeal. This is because the
intensity of this B flat, sung in the pure falsetto, does not drop so
much as to destroy the intensity line at M.F.
When pure, open, fully developed registration has been estab-
lished, the register change occurs at E flat-top space on the treble
clef-when the intensity is forte. Thus°':1iisinging up a scale, at full
voice, starting in the lower register, the change into the falsetto
occurs at this E flat, if a normal intensity line is to be maintained:
E flat, sung in the falsetto, is slightly louder than the D natural
below it, sung in the lower register. At a lower intensity level the
change occurs lower, and at higner intensities the lower register may
be employed up to almost any pitch.
It is absolutely destructive for the singer to endeavor to "blend"
the registers, or eliminate the break, at too early a stage of the
technical development, because this attempt inevitably leads to
mixed registration, extreme throatiness and ultimate loss of voice.
The break need not be a technical bugbear. In fact, little trouble is
experienced with it, if the training process is carried out properly.
This problem of the change of register and the break does not
become so poignant with men's voices, because they are pitched
about an octave lower than women's. The transition tone-:-E flat-
is the same for both sexes, and this tone is of higher pitch than any
tone written in the literature for men's voices.

Chest Voice describes the sensation which some people feel, or imagine
they feel, for the lower tones of the voice. The trachea and bronchi
• are, indeed, added to the resonance system for low tones. This does
not mean that the "voice is in the chest." However, vibration can be
"felt in the chest" because these cavities are resonating . This has
nothing to do with registration.
Many women with big voices use an ill-defined lower register
adjustment for their lowest tones, even when not told to do so and
when all properly condJcted work on the lower register is avoided.
This gives the impression of the low tones being "chest tones." How-
ever, the adjustment changes and some teachers mistakenly <lallthis
a register change. Such "chest tones" are always somewhat mixed,
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 and for this reason they are dangerous, because if a mixed lower
register is carried up, the voice is destroyed.
_,,/
/-O>ordination of the Registen-The registers are co-ordinated when
~ - the singer can swell smoothly from the falsetto to the lower register
without any quality transition or break, and vice versa. Co-ordination
occurs only at an extremely high stage of development. If it_ is
attempted too soon, mixed registration ensues and the voice is
ruined. Actually, co-ordination occurs more or less automatically
when both registers are fully developed and balanced, and when
complete opening has been established. Premature co-ordination of
the registers is most harmful. It occurs when the break is eliminated
oefore complete opening and pure, balanced registration has been
established. It leads to extreme throatiness, mixed registration and
complete loss of voice. ·

Falaetto Register-A scientifically preferable term would be "arytenoid

register," because the tension on the vocal cords is held, as the tone

/
is swelled in this register ( through its intensity range) , against the
pressure of the breath by means of additional tension on the aryte-
noid muscles.·This register is in action at the lower intensities and
it becomes more prominent as the pitch rises. Pleasing quality, high
tones and soft singing depend primarily upon the proper isolation
and development of the falsetto register. The falsetto tension "holds" f
the "stringing" of the vocal cords at their posterior attachment .
The falsetto register is pure when, at any stage of development,
no added tension on the lower register muscles has come into action,
and when there is no mixed registration.
The poss~ion of a pure falsetto register is essential to good
quality, power and range. No legitimate control of intensity is pos-
sible unless the falsetto is Pt?'e:
-......_
• When this register ~-~de~elopeJV there is a · pronounced break
between it and the low~ ·

Head Register indicates the adjustment employed by some pupils for

the upper tones. It refers to a pitch range and not to a muscular
adjustment in the larynx.
The middle tones are often designated "open" tones, not because
the throat is open, but because they are white and shouty. This
relatively loud type of singing gives an impression of "openness."
These shouty, white tones will not go up, so a deliberate augmenta- J
tion of the degree of throatiness must be induced by a relaxation of
the genio-hyo-glossus muscles. The dropping of the tongue, which
accompanies this induced constriction, makes the tone dark. There-
fore, they call such tones "head tones" or "covered tones." The
darkness and constriction do indeed give the impression of some-
thing happening "in the head." .
The singer who uses "head tones" or "covered tones" cannot sing
a legato passage and he cannot connect tones, because he has to be
constantly changing the adjustment. Therefore, he is forced to break
the musical line.
,'
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 __
"Head" or "covered" tones shut off the voice, make it ever increas-
ingly throaty, and render it impossible for the singer to interpret the
,._ music artistically.

Isolated Registration is essential to the procedure used in training a

human voice. If this isolation is not established in the early stages,
mixed registration ensues and the voice is destroyed. Isolated regis-
tration has been engendered only when a pure falsetto register and a
pure lower register have been established.

Lower Register-A scientifically preferable term would be the "thyroid

register," because the tension on the vocal cords is held against the
pressure of the breath as the tone is swelled in this register ( through
its intensity range (loud)) by means of additional tension on the
thyroid muscles. The lower register is in action for the higher inten-
sities and for the lower pitches. The purity of the lower register is
dependent upon the purification of the falsetto, and vice versa. At
normal loudness the lower and middle tones of a woman's voice
should be sung in this register, and it should be employed at and
above normal intensity, throughout the entire range, in men's voices,
which are pitched about an octave lower than vComen's.At a high
stage of development, even the high tones of a woman's voice should
be srmg in this register, when the intensity is fortissimo. For pianis-
simo effects on very high tones, a man may legitimately employ the
pure falsetto. A well-produced speaking voice, of both sexes, is
dependent upon the establishment of a pure, fully developed lower
register ( crico-thyroid and thyro-arytenoid muscles).
The lower register tension stretches the vocal cords and "holds"
their stringing at their anterior attachment. All falsetto tension, for
any given tone, must be present in the lower register, if the vocal
cords are to hold their "stringing" properly. If the arytenoid tension
relaxes, the lower register mixes and excessive thyro-arytenoid tension
(mixed registration) comes into play.
The lower register is pure when the added tension on the thyroid
muscles comes into play in co-ordination with all the arytenoid ten-
sion which can be maintained at the given stage of development. At
the same time, there must be no excessive thyro-arytenoid tension.
The pure lower register may be somewhat crude or noisy in
the early stages of development, but when it has been developed
sufficiently and resonated properly, it matches the falsetto and it is
then of equally pleasing quality.

Matched Registration must be rmdertaken as soon as pure, "open,"

isolated registration has been established. The registers are matched
when the resonance adjustment, i.e., the position of the tongue,
remains constant for both registers sung at the same pitch, with the
same vowel and vowel color. Thus, when a tone can be srmg in the
falsetto ( posterior and lateral crico-arytenoid muscles) at a given
intensity and also srmg in the lower register at, of course, a higher
intensity, the registration is matched when the resonance adjustment
is the same for both registers.
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Middle Register does not refer to registration in the sense in which
the term has been used in this book. Some teachers never establish
pure registration and do not permit their female pupils to employ
the pure lower register. Therefore, the middle tones inevitably be-
come thick and mixed. This forced, thick, mixed falsetto technic is
then employed for the middle tones. Very low tones are sung m a
sort of mixed lower register and upper tones in a relatively pure
falsetto-this falsetto is actually always throaty and it is also some-
what mixed. The high tones are generally shrill. However, the
middle tones are very pronouncedly mixed. The effect of such train-
ing is that three so-called registers appear: A mixed lower register
for the low tones, a mixed falsetto for the middle tones, and a rela-
tively pure falsetto for the upper tones. Under these circumstances
there are three pitch ranges which are characterized by three differ-
ent voice qualities and three different-incorrect-adjustments.
Of course, this mixed middle register for the middle tones must
be eliminated, and pure registration must be established if the pupil
is to learn how to produce his or her voice properly.

Mixed Falsetto Register-Mixed falsetto registration occurs when both

the lower register and falsetto are undeveloped. This lack of develop-
ment is more pronounced at the thyroid (lower register) end, i.e.,
the crico-thyroid muscles are relatively weaker than the arytenoid
muscles. The length of the vocal cords is looked after by excessive
thyro-arytenoid tension.
Mixed falsetto registration is engendered when the falsetto register
is sung with pronounced constriction and pushed-forced. The
resultant tone is very throaty and generally shrill. The higher tones
may be loud, sometimes very loud and very shrill; the middle and
lower tones are always very weak and thin. The louder this register
is sung, the worse the mixture and the more unpleasant is the quality
of the tone. A ~latively wide range may be covered in the mixed
falsetto, but the higher tones are mere "squeak voice" or screams.

Mixed Lower Register is similar to the mixed falsetto except inasmuch

as the falsetto muscles ( posterior and lateral crico-arytenoid muscles)
are more undeveloped than the lower register muscles ( crico-thyroid
and thyro-arytenoid muscles) . Thus, the mixed lower register is
derived from the lower register rather than from the falsetto.
The thyro-arytenoid muscles are in excessive tension and look
after the pitch adjustment to a greater extent than they should if
they were acting in their proper function.
The quality of a mixed lower is even more harsh and unpleasant
than that of the mixed falsetto register. The middle tones are very
throaty, generally thick, and often white. The highest tones which
can be reached are very throaty indeed and absolutely white and
shrill. The middle tones may be loud, but the low tones are weak,
and the high tones are generally lacking.

Mixed Registration-Mixed registration o..curs when both the falsetto

and the lower register are undeveloped and the establishment of the
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 pitch becomes primarily a function of the thyro-arytenoid muscles
(shortening of the vocal cords) . Mixed registration is always aooom-
panied by extreme throatiness and unpleasant quality. When this
condition is pronounced, there is no break between the registersand,
in many cases, a rather wide range of most unpleasant noises can be
produced in constriction. Complete mixed registration is the worst
of all technical faults.
Mixed Registration (lnduced)-If a tone is sung in extreme constric-
tion in either register, the muscular condition of mixed registration
generally occurs. A voice which has not become permanently mixed
muscularly can produce tones which exhibit the same physical char-
acteristics despite the fact that the space between the hyoid bone
and the thyroid cartilage has not been permanently closed. This
space can close for an extremely badly-produced tone, before the
permanent condition has been established. Of course, persistence in
such singing will result in permanent muscular mixed registration.
Mixed Registration (Permanent Muscular)-ln cases of permanent
muscular mixed registration the thyroid cartilage is rotated upward
to meet the hyoid bone, so that the space between the thyroid car-
tilage and the hyoid bone is nearly or completely closed. This con-
dition may be felt by inserting the index fingers between the hyoid
bone and the thyroid cartilage. It indicates an extremely bad technic
and a poor quality voice.
The individual who does not sing, but who employs a mixed
register technic for his speaking voice, is often found to exhibit this
physical manifestation of mixed registration. A speaking voice of
this type is of a most unpleasant, harsh, throaty quality and it fatigues
rapidly.
Octave Reftection Between the Registen-When oregistration has been
established, there is an exact octave reflection between the falsetto
and the lower register. This is true of both "open"-well-produced-
and throaty tones. As the lower register is carried up and opened,
the falsetto must also be similarly carried up and 0£:ed. It can be
carried up to a pitch exactly one octave higher the hfghest
tone which can be reached in the lower register sung with the throat
opened. For example: If middle G is the highest tone that can be
sung with the throat opened in the lower register, the G, one octave
higher can be sung "open" in the falsetto. The G sharp, one semitone
higher, cannot be sung without constriction.
On the other hand, if the lower register is carried up in constric-
tion, a throaty falsettc register can be derived from it one octave
higher. Thus, because the lower register can be carried up extremely
high if it is sung in constriction, incredibly high "squeak tones" in
the falsetto register can easily be found. Double-high C, or even
the E flat above, can easily be reached-if the voice is throaty
enough. This procedure is terribly harmful, utterly futile-because
such squeaks do not constitute singing-and it must be avoided. All
tones, in both registers, must be opened, and only opened tones
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 sung. Both registers should be carried up relatively slowly, one semi-
tone at the time. However, the octave re&ection must, at all stages,
be meticulously adhered to, or mixed registration and throatiness
will result with the accompanying loss of voice.
The octave re&ectiondoes not apply to men's voices, because they
cannot put forth sufficient energy to produce loud enough tones at
such high pitches. Physiologically, however, it is true for both sexes.
Unbalanced-Registration is unbalanced when both registers have
been isolated and established, with one more developed-stronger-
than the other. It is absolutely essential that this condition be cor-
rected immediately. No further development of the stronger register
should be permitted, until equalized development between the two
registers has been established. This is not co-ordination. It is a con-
dition which must persist through all stages of the training process,
once it has been established.
Relaxing the Throat-If the throat were really relaxed, a singer could
not produce sound. See Forward Voice Production and Focussing the
Voice.
If proponents of this notion mean "relax the muscles of the neck"
it would be much better to say so, because these muscles come into a
high degree of tension when the muscles of the throat, i.e., genio-hyo-
glossus muscles, relax.
When the tongue relaxes, it drops and tenses in constriction and the
tone becomes throaty. The throat is the resonator of the tone in good
technic. It is only out of action in phonation, when the technic is bad
(throaty).
Resonance Adjustment indicates the shaping of the resonance cavities
for the picking out, or resonation, of the bands of frequencies which
determine the vowel. Resonance adjustment is possible only when the
cavities can assume a wide variety of shapes and sizes. - ·-, _7
For the human voice, resonance adjustment is made with the pharyn~
~eal caviti~ when the technic is correct and with the mouth when it..:_, . -:1
JS throaty-mcorrect. ·
Resonance adjustment implies the "tuning" of cavities-pharynx or
mouth-for the resonation of the vowel bands of frequencies of the
J:;!x~ar fundamental and its overtones which are generated at the

Open
Major Opening-Most voices are constricted, or throaty, at the
start of the training process. A first major change from constrictor
to opening tension must, then, be engendered. The tongue muscles
(genio-hyo-glossus muscles) must be brought into tension, and
when this action is established for the first time, the voice suddenly
"opens up" to a very marked degree. The increase in power, which
results wnen a constricted voice opens up, may be very startling.
This opening often occurs suddenly. It may be termed a "major
opening," and it must be met with a very pronounced increase in
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 the energy or "drive" which the singer must put into the produc-
tion of tone.
Open Tone occurs when the tongue has pulled away from the pos-
terior wall of the laryngeal pharynx and has thus opened the
throat. i.e., when pharyngeal resonance adjustment has been estab-
lished
Unfortunately, some people believe open tones are produced
only in the middle range of the voice. By "open tones," these
people mean relatively loud, white, shouty, throaty tones-and not
tones produced with the base of the tongue drawn away from the
posterior wall of the laryngeal pharynx .
When the voice is produced properly the middle tones are
slightly darker than the high tones. However, the scale can be
ascended without any transition, or sudden change of adjustment,
and with an evenly-rising intensity.

Opened Up-"Opened up" indicates a tone sung with the throat

opened; when the base of the tongue is held forward, away from
the posterior wall of the laryngeal pharynx, because of tension
on the genio-glossus muscle; and the hyoid bone is held in posi-
tion because of tension on the genio-hyoid muscle. When the
tone is opened up, the resonance adjustment is pharyngeal and the
mouth cavity is out of action in phonation.

Opening occurs when the genio-hyo-glossus muscles develop and

the tongue is pulled away from the posterior wall of the laryngeal
pharynx. The strengthening of these muscles occurs in stages and
should be synchronized with the laryngeal development. Thus,
periodic "openings" take place. Each time an opening occurs a
larger resonance cavity is employed. The first "opening," in the
early stage of the training, is very pronounced and major vocal
changes occur. Such openings virtually never cease, but they
become less and less pronounced as technical perfection is more
nearly approximated.
Every time an opening occurs, the power of the voice increases
and the quality is improved to a marked degree. At first the power
increase is most pronounced, but this effect becomes less as the
voice progresses. Later openings serve to improve the quality, i.e.,
the mellowness of the tone, rather than to increase the power
which only augments slightly after real opening has been attained.

Pharyngeal resonance adjustment is employed· when the technic is

good. The pharyngeal cavities-laryngeal, oral and nasal-are
shaped, or "tuned," to resonate the tone. The positioning, or
shaping, of these cavities alters with each change of pitch, vowel
or vowel color. For the lowest tones, the trachea and bronchi take
part in the resonance adjustment.
The shaping of the pharyngeal resonance cavities depends pri-
marily upon the position of the base of the tongue which is held
away from the posterior wall of the laryngeal pharynx because

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 of tension on the genio-hyo-glossus muscles. The position of the
soft palate and the opening between the tongue and the uvula
also influence the resonance adjustment. When the pharyngeal
cavities are properly "tuned" for the resonation of the tone,
acoustic coupling occurs between the vocal cords and the
resonator.
Positioning of the Resonance Cavities indicates that the resonance
cavities have been shaped or "tuned" for the resonation of the tone,
i.e., that they have taken on the posture, or shape, necessary in order
that the vowel may be resonated.
"Set" of the Resonance Cavities indicates the positioning or "tuning"
of the resonance cavities for the resonation of the tone. When the
technic is correct, the pharyngeal cavities are "set" and when it is
incorrect (throaty), the mouth cavity is "set."
Shaping the Resonance Cavities indicates that the resonance cavities
have assumed a certain posture for the resonation of the tone. In
correct technic the pharyngeal cavities are "shaped" and in throaty
technic the mouth is "shaped."

Throaty

Active Throatiness designates any very intense form of throatiness.

It sounds throaty and actively unpleasant.
Active throatiness may be "dark" or "white" but in each case
the degree of constriction is very great. The genio-hyo-glossus
muscles are relaxed and their antagonists are in a high state of
tension. At the same time, the muscles of the neck and jaw are
very strongly tensed and mouth resonance adjustment is much in
evidence. Generally, the chest and shoulders are tensed and the
head is forced into an unnatural posture ( the nature of the posture
varies with the individual) .
The breath is, of course, "blown" out as it is with all forms of
throatiness. The breath expulsion is generally rather low because
of the intense constriction. The constriction of the throat is ex-
tremely great, and the tongue is drawn back in a high degree of
tension.

Comtricted Tone is a throaty tone. Constricted refers to the tension

which occurs during the production of a throaty tone on the
muscles of the neck, chest, shoulders, jaw and those tongue
muscles which are antagonistic to the genio-hyo-glossus muscles.
A constricted tone is produced under conditions of strain and
effort.

Diction Singer is one who concentrates on the words with complete

disregard for the music or import of the composition. Each and
every syllable is carefully and deliberately articulated and one
syllable is sung at a time. The consonants are over-articulated, and
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 the "m's," "n's" and '1's" are sustained and over-accentuated, be-
cause the added vowel, or hum, with which they are associated is
over-sustained to a ridiculous degree. The vowels are mouth
resonated with careful and exaggerated mouth and lip gesturing.
The intensity level employed is generally that of speech, and even
below that of properly produced speech. The technic is always
throaty.

Jaw Lock occurs when a mouth resonance adjustment is employed .

Most jaw loclcs are established when the jaw has been dropped
into the middle-lock-position . This middle, locked position is
determined by the posture which the jaw assumes when it is
opened easily, in a relaxed manner, i.e., without effort, as an idiot
drops his jaw.
When the mouth is opened, the jaw drops down a certain dis-
tance and then can be pulled further down and back. The lock
J?.?sitionis established when the jaw is dropped down and the
'further down and back" gesture has not been accomplished.
No tone should ever be sung with the jaw in the middle-lock-
position . The jaw is always either nearly closed or completely
opened, when the technic is correct.

Lip Position-No matter which vowel is being sung ( there are

about 83) , the lips should be opened slightly, raised off the teeth
and neither spread nor pouted when the technic is correct. When
it is faulty (throaty) a mouth resonance adjustment is employed.
The lips take part in this adjustment, and assume definite postures
for the diverse vowels as essential factors in "tuning" the mouth
for the mouth resonance adjustment. All such lip positions must
be broken down and eliminated if the technic is to be corrected
and a pharyngeal ("open") resonance adjustment is to be attained.

Mouth-When the throat is closed (constricted) the vowel must

perforce be mouth resonated. Under these conditions the shaping
of the mouth cavity is brought about by means of the position of
the jaw, lips, cheelcs, the front of the tongue and, possibly, the
soft palate. Whenever mouth resonance adjustment occurs the
tone is throaty and the jaw is locked.
Mouth resonance adjustment must be broken down and elimi-
nated in the process of training the voice.

Mouth Position indicates the shaping, or positioning, of the cheeks

and lips plus the jaw lock for a mouth vowel, resonance adjust-
ment.

Mouthing applies to singers and speakers whose voices are throaty

and who, therefore, employ a mouth resonance adjustment. ( See
Diction Singer) .

Pouted Lips-When the tone is mouth resonated and the technic is

throaty, the vowel is resonated by means of a mouth position
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 which involves the shaping of the lips. If the vowel is dark, the
lips are pouted and certain mouth vowels demand the setting of
the lips in a pouted position, i.e., "oo" and dark "ee." When the
lips are pouted the comers are drawn in-together-and the lips
are narrowed. The jaw may be partially dropped or closed. It can
never be opened all the way, because the forced pout makes it
impossible for the singer to open his mouth beyond the middle--
lock-position. The lips should never be pouted thus; they never
are when the technic is correct.

Radio Technic-Singers who employ a "radio technic" produce

their voices at so low an intensity level that they are hardly
audible across a room. They are also often •diction singers."
The voice is always in constriction and all the conditions of
absolute throatiness are maintained. The sound is only of pleasant
quality because the intensity is too low for it to become unpleasant.
If such a singer were to endeavor to produce a tone of even
moderate power he, or she, would emit a sound of such actively
objectionable quality that no one would want to listen to it. At
the low intensity level employed, the registration may not mix in
the case of a woman. Thus, she uses an absolutely constricted
tone, or a "squeak tone," in the pure falsetto. The registration
would immec;Ji.ately mix if she were to swell the tone even a little.
The men use a mixed falsetto or, when the voice is low-pitched,
a mixed lower register. The "radio technic" is most injurious
physically. Many singers trained to sing in this manner develop
nodules on their vocal cords, and many others suHer from chronic
laryngitis. Some may survive, provided that they never endeavor
to push their voices or sing at an intensity level above the mere
thread of tone they habitually employ. This form of technic is
harmful, inartistic and altogether distressing. It is not singing and
it is not art.
A singer whose voice is produced properly can sing over the
radio and his performance is actually far more effective than that
of the typical radio singer.

Saeaming indicates a tone, or noise, of unpleasant, shrill, white

quality-generally of high pitch.
Technically a scream is a tone produced in constriction with
the base of the tongue pressed back and up, or down, and grooved,
and nearly touching tlie posterior wall of the laryngeal pharynx.
The genio-hyo-glossus muscles are relaxed; their antagonists are
in active tension. The registration is mixed-generally mixed
falsetto. The neck muscles are in a high degree of tension, as
are those of the chest and shoulders. The jaw is locked-generally
in the middle position. The lips are spread.

Setting the Jaw indicates the positioning of the jaw for the resona-
tion of the tone when the technic is throaty. The jaw is out of
action when the technic is correct, and assumes a deftnite posture
for the resonation of the tone in incorrect technic. This •setting"
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 of the jaw is, in most cases, determined by the establishment of
the middle-lock-position. It is accompanied by lip and cheek
positions. When the jaw "sets" the neck muscles are brought into
tension.

Shouting applied to singing, describes a tone produced with a white

quality, in the lower or the mixed lower register, with a mouth
resonance adjustment, i.e., a white throaty tone. It is always a
relatively loud, throaty, crude sound and is employed by men
who want to sing loudly and who have little or no falsetto develop-
ment, or by women who force a loud crude noise in the lower
register or the mixed lower register.

Shut-off Tone occurs when the tongue has been drawn back against,
or nearly touching, the posterior wall of the laryngeal pharynx.
The throat is, therefore, closed or "shut off," i.e., the technic is
throaty.

Spread Lips-The lips are spread, when the technic is throaty, for
the resonation of certain vowels and for a white quality. When
the lips are spread, the comers are separated in a sort of forced
grin. The jaw cannot be opened all the way. Thus, the mouth is
either nearly closed or in the lock-middle-position .
All singers who scream or shout their upper tones tend to
spread the lips. This is a very common gesture of the throaty,
screaming soprano or tenor and of the "squeak voice" singer. The
jaw is locked when the lips are over-pouted, or spread, and the
technic is incorrect-throaty . The lips are never spread when the
technic is correct.

"Squeak Tone" is a very light, soft tone sung in the falsetto or the
mixed falsetto register under conditions of extreme constriction.
It is generally very soft, but when it is forced, a most unpleasant,
shrill quality-like a steam whistle-is heard and the registration
becomes badly mixed. This type of techoic sounds like a whistle.
Many light sopranos use this technic for their upper tones when
they have been incorrectly trained and the lower register is
absent. It may also occur with singers who have derived it from a
highly constricted lower register which they have carried up .
Extremely high tones may be reached in the "squeak voice," but
these tones do not constitute singing, are absolutely illegitimate
and should never be employed. The use of the "squeak voice,"
which is absolutely throaty and in a very high state of consbiction,
is dangerous and harmful to the vocal apparatus .

"Swallowed Tongue"-The tongue is "swallowed" when its base is

dropped down the laryngeal pharynx because the genio-hyo-
glossus muscles have relaxed. The tone thus produced is throaty
and the quality is thick. When this technical fault is pronounced,
the registration action is generally mixed.
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"Thick Throaty"-"Thick throaty" tone is a throaty tone produced
with the tongue dropped or "swallowed." The genio-hyo-glossus
muscles are relaxed and the tongue is drawn down the throat
and tensed in a dropped posture, down and back, nearly touching
the posterior wall of the laryngeal pharynx. The quality of such a
tone is heavy and it has a sort of rich, mellow throatiness which
is often mistaken for legitimate "darkness." It is very throaty when
the muscles which co-ordinate for its production are in a high
degree of tension, and it is often associated with "active throati-
ness." It is an unfortunate fact that such a tone sounds grand,
rich, full and mellow to the singer himself. Therefore, it is a most
pernicious form of throatiness. The lips are generally pouted and
the jaw is locked in the middle position.
"Thick throatiness" is often characteristic of the contralto,
especially the contralto whose lower register is undeveloped and
who uses falsetto or mixed falsetto only, and of baritones and
basses who are endeavoring to make their voices sound rich,
virile and "heavy." It is extremely prevalent with the tenor who
sings baritone, and with the dramatic soprano who sings contralto.
Throaty Tone-The tone is throaty when the mouth acts as the
resonator of the tone and the laryngeal pharynx is constricted and
therefore "untuned"-not "shaped"-for the resonance adjustment.
When the tone is throaty, the genio-glossus and the genio-hyoid
muscles are relaxed and their antagonists are in tension so that the
base of the tongue is held back and nearly touches the posterior
wall of the laryngeal pharynx, and is at the same time either
dropped or raised too much. - -- -- ,
When the tone is throaty the brea is "blown" and the neck _
muscles are in tension. The laryngea action is also ·always more
or less out of proper adjustment and, w en the tone is actively
throaty, the registration is mixed.

"White Throaty"-A "white throaty" tone is a tone produced with

the base of the tongue drawn back and either down and heavily
grooved or up, thus nearly closing the laryngeal pharynx. The
genio-hyo-glossus muscles are relaxed, and the muscles of the
tongue which draw its base back and either up or down, are in
tension. The tip of the tongue is often seen to be pushed forward
and it sometimes presses against the lower teeth. Soft "white-
throaty" tones may be produced with the base of the tongue drawn
up, but very often, especially for loud tones, its base is dropped
as is the hyoid bone. Under these circumstances, the groove in
the tongue is very pronounced.
A "white throaty" tone is either shouty, screamy or shrill. It is
the form of throatiness employed by the tenor whose voice is in
constriction, and it is, unfortunately, the basis of what has come
to be known as "the tenor quality." The tone is either soft, and
sounds silly and effeminate, or relatively loud, when it is a mere
shout or scream (for the higher tones). It is characteristic of the
so-called "soprano quality." When this condition is pronounced,
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 the registration Is mixed, and if this technic is persisted in, the
mixture increases until the voice is eliminated.
Singers whose voices are "white throaty" always lock their jaws
-generally in the middle position-and spread their lips in a
forced grin-often with the comers more or less drawn down.
Tuned Resonance Cavity-A "tuned" resonance cavity is any cavity
which has been shaped in order to pick out, or resonate, for a given
frequency or frequencies.
Tuning the Resonance Cavities indicates the act of shaping the vocal
resonance cavities in order that they may resonate for the vowel
frequencies. In other words, in phonation, the resonance cavities
have been so shaped that they are coueled acoustically with the
vocal cords, when they have been "tuned. '

s
Scale

Evenly -rising Scale-To interpret a musical phrase properly, it is es-

sential for a singer to be able to sing an evenly-rising scale. This
means that when he starts to sing at the bottom of his range and
ascends the scale smoothly-with a musical line-each succeeding
(higher) tone is slightly louder than the tone immediately below it.
If he sings up the scale, employing a full, free tone, and the intensity
of each tone is measured by means of a high speed level recorder, a
pitch-intensity curve can be plotted. This pitch-intensity curve
should rise smoothly and evenly if the technic is good. If this curve
is not smooth, the musical line is uneven-faulty-and the singer
is unable to interpret the music effectively, with the result that the
artistry and musicianship of his performance are impaired or de-
stroyed.
A properly-balanced, evenly-rising scale is only possible when the
problems of registration and resonance adjustment have been
worked out correctly.
Intensity Scale-the scale of loudness-is determined by the loudness
at which each tone in the voice, at any given stage of development,
can be sung. The full volume of each tone in the voice, at any given
stage, is rather definitely fixed. Normally, the intensity rises with
the pitch, but when the technic is faulty, this rise is uneven and,
generally, too rapid . The pitch scale is, then, associated with a
corresponding intensity scale. The latter, when it has been worked
out properly, determines the type of voice the singer possesses. If
the rise is slow, the voice is bass or contralto. If it is rapid, the voice
is tenor or soprano, and intermediately, it is baritone or mezzo-
- soprano.
, Heretofore it has been thought that the characteristic quality of
1 the voice determines its type . This is not so-in fact the charac-
l teristic quality is fundamentally the result of the peculiar personal
faults. Actually, the type of voice is determined by the slope of the
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 pitch intensity curve, when the technic has been worked out
properly.
occurs when the characteristics of the tone are not estahlishea..,
i.e., are changing.
The principal form of slurring is, of course, pitch slurring. A pitch
slur is a noise. The pitch should never be slurred. When a slur is
indicated in the music, this effect should be accomplished by means
of a run on the vibrato.
Slurring eliminates the possibility of the singer interpreting the music,
because i£ he slurs, he cannot start a tone at a given instant, with the
result that the time spot is destroyed. A slurring singer cannot start
or finish a tone. Therefore, the duration of the tone is not established
and the time form is destroyed. The slurrer cannot accent. Therefore,
the rhythmic pattern is destroyed. Furthermore, he is "out of tune"
much of the time, even if he finally arrives at the pitch-a rather un-
likely contingency.
While the singer whose technic is correct must be able to swell and
decrescendo the tone, the pitch slurrer often slurs the intensity also.
This is almost as bad as pitch slurring. Each time he squeezes up into
a tone, or fades it out as he holds it, he goes into active constriction.
This is indeed the mechanism that he employs in order to slur.
The vowel-resonance adjustment-is also often slurred. This im-
pairs the quality, because the resonance cavities never take on a denned
position. Slurring always leads to throatiness and mixed registration.
Stance or Posture is the position of the body which the singer assumes
during phonation. If his posture is bad the technic is impaired. The
stance refers in particular to the position of the legs and feet. If the
body is badly balanced on the feet and legs, the technical efficiency
is interfered with. One of the requirements of a proper posture lies in
the relaxation and dropping of the chest and shoulders. Another lies
in the relative straightening of the spine. The small of the back must
not be "swayed" in a pronounced curve. If it is, the muscles of the
back ribs are more or less likely to giv~relax. The head must be
raised a.pd held in such a position that the nee~ is longLso that the neck
muscles, which interfere with the act of phonation, are relaxed.
Posture is important. The teacher must correct faults of posture and
stance if he hopes to make the pupil sing properly.

T
Timing indicates the application of muscle tension ( or the sending of
the nerve impulses which actuate the muscles) at the proper instant.
The inspiratory and expiratory tension must be established at the
moment of attack. If it occurs too soon ·or too late it cannot take part
in phonation. In moving from one tone to another the degree of tension
must change (augment) if the pitch rises, and vice versa. The changes
in tension must be "timed" so that they occur at the exact moment
at which the pitch change occurs. The tongue must come into tension
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 for the resonation of the tone at the moment of attack, and if the
muscles of the tongue become tense too soon or too late they do not
function properly, and the tone will be throaty.
All changes of adjustment occur because of changes in muscular
co-ordinations and tensions. Therefore, they must always be "timed"
properly. The singer's skill lies very largely in his ability to "time" his
tments properly.
esignates the residual, re8ex muscular tension, or "tone," which
pplied to the muscular system of the body. Tonus is the tension
which maintains the body in its given posture re8exly (unconsciously) .
The muscular system of the body can be in a low state of tone,
when it is too relaxed to respond to a stimulus rapidly; it may be
in too high a state of tone, or ton us ( too tense), to respond effi-
ciently; or it may be in that ideal state of tonus wherein all the slack
is out of the muscles and the response to the nerve impulses for the
accomplishment of a consciously controlled act (i.e., phonation) is at
maximum efficiency and the optimum accuracy of adjustment can be
attained.
The attainment of the proper state of tonus in the pupil is one of the
goals of the teacher.
Tremolo, w.luch is a voice Hutter in absolute constri<;tion. occurs only
when the voice is throaty. ff coilsisij__of a Outte~g _o{th~. cons~ic~ed
walls of the-tl)!_o:a~aru::e cavities:-- - -·-· -
- ~.)r_emolos involve..mere~ a ffl6VeDlent of the tongue which
Outters in Ma:Ji.ut_ This type o ·uemoto is employed · 'by-the--radio
singer, or crooner, and by the "squeak voice," coloratura soprano, etc.
The tremolo should never occur, because it is always a concomitant of
intense constriction at any intensity.
a voice with qemolo is pushed, or forced, the Butter of the
tongue ~ead to the jaw, which then moves up and down with
the Butter of the tremolo; this is known as a "~.!!!_olo." It may
even spread to the chest, which then becomes involved in this tetanic
Butter.
The worst formof tremolo occurs when the larynx becomes involved.
This type of tremolo, which is always associated with mixed registra-
tion, may have a pitch movement of over a fifth.
!hEl __!lll}Sclesof the thor~--:breathing muscles-are not involved
in the tremolo, which' is ·actualfy a mere, localized flutter on constric-
tion. All tremolos must be absolutely eliminated.
Absolute Tremolo occurs only in cases of COIJ?.ple~_e
<:onstriction.Thus,
the tongue, which actuates this Torinof· tremolo, is maintained in a
pos~e_ which virtwilJ.y___ ..the throat. The intensity is very
soft, and the tone is not forced, or pushed. The absolute tremolo is
very regular and much too rapid. It may go from 7 to 11, or more,
movements a second. However, some pushed, forced tremolos may
become slow wobbles with a frequency of four, or even three, a
second. Under these conditions, the pitch variation, which is narrow
with the rapid Butter, may become extremely wide. This produces
a most unpleasant quality.
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 Most beginners exhibit some form of tremolo. All absolute tremolos
must be completely eliminated at the very inception of the pupil's
studies. ., \ ·
~- ~ ·- .. \ ( _ ( ...., • ·- .. ( '• •- t'

Tremolo Vibrato occurs when the tone is produced in constriction,

but some degree of opening is in evidence in the loud phase of the
movement. Thus, the tongue moves from complete closure to some
degree of opening, with the balance of tension to the constrictor
tension. The tremolo vibrato may be of almost any frequency. If
the tone is soft, it may be very rapid, when the resultant sound is a
I' sort of bleat. This bleat can also occur at rather high intensity,
\ u when the tone is badly forced. Very often the frequency is slow
/ · when the tone is relatively loud, and the movement may take the
form of a slow, most unpleasant, wobble. The pitch change may be
very wide, especially when the movement is slow, and in some bad
cases, a pitch fluctuation of several tones can be heard .
The tremolo vibrato cannot be changed into a true vibrato-it
must be completely eliminated.
Vibrato Tremolo is the least pernicious form of incorrect voice move-
ment. It flutters from opening to closing tension with the balance of
tension to the opening side. The frequency of this movement is
often too slow, although it may be too fast, or even of the proper
(vibrato) frequency-about six a second. When it is too slow, the
pitch movement is, of course, too wide, and it is usually too wide
at any frequency. The movement is not smooth like that of the true
vibrato-it is of a somewhat jerky nature.
In many cases the vibrato tremolo can be changed over into a
1 true vibrato, when the voice has been completely opened up and
• the opening has become firmly established. Under such circum-
stances the movement is smoothed out, and the muscles of the
thorax become involved in the fluctuation.
A vibrato tremolo may be distinguished from a true vibrato by
reason of the fact that the tongue does not hold firm and the
breathing muscles are not properly involved in the movement. This
is so, even when the frequency is about six a second. The tone which
has vibrato tremolo, instead of true vibrato, lacks firmness and real
pitch definition.

V
*7;brato is an essential concomitant of good quality. Any tone which
lacks vibrato is of definitely unpleasant quality, and lacks life, vibrancy,
dramatic force, pulse and accurate intonation. Furthermore, the vibrato
action is the medium by which the tone is swelled_~irmately' and
by which the voice is moved from tone to~an a sooy" which
the rhythmic pYlse and accent is accomplished in the singing of musical
phrases. Thus, musical interpretation is impossible without a legitimate
vibrato-no form of tremolo takes the place of the true vibrato.
The vibrato consists of an "on" Q!}~ '.'off'.'!~!se..appl!ed periodically
to all the muscles used in pnonation, _i.e.,_~e muscles of the thorax,
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 ~- It should_lle~- - If it i! -~~. the quality
of the tone is, seriouslyiiiipaired. It should have a frequency of 6-6.2
a second-if it is too rapid or too slow, the quality is poor. The ampli-
tude of the vibrato varies with the intensity of the tone. It goes from
zero at pianissimo to as much as 10 decibels at fortissimo. The pitch
variation also varies with the intensity and goes from almost zero at
pianissimo to as much as a whole tone at fortissimo. At normal intensity
the pitch variation is a semitone and the intensity variation about 3
decibels. The quality of the tone is impaired if the amplitude or pitch
variation is not adjusted properly for the intensity, although some
variation is permissible for emotional effects. Thus, for a very quiet
mood a narrower than normal vibrato canbe employed, and for very
dramatic effects an excessively wide vibrato, for the intensity of the
tone, is employed.
All voice movements are made "on the vibrato." When a slur is
indicated, it is accomplished by means of a vibrato run. This run is
chromatic if the interval is short, and on the diatonic scale if it is wide.
The true vibrato c_ll!!__ only when_com$~1:erv-~jn~-~~n
estaoltshed. The aiaphragmatic muscle is £Q y iovofved. The
muscles of the tongue and larynx are also involved, but only the degree
of tension on the tongue muscles varies--constriction never occurs.
The laryngeal involvement is relatively slight.
"Voice Placement" is probably based upon the fantastic notion of "vocal-
\ ized breath" (see Breath-Vocalized Breath) . The only manner in
which voice could be "placed" would be to graft the larynx in the
location in which the voice is to be "placed." Actually, the sensation
of the voice being placed somewhere is the result of some form of
pronounced constriction.

w
Whistling occurs when air, or breath, is blown through a constriction.
If the lips are pursed up and tensed and the breath is blown through
this constriction, lip whistling occurs.
Another form-"neck whistling," or "laryngeal whistling"-occurs
when a constriction is formed at the larynx, by means of the external
pressure of the neck muscles, and the breath is blown through this
constriction. Thus, all throaty singing is really a form of '1aryngeal
whistling... This is most injurious to the larynx, which is subjected to
intense external pressure.

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 ACOUSTICAL GLOSSARY

This glossary has been written to help the reader get the most out
of this book. Read the glossary carefully before studying the main portion
of the book.
All explanations are in the simplest language. They have been written
for the benefit of the layman, i.e., the reader who is not a physicist or
physiologist. It is quite unnecessary for the physicist to read the acoustical
section of this glossary, or for the physiologist to read the physiological
paragraphs .
The acoustical section has not been set down in alphabetical order,
because a proper understanding of what has been written depends upon
the sequence of the topics discussed. One who wishes to understand the
book fully and who is unacquainted with the elementary fundamental
principles of physics-especially of acoustics-should read this section
carefully.
Explanations of the technical terms pertaining to vocal technic should
be studied by all readers because they are, in many instances, specially
coined terms. Their meaning is definite and precise, but this meaning
must be defined and the reader must know exactly what is conveyed when
these terms and phrases are employed.
Sound is a perception of the mind received through the ear and produced
by vibrations of the air particles, or of any other medium with which
the ear is in contact. ·
Sound is transmitted through the air by means of pressure pulses-
alternate compressions and rarefactions of the air particles-these pres·
sure pulses being transmitted in all directions from one layer of air to
the next.
Note: While the air particles are being rapidly crowded together
and separated in a given layer, the air itself does not travel or move
in a draft, or blast, of air. It is the pressure pulse which carries the
sound from its source to the ear. The air acts only as a transmitter of
the alternate compressions and rarefactions of the air particles, just
as the water in a pipe transmits the pressure exerted at one end to
the other end-without moving.
Sound is normally perceived when the vibrations occur between the
frequencies of about 20 to 20,000 cycles a second. These limits vary
somewhat with the individual ear.
Amplitude denotes the quantity, or amount, of the alternate compres-
sions and rarefactions of the air particles in the production of sound.
The loudness of the tone depends upon the amplitude of the sound
wave.
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Noise denotes a sound generated by means of irregular vibrations.
Irregular, or random, vibrations cause a sound which lacks pitch and
timbre and, therefore, cause an unpleasant sensation in the ear.

Musical Tone is a tone of a certain frequency (certain number of vibra-

tions a second) in even-regular or periodic cadence. For example:
The tone Middle C has a frequency of 256 vibrations per second.

Frequency denotes the number of times any periodic phenomenon occurs

in a given time. Thus, musical tone is said to have a certain frequency
when the vibrations which produce it are periodic-flutter regularly
like the swing of a pendulum-and occur so many times per second.

Periodic-A sound wave is periodic, when it consists of even, regular

vibrations.

Pressure Pulse-When any membrane, string, vocal cord or other source

of sound is brought into vibration, it alternately compresses and rarefies
the air particles around it. One vibration, i.e., compression and rarefac-
tion of the air particles, is known as a pressure pulse. Sound is trans-
mitted through the air by means of pressure pulses.

Sound Wave is a wave generated when the source of the sound-string,

vibrating membrane, vocal cord, etc.-comes into vibration. The single
wave consists of one compression and one rarefaction of the air par-
ticles. The compression starts from zero ( atmospheric pressure), rises
progressively to a maximum and then goes back to zero again. This
is succeeded by a rarefaction which starts from zero, augments pro-
gressively to a maximum and then goes back to zero. A sound wave is
represented graphically by means of a sine wave for a pure tone, and
by a combination of sine waves when overtones are present.

Pure Tone consists of one speed of vibration only and has no overtones
or harmonics. It is represented by a simple sine wave.

Sine Wave represents the simplest form of sound-the pure tone. It is

a symmetrical curve, like an S on its side ( C/1) , rising above and drop-
ping below the center line.

Vibration indicates the periodic movement in space of any membrane,

string, vocal cord or other object which acts as a source of sound.

Pitch is determined by the number of times the source of vibration

oscillates per second. Thus, middle C is generated when any object
moves periodically 256 times per second. The pitch is raised an octave
when the frequency (number of vibrations per second) is doubled.
Thus, the octave above middle C has a frequency of 512 vibrations
per second, and the next octave above this C has a frequency of 1024
per second. When a string vibrates, it generates a pitch which is deter-
mined by its length and tension. The pitch rises an octave if the length
is halved or if the tension is doubled. Thus, the pitch is directly pro-
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 portional to the tension and inversely proportional to the length of
the vibrating membrane or string.
Intensity of a tone is determined by the amplitude of vibration . When
only the intensity rises, the frequency, or pitch, remains unchanged
and the degree to which the air particles are rarefied and compressed
increases.

Overtones-When a string, vocal cord or any other movable membrane

is brought into vibration, it vibrates at its full length to produce the
fupdamental. It also segments: into halves, thereby producing the first
overtone which has twice the frequency of the fundamental; into thirds
producing the second overtone which has a frequency of three times
the fundamental ( i.e., a fifth above the octave above the fundamental) ;
into quarters producing the third overtone two octaves above the
fundamental; and into fifths, sixths, sevenths, eighths, etc., producing
a series of higher overtones. All of the overtones have frequencies which
are an even number times the frequency of the fundamental. These
frequencies-pitches-of two, three, four, five, six, etc., times the
fundamental, which are generated by means of the segmentation of
the vibrating membrane or string, are known as the overtones. All the
overtones are always present whenever the vocal cords are brought
into vibration. Only a specially constructed tuning fork or an elec-
trically produced source of sound can generate a pure tone, i.e., a tone
without any harmonics or overtones.
Segmentation means the formation of nodes and loops in a vibrating
string, membrane, vocal cord, etc. When such a vibrator is brought
into oscillation, it divides into halves. These halves vibrate at twice
the frequency of the full length of the string, thus producing the first
overtone, which has a pitch one octave higher than the fundamental.
It also divides, or segments, into thirds producing the second overtone,
which has a frequency three times that of the fundamental, and into
fourths, fifths and sixths, etc., thus producing a11the overtones which
are always present when such a vibrator is brought into vibration.
Harmonics means the same thing as overtones ( see Overtones).

Fundamental is the lowest frequency, or pitch, generated by a given

source of sound. It is the speed of vibration which emanates from the
vibration of the fu]] length of a vibrating membrane, string, vocal cord,
etc.
Quality depends upon the arrangement of the fundamental and its over-
tones. Thus, when a tone is generated, there is a certain amount of
the fundamental, plus a certain amount of the first overtones, plus a
certain amount of the second overtone, the third, the fourth, the fifth,
etc. This composite sound produces a certain effect on the ear which
we perceive as the quality of the tone. Thus, the ear is able to detect
the difference between the sound of a piano, a violin, a human voice,
etc., because of this distribution of sound energy between the funda-
mental and its overtones.
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 It is important to note in this connection that we are considering
one sound wave. This does not determine good or bad quality, which
is mostly a function of the changes of pitch, overtones and loudness
during the time a sound is sustained.
Sound Spectrum determines the quality of the tone. It is another term
used to denote the arrangement of the fundamental and its overtones,
i.e., how much fundamental and how much of each of the overtones
are present in the tone. Thus, the sound specbum determines the dis-
tribution of energy in the tone.

Energy Distribution in the Tone is determined by the distribution of

energy between the fundamental and each of its overtones. Thus, the
sound spectrum shows the energy distribution in the tone. This energy
distribution is largely determined by the vowel and the vowel color.
Actually we have found that the fundamental is strong only when its
frequency falls in or near the lower vowel band. The energy distribu-
tion in the tone is determined when an oscillogram is analyzed or when
a direct analysis is made by means of a crystal analyzer. These two
methods of sound analysis break up a tone into its fundamental and
overtones and measure the loudnesses or amplitudes of each. The dis-
tribution of loudness determines the energy distribution in the tone.

Vowels and Consonants-Vowel sounds are determined by the distribu-

tion of energy in the tone, i.e., the sound spectrum. A vowel is
perceived when the overtones in two areas are accentuated. This accen-
tuation is accomplished by means of resonance adjustment. There are
two bands of frequencies which determine each vowel. The following
table gives the vowel frequencies: 0

Table 1
Characteristic Frequencies of the Vowel Sounds for Speech

LOW FREQUENCY IUGH FREQUENCY

SPEECH SOUND (LOW BAND) ( IUGH BAND)

u (pool) 400 800

u (put) 475 1000
0 (tone) 500 850
a (talk) 600 950
0 (ton) 700 1150
a (father) 825 1200
a (tap) 750 1800
e (ten) 550 1900
er (pert) 500 1500
a (tape) 550 2100
i (tip) 450 2200
e (team) 375 2400

• Speech and Hearing, Harvey Fletcher, Van Nostrand, New York.

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 Thus, the vowel sound is merely a form of quality, and the quality
of a phonated tone may be said to be the vowel. True, there are other
non-vowel determining frequencies present, but the sound spectrum
depends primarily upon the vowel sound.
Consonants are noises produced by the tongue and lips with the
larynx out of action. The vocal cords are not in vibration during the
sounding of the consonants. True, certain consonants (i.e., "m," "n,"
"I") require the association of a phonated sound with the articulated
sound, but this sound, however short it may be, can be considered as
an added vowel.
Color designates the quality of the vowel. As stated under the heading
"vowel/ the vowel sound is determined by the resonation of two bands
of frequencies in two parts of the spectrum. The higher or the lower
band may be predominantly strong. Color is ..dark" when the lower
band is strong in regard to the higher, and "white" when the
upper band is strong in regard to the lower. A change in color shifts
the energy content of the tone far more than does a mere change
of vowel. Thus, there is considerably more quality difference
between a "dark" and a "white" E than there is between any two
vowels of similar color, irrespective of the locations of their bands of
vowel determining overtones. Emotion in singing is expressed by
means of color modification-or vowel modification, which is the same
thing. There is another means. by which the emotional import of the
sound may be varied, and that is by the medium of vibrato modification.
The fact remains, however, that the principal means of emotional
expression with the human voice depends upon color or vowel modifi-
cation.
Wave Length of any pure tone is determined by its frequency. Thus,
sound travels 1100 feet per second, in air, at normal temperature and
pressure. When this figure is divided by the frequency of the tone, we
have the wave length. Thus, a tone of 100 cycles-vibrations per second
-will have a hundred waves in a second. These waves will then be
11 feet in length. If the frequency is a thousand, the wave length will
be I. I feet, etc.
Mwical Intervals-The relation between the frequencies of the con-
sonant musical intervals is as follows:
Octave 1:2
Perfect Fifth 2:3
Perfect Fourth 3:4
Major Third 4:5
Minor Third 5:6
Damping Material (Sound Absorption)-Any material which has the
property of absorbing, i.e., deadening, sound waves is known as absorb-
ent material. Generally speaking, soft materials such as hair felt,
possess highly absorbent qualities. Rugs, draperies, wall hangings,
celotex, etc., are efficient damping materials.
Sound is either reflected from hard surfaces or absorbed-damped-
by soft ones. The reverberation characteristics of any room, hall or
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J
 auditorium depend upon the distribution of absorbent and reflecting
surfaces.
A room, hall or auditorium is highly damped when it is hung with
a great deal of absorbent material. Thus, when the walls and floor are
covered with soft absorbent material, the room is very "dead" and its
reverberation characteristics are such that the sound reflection is re-
duced to a low level. If the room's ceiling is also covered with highly
absorbent material, the room is very dead indeed. When the most
complete damping possible-over 95%-is required, all reflecting sur-
faces are covered with alternate layers of absorbent and reflecting
material so that the sound waves are reflected backwards and for-
wards through the absorbent material and, thus, almost completely
eliminated. The voice sounds absolutely dead and soft when produced
in such a room.
Actually, there is an optimum degree of '1ife"-reverberation-in
any room, hall or auditorium according to the purpose for which it is
to be used. An auditorium should not be too dead and should not have
any "dead spots," but it should not be too '1ive" and it should not have
an echo.

Reflection of Sound arises from any hard surface in a manner similar to

the one in which light is reflected from a white surface or mirror. The
pressure pulses strike the hard surface and are reflected from it, with
more or less efficiency, according to the reflecting characteristics of
the surface, which characteristics depend largely upon its hardness.
The reverberation characteristics of any room, hall or auditorium
depend upon the distribution of the reflecting and absorbent material
which it contains.

Reverberation occurs whenever sound is reflected from hard reflecting

surfaces. When sound is initiated from any source-singer, speaker,
instrument, etc.-on the stage of an auditorium, it is transmittea in all
directions. The sound waves travel at a speed of 1100 feet a second
and impinge upon the ceiling, floor and walls of the auditorium. They
are then absorbed, in a greater or lesser degree, by the absorbent sur-
faces-this includes the members of the audience-and reflected from
the reflecting surfaces. As the sound waves are reflected backwards

ur.
and forwards between the reflecting surfaces, a sound pattern is built
This pattern is completely built up and established if the source
o sound is regular and persists long enough. The sound is completely
perceived by the ear only when this sound pattern has been established.
The establishment of the sound pattern depends upon the reverberation
time, or period, of the auditorium. When the sound pattern wavers,
because the pitch establishment is not well defined-this occurs when
the laryngeal adjustment is inaccurate and, in particular, when the
registration is mixed-the full intensity of the tone never has the chance
to build up to its maximum. Under such circumstances the voice lacks
"carrying quality."

Conductor of Sound-Any gas, liquid, or solid which can transmit sound

waves is a conductor of sound. All gasses are conductors. Hard solids
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 are efficient conductors of sound, but soft, absorbent materials absorb,
and do not conduct sound. Sound travels at dillerent speeds through
dillerent conductors. It travels faster through solids than through
gasses. The efficiency with which diverse conductors of sound act
dillers very widely. Gasses, such as air , are relatively efficient. Some
solids are efficient and others act as insulators.

Sympathetic Vibration-When any two objects which can be brought

into vibration are of such a size, shape and character that they have
the same natural speed of vibration, either one will come into sympa·
thetic vibration, if the other one is brought into vibration and placed
near it. Thus, if two strings, tuned to the same pitch, are placed in
proximity to one another and one of them is plucked, the other string
will also commence to vibrate in sympathy with it. A string of half
the length will also come into sympathetic vibration, because the
vibrating string has segmented and produced the first overtone, which
has the same frequency as that of the string of half the length . The
same thing applies to a string a third, a fourth , a fifth, a sixth, etc ., the
length . Thus, if any source of sound is started in vibration , and this
source of sound consists of a fundamental and a series of overtones,
any object which is tuned to the speed of vibration of the fundamental,
or of any of its overtones, will come into sympathetic vibration-it will
pick out the particular frequency to which it is tuned .

Resonance Cavity (Resonator) consists of a cavity filled with air . The

resonance cavities of the voice are the pharyngeal caviti~~
trachea and the bronchi, and when the technic is in.correct,
cavity.
A resonance cavity is a cavity filled with air or gas which has rela- ,
tively hard, non-absorbent walls, and which ~~ot __cont~ _~ft . 1
absorbent materiaJ which would dampen the cavity ano thus destroy ,
1ts resonating effect. Such a cavity is the nasal cavity which contains
soft folds of moist flesh-this cavity could not act as an efficient resona-
tor . In addition to these characteristics, a vocal resonance cavity must
be adjustable . The resonance cavities of the voice must be adjustable
in order to "shape" for the resonation of the fundamental and the over-
tones, generated by the vocal cords, which are accentuated for the
vowel. Thus, the resonance cavities must be "tuned" for the resonation
of the tone being sung. Only a tuned cavity will act as a resonator of
the voice; a non-adjustable cavity cannot act as a resonator. Every
change of pitch, vowel or vowel color demands a special adjusbnent
of the resonance cavities. The accuracy of resonance adjustment deter-
mines, in a large measure, the efficiency and quality of the tone. The
resonance cavity "picks out" and resonates the frequencies to which
it is tuned and does not "pass" frequencies to which it is not tuned.
Thus, a resonance cavity is selective and picks out from all the over-
tones generated at the larynx the ones to which it is tuned. Thus , i!}
the final anal..Y;5~e. .~tl_so~an<:~ adjusbnent'. i.e., th~ shapingru tlie
rf~onance cavities. .q~termmes the qualify of the tone. The non-
adjustable cavities (i.e., tlie ·smuses··and the nasal -caVJly) cannot
act as selective resonators of the voice.
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Reaonance and sympathetic vibration are similar phenomena.In singing,
we are dealing with the resonance characteristics of cavities filled
with air.
If a tuning fork, which produces a pure tone, is designed to vibrate
100 times a second it will bring a resonator, which consists of a tube
closed at one end and 2.75 feet long, into vibration. If the fork vibrates
11 times a second the tube would have to be 25 feet long. For the tone
midclle ~256 vibrations per second-the length of the tube would
have to be 1.07 feet long. For the octave above-512 cycles-it would
have to be 6.44 inches. The air in the tube resonates because the pres-
sure pulse will travel down the tube and back for the compression,
and down and back again for the rarefaction of the air particles in
exactly the right space of time, in order to correspond with the swing
of the fork. In other words, the fork and the air in the tube will swing,
or vibrate, together, and the small impulses generated by the fork
will correspond exactly with the swing of the air in the tube . If the
tube were to be of any other length, the impulses would not cor-
respond and resonance would not occur. The phenomenon is similar
to the action employed in swinging a child in a swing. The pushes
delivered in order to actuate the swing must be made at the correct
moment, i.e., when the swing has reached the limit of its movement.
If the push is delivered too soon, it will tend to slow down the move-
ment of the swing. If it is too late, it will be ineffective, and increas-
ingly so as the timing becomes worse, i.e., further away from the top
of the swing. The little pulses initiated by the fork are similar to the
pushes delivered to the swing. It will then be seen that any resonance
cavity must be "tuned" to the vibrator if it is to act as a resonator.
Cavities of other shapes act in a similar manner despite the fact
that the mathematical working out of their resonance characteristics
is a highly complicated matter.

lcoustic Coupling-A resonator and a source of vibration are acoustically

coupled when the resonator is so shaped, or "tuned," that its natural
speed of vibration corresponds with the frequency of the source of
sound. Thus, when the resonance cavities of the voice are so shaped
that they will resonate with the vocal cords, they are acoustically
coupled with the vocal cords in the most efficient manner. When the
resonance adjustment is correct, the greatest amount of energy is car-
ried, for the pitch and vowel being produced, through the acoustic
coupling between the pharyngeal cavities and the vocal cords.

Sounding Board-When a string or vibrating membrane is rigidly at-

tached to a board, or other hard, flat piece of material, it forces this
board into vibration with it when it is struck or plucked. Also, the
resultant sound is considerably louder when the sounding board is
present than when the string vibrates alone, because the surface of the
sounding board is in contact with a far larger volume of air than the
string.
The piano uses this principle. The strings of the piano are rigiclly
attached to the sounding board through the bridge and, whenever the
key is struck and the string is brought into vibration, the sounding
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 board amplifies and enriches the sound produced. This effect occurs
also with the body of a violin, cello, etc., to which the strings are
rigidly attached. This is not a resonance effect but is merely one of
forced vibration.
A similar effect occurs when a tuning fork is struck and pressed
down on any hard surface. The essential condition, however, is rigid
contact. The sounding board effect does not occur because of proximity,
as does the resonance effect. Thus, there is no sounding board in the
human voice. The vibrator is the larynx. It is suspended from the hyoid
bone which is attached to the tongue. It is not rigidly attached to the
bones of the body, neither is it attached to the hard palate nor to the
"masque" -the front of the face. Thus, the notion that the hard palate,
the "masque," the "bones of the body" or any other part of the human
body acts as a sounding board is utterly absurd. The voice is a reso-
nance instrument-it is not like the piano.

Decibel is the expression for the magnitude of the pressure change above
and below normal abnospheric pressure. The magnitude or the value
of intensity may be expressed in decibels above an arbitrarily chosen
· threshold intensity. The decibel, like the octave, is a logarithmic unit.
Thus, ten decibels represent a power or energy ratio of ten to one.
The decibel is the unit in which relative intensities are expressed.
Thus, while ten decibels represent a power ratio of ten to one, three
decibels represent a power ratio of two to one. An increase of three
decibels doubles the power ratio irrespective of the initial power. In
other words, three decibels may be a very small quantity if a very
soft sound is raised three d.b., and it may be a very large one, when
a loud sound is increased three d.b. At normal intensities a rise of
three d.b. doubles the amount of sound energy and represents an in-
crease in intensity equal to the intensity of the initial sound.
Loudness is a psycho-physiological response to sound intensity. It
depends upon several factors such as ear sensitivity, pitch, sound spec-
trum, etc. In the range of intensities encountered in music, nine deci-
bels, or an eight fold increase in intensity, is conceived by the ear as
bein2 twice as loud.

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 JUDGMENT OF VOICE TECHNIC. AND
PERFORMINGTALENT

The many diverse angles from which the singer's technic may
be judged are of a perfectly definite nature and many phases of
this judgment can be based upon scientific readings and recordings
taken by means of acoustical apparatus . Such tests have been dis-
cussed in The Science of V oke, The Voice-Its Production and
Reproduction, and in papers read before various scientific societies
in reporting researches carried out in the medical laboratories of
New York University and in acoustical laboratories of Electrical
Research Products Inc. ( Subsidiary of the W estem Electric Co.).
The two papers which had the most direct bearing upon this ques-
tion were read before The Acoustical Society of America and pub-
lished in the Journal of The Acoustical Society of Amercca-Vol. IV,
No. 4, April 1935, and before the Franklin Institute and published
in the Journal of the Franklin Institute-Vol. 211, No. 4, April
1931.
The chief interest of this approach lies in the fact that the judg-
ments arrived at are concrete and definite; they are not couched
in imaginative terms nor based upon figurative phrases and un-
scientific theories.
The teacher conducting an audition should first hear the pros-
pective pupil sing an aria or a song and then ask him to sing some
single tones and major triads in both registers-if possible. This will
afford a basis of criticism and discussion of the pupil's technical,
musical and interpretative talent according to the general outline
which follows. ·
A physical examination is also advisable: Cine general contour
of the head, neck and chest indicate the probable caliber of the
voice-whether it be bass, baritone, tenor, contralto, dramatic
soprano or light (lyric) soprano,lVery often it will be found that
the voice is so badly produced ( so throaty), that its natural caliber
is entirely obscured. Under such circumstances the physical con-
tours of the face, head, neck, etc., may give a better indication of
what the voice really is than will the actual sound of the voice.l
Much may be learned by examining the larynx and the musctes
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of the neck. When the larynx is supple and easily movable and the
space between the hyoid bone and the thyroid cartilage is opened
up, the voice is in good condition. When the neck muscles are
highly developed and the larynx is relatively rigid, the condition
is bad, and when the space between the hyoid bone and the thyroid
cartilage is closed, or almost closed, the registration is badly ( mus-
cularly) mixed and the condition is very bad. When the hyoid bone
is dropped permanently and the larynx is too low in the throat, the
voice is throaty and thick. When it is fixed too high, the voice is
throaty and white. Inordinate development of the neck muscles is
an indication of pronounced throatiness, and this is especially serious
when the development is uneven. The type of throatiness can often
he deduced by observing which muscles are overdeveloped.
The opening of the jaw should also be examined. If the lock is
pronounced, the technic is undoubtedly throaty . The teacher
should note whether there is any click when the singer opens the
jaw all the way, if he is able to do so. If he is unable to do so, the
lock is bad and the condition rather unsatisfactory, although most
singers are apt to lock their jaws and the release of the jaw may
not be difficult to accomplish. The articulation of the jaw should
also be examined.
The position of the tongue during phonation should be note<(
and if there is any tongue-tie, this fact should be taken into account.
The contour of the lips should also be considered, because many
badly-trained singers have used a mouth and lip resonance adjust-
ment for so long, and set it so badly, that the general contour of the
mouth and lips has become permanently distorted.
All personal gestures and peculiar movements co-ordinated with
phonation should be noted. Special attention should be given to
the posture of the body, the curve of the spine and the back of the
neck and the method of breathing.

Registration in Women's Voices

A. Does she use both registers?
B. Falsetto Register
1. Is the falsetto/ure?
2. Is it "open" an f~ or constricted and small?
3. Is it balanced with the lower register?
4. Is it developed?
5. Are the upper tones shrill or "shut off' and are the middle tones
thick, pushed or "breathy"?
6. What is the range?
7. Is only the falsetto register used?
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C. Lower Register
1. Is it r,ure?
2. Is it 'open" and full, constricted and white, or thick and throaty?
3. Is it developed?
4. Is it balanced with the falsetto?
5. What is the range?
6. How high is it used in performance?

D. Mixed Registration
1. Is the registration absolutely mixed and is the break eliminated?
2. Is the falsetto mixed?
3. Is the lower register mixed?
4. Aie two mixed registers used?
5. Aie the middle and high tones mixed?
6. Is the mixture temporarily induced or is there evidence of per-
manent muscular mixed registration?
7. Is the intonation affected by the mixture of registration and, if so,
is it sharp or Hat?

E. The Break
1. Can the registers be changed skillfully?
2. Where are the registers changed when singing loudly and where
when singing softly?
3. Is the swell from falsetto to lower register without a break or is
there mixed registration when attempting to do so?
4. Is the break dodged by mixing registers or by employing only one
register.

Registration in Men's Voices

A. Aie the two registers isolated?
B. Falsetto Register
1. Is the falsetto dark and pure?
2. How developed is it?
3. What is its range?
4. Is it full and "open" or is it constricted?
5. Is it balanced with the lower register?
6. Does he use it in performance?

C. Lower Register
1. Is it pure?
2. Is it "open" and full or small and constricted?
3. What is its range?
4. Is it balanced with the falsetto?
5. Aie the lower and middle tones full?
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D. Mixed Registration
1. Is the falsetto mixed?
2. Is the lower register mixed?
3. Is mixed falsetto used in performance for high and piano tones?
4. Is a mixed lower register used for the upper tones?
5. Is the mixture temporarily induced or is there evidence of muscular
mixed registration?
6. Is mixed lower register used for the middle tones and mixed fal,
setto for the upper tones?

E. The Break
1. Is the swell from falsetto to lower register without a break and
without mixing? ·
2. Is the swell possible in spite of a break without mixing?
3. Is the falsetto characteristic present in the voice throughout the
range?
4. Is a mixed lower register derived from the falsetto because of
dodging the break?

ResonanceAdjustment
A. Pharyngeal Resonance Adjustment
1. Is the tone pharyngeally resonated over the entire range?
2. Are the muscles of the tongue developed properly?
3. Does the hyoid bone "hold" in position?
4. Is the quality mellow and beautiful, and is the pitch well denned?
5. Does the resonance adjustment for pitch and vowel establish
accurately at the moment of attack?
6. Can the pitch change precisely, without slurring, checking or
jerking?
7. Does the intensity mount in an even scale as the pitch rises?
8. Is there constriction and loss of pharyngeal resonance adjustment
for the middle, upper, or soft tones or the pitch changes?
9. Is the "opening" sufficient to reveal the full power of the voice?
10. Is the "opening" balanced with the laryngeal development and
with the development of the breathing muscles?
11. Is the control over the shaping of the pharyngeal cavities suffi-
ciently accurate to enable production of well-defined vowels and
vowel colors?

B. Mouth Resonance Adjustment

1. Is the tone mouth resonated?
2. How badly locked is the jaw and does he sing with it in the middle
position?
3. How developed and tensed are the muscles of the tongue and neck?
4. Are the lips shaped for the vowel? Are they overpouted or spread?
5. Does the head pull in, down, out, sideways or backwards?
6. Does the tongue or larynx rise or drop excessively?
7. Is the voice loud and characterized by a shrill, shouty, thick or
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 screamy quality or is it "shut off' and produced at low ( crooning)
intensity?
8. Are the vowels distorted or is the singer a "diction singer"?
9. Does the intensity drop at a given tone in the scale because of con-
striction when going into the ''head voice" or "covered tone"?
10. Does the singer "go for the nose" (sing "in the masque") or
employ a technique which deliberately makes the voice throaty?
11. Is the tongue pulled forward and over the teeth or pressed against
the lower teeth and grooved?
12. Is the tone excessively "white" or "dark"?

TheBreath
A. Breath "Held"
1. Are the inspiratory muscles in tension?
2. Do the diaphragmatic and lower rib muscles "hold" in equilibrium?
3. Is the breath inspired without involvement of the chest and
shoulders?
4. Does the diaphragm move out through the attack?
5. Are the chest and shoulders relaxed during phonation?
6. Can the pitch be moved and can the singer "go through" the
falsetto without "giving"?
7. Is the tension "timed" for the attack and are the changes of tension
for the movement of the voice up or down the scale accomplished
skillfully?
8. Is the development of the breathing muscles balanced with the
development of the muscles of the larynx and tongue?
9. Do the muscles of the thorax "give" for the high or soft tones?
10. Does the breath expulsion drop as the intensity rises from pianis-
simo to mezzo forte?

B. Breath "Blown..
1. Is the voice loud because it is blasted "open" or is it "held back"
and produced at low ( crooning) intensity?
2. Is the expiratory blast propelled by means of tension on the chest
or shoulder muscles or do the diaphragmatic or lower back rib
muscles collapse?
3. Is the chest raised or forced down?
4. Is the tension on the arms, hands or legs very pronounced?
5. Is the head forced down, in, out or back because of the breath
blast?
6. Is the breath inspired and held in tension before the moment of
attack and how much pre-tension .is engendered?
7. Is the breath expulsion high because the voice is forced and the
singer pushes for power, or is it low because of extreme tension
on the neck muscles?
8. Does the breath expulsion rise with the intensity?

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 Vibrato
A. Is the voice dead steady or is the movement true vibrato, absolute
tremolo, vibrato tremolo, or tremolo vibrato?
B. True Vibrato
1. Is the movement true vibrato at all times?
2. Is the vibrato even (periodic) or irregular?
3. Is the vibrato of the proper frequency (about 6 a second) or is it
too fast or too slow?
4. Is the amplitude of the vibrato correct, excessive or too low at any
given intensity?
5. Is the pitch variation about a semitone at M.F. or is it too wide
or too narrow at any given intensity?
6. Does the vibrato start virtually at zero at pianissimo and augment
as the intensity increases?
7. Can the singer control the amplitude of the vibrato at any given
intensity in order to convey various emotional effects?
&. Does the vibrato control the rhythmic effects: time spot, accents,
etc.?
9. Can the singer run on the vibrato and execute runs, cadenzas,
trills, etc.?
10. Does the voice move and swell on the vibrato?

C. Absolute Tremolo
1. Does the singer employ an absolute tremolo?
2. Is it a rapid flutter (7-11 a second) associated with a crooning
type of singing or is it a pronounced bleat or wobble, associated
with a relatively loud tone?
3. Is the tremolo wide or narrow?
4. How great is the pitch variation?
5. Is it a tongue tremolo?
6. Has it spread to the jaw and does the jaw flutter in tetanic tension?
7. Is the larynx involved ( very wide pitch flutter) ?
8. Is the chest involved?
9. Is the tremolo associated with mixed registration?

D. Vibrato Tremolo or Tremolo Vibrato

1. Is the movement primarily vibrato ( opening tension) or tremolo
( closing tension) ?
2. To what extent is the thorax involved?
3. Is the frequency correct, too fast or too slow?
4. Is the amplitude correct, too wide or too narrow?
5. Is it enough like a vibrato for it to be possible for the teacher to
change it to a true vibrato?
6. ls the tremolo characteristic most prominent at the low, middle
or high pitches?

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 Diction
I. ls the diction good or does the singer mouth the vowels, hum the
consonants and over-pronounce the syllables like a "ham" actor?
2. Does the singer break the melodic line by mispronunciation and
by checking the How of the voice in order to form the consonants?
3. Are the words clearly intelligible?
4. Does the singer use his lips.for forming the vowels?
5. ls the singer a "diction singer" who pronounces the words very
clearly at low intensity at the expense of the tone?

Musicianship
I. Does the singer express himseH through the language of music or
does he merely "think of the words''?
2. Is the tone sustained in the center of pitch, intensity and quality
when a legato melodic line is being sung?
3. Does the voice connect tones together in an evenly rising intensity
scale with precision as to intonation, time and rhythm?
4. Are the interpretative devices employed legitimate or does the
singer resort to slurring, sobbing, humming consonants, musical
distortions and other cheap effects?
6. Does the singer possess a nice feeling for the emotional and
dramatic import of the words he is singing and does he express
them with artistry and finesse without distorting the music?
6. Does the singer breathe in the proper places or does he break
musical figures with extra breaths?
7. How good a musician is the singer?
8. Can he analyze the compositions he sings?
9. Does he group the tones properly and is he conscious of the musi-
cal figures, cadences, phrases, rhythmic configurations, etc.?

Posture
I. Is the singer's posture correct in repose, without redundant and
interfering tensions or awkward with distressing movements and
gestures?
2. Are there peculiar personal gestures with head, lips, jaw, shoulders,
arms, chest, back, legs, feet, hands, eyes, nose, etc.?
3. Does the singer release all the tension between breaths?

Psychological
I. ls the singer a "sell-listener"?
2. Is he inhibited and to what extent?
3. Is he inhibited against singing full tones and high tones?
4. Is he alert and full of energy and expressiveness while he is singing
or does he become "dead" and unemotional?
5. Does he retain the energy and activity for the middle and lower
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 tones, or does he "save his voice" and only "go for" the upper
tones?
6. Does he "'hold back"his voice in performance and sing "mezza
voce" most of the time?
7. If the singer goes off pitch, is it because he has a bad ear or be-
cause of technical faults?
8. Does he go "dead" when he sings pianissimo or during the inter-
ludes?
9. Does he slur into the attack and between tones and vary the loud-
ness of single tones in a melodic line in order to make cheap,
mawkish, emotional effects?
10. Is the singer trying to "place," "focus," or "project" his voice? ·
11. Has the singer sufficient power of concentration to hold the mood
and changing moods, throughout the rendition of the entire com-
position?

SpeakingVoice
1. Is the registration pure?
2. Is the lower register absolutely established and employed for all
normal speech?
3. Is the falsetto isolated and can it be used for comedy effects,
screams, etc.?
4. Is the normal pitch of the voice at the proper pitch for the given
voice (low) or is it too high?
5. Is pharyngeal resonance adjustment employed or is the voice
mouth resonated?
6. Is the quality pleasing because of pharyngeal resonance adjust-
ment and pure registration, or is it unpleasant because of mixed
registration and mouth resonance adjustment?
7. Is the tone (vowel) su~tained and does the speaker move his voice,
without breaking off and without gaps, in a musical, rhythmic flow
of tone in the same manner as a singer should phonate?
8. Does each vowel center in pitch or does the pitch move on a single
tone (vowel)?
9. Axe consonants sufficiently vigorous and vowels so defined as to
be clearly intelligible?
10. Are consonants too weak or too loud for the intensity of the
phonated sound (vowel)?
11. Are vowel sounds associated with the consonants "m," "n," and '1"
oversustained and are the sibilants overdone?
12. Are the important syllables of the important words stressed
properly by means of pitch rises and inflection in the melodic flow
of the "tune"?
13. Are unimportant words (i.e., and, the, etc.) and syllables over-
stressed?
14. Is a wide melodic line used when it is demanded by the import
of the words?
15. Does the intensity of the voice rise in an even scale with the pitch?
16. Is the quality pleasant at all pitches?
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 17. Is the color control satisfactory and does it cover a wide range of
different vowel colors over a wide pitch range?
18. How wide are the pitch and color ranges?
19. Is the general sound of the voice "natural" and unaHected, or
does it become "hammy" and does the speaker employ provincial,
pedantic and unnatural pronunciations?
20. Is the voice sustained properly and does it "carry," or is it broken
up and lacking in carrying power?
21. Is the voice vital and interesting or does it lack poignancy and
energy and become uninteresting?
22. Is the facial expression co-ordinated with the meaning of the
words or is it "dead" and lacking in animation?
23. Are the very low pitches established and employed properly for
quiet and deep, emotional effects?
24. Does the voice tire when used at high intensity for a considerable
period?

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 INTRODUCTION

Because a concrete, usable idea is essential to effective reading,

a very brief outline of the fundamental laws governing vocal technic
is presented in this chapter. Statements made are discussed in
de.tail in the main body of this book.
The voice, properly produced, is a musical instrument. There is
only one legitimate reason for learning how to sing: To enable the
singer to use his vocal apparatus as a musical instrument which is
able to interpret the musical content of a composition and the emo-
tional and dramatic import of its text. Singing is a magnified, broad-
ened and intensified means of vocal expression. Every voice can,
and must be able to produce musical tones, the intonation of which
is absolutely accurate and the color and intensity of which can be
subjected to a wide variety of modifications, if the aspiring student
is to become an artist. It must be sufficiently powerful to be audible
throughout its entire singing range in a large auditorium. Every
properly-trained, "opened-up" voice is capable of transmitting sufli-
c~wer to accomplish this end.
casual student who merely wishes to sound "cute," sing
"intimately," etc., will find the author of this book impatient with
such trivialities. But, attentive reading should establish the error
of any negative ambition and probably reveal the real possibilities
( both cultural and financial) of a fine voicQ
The quality of the tone, i.e., the quality which renders it pleasant
or unpleasant to the discriminating ear, depends upon three main
factors:
1. Accurate intonation, which implies the proper centering of
the middle pitch point of the vibrato.
2. The vibrato ( which must be regular) of the proper frequency
( 6 a second), and proper amplitude for the intensity of the
tone the singer is producing. If the movement partakes of the
nature of a tremolo, or if the voice is "dead steady" ( except
at pianissimo) the quality is unpleasant.
3. Accurate pharyngeal resonance adjushnent. The pitch and
vowel ( quality from the acoustical standpoint) must be
resonated with absolute precision. The adjushnent, or shaping,
of the resonance cavities determines the wave form.
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 ,
When these factors are satisfactory, the power output must per-
force be considerable because the voice has then been "opened l\P·" i
Although each individual vocal organ is potentially capable of pro-
ducing a certain maximum quantity of sound energy according to :1
its size, structure and stage of muscular development , any voice ,f
which is produced properly and developed muscularly is far more
powerful than an infinitely larger "natural voice" before "opening B
up."
All these factors can be trained. This is, indeed, what the train-
ing process isl A so-called "natural voice" is not the result of some
peculiar structural formation of the vocal organs-it can be "made."
In fact, every healthy vocal apparatus can, theoretically, be trained
to produce tones which have formerly been thought to be the special
characteristic of only "great natural .voices."
In practice, of course, only a few exceptionally talented pupils
can reach the heights, because the ability for learning how to sing
must be taken into account. A fine ear, concentration, energy, drama-
tic ability and musical feeling, plus physical muscular skill are
essential components of this capacity. Nevertheless, some pupils who
start without any notable voice may become very fine singers, if
they possess these capacities.
Under a properly-conducted course of training every voice should
improve progressively according to the pupil's talent, and certain
really talented pupils should become great singers.
The ~neral fundamental priociples involved are concrete, definite,
relatively simple and absolutely strairtforward. It is in de'aling
with technical faults that the subject ecomes complex. However,
bad technic can generally be classified under certain definite head-
ings. This entire question of "working out" the diverse vocal prob-
lems encountered is discussed in considerable detail in this book.
The human voice might be termed a "~tatic" machine. The muscles
actuating the parts involved are brought into tension. These tensions
must at all times be "held" and maintained in equilibrium . The
. reader must banish from his mind any concepts based upon the
notion that the voice is something which can be "placQCI,""pro-
jected," "directed," "focussed" or "felt" in some part of the anatomy.
The voice which is produced properly is not driven by means of a
breath blast. The breath should not be "blown out" in a "stream"
or controlled.
It is the pressure of the breath which actuates the voice when
it is produced properly-not a stream of breath or "vocalized
breath." Thus, all concepts based upon such fallacious theories must
be abandoned if the following is to be comprehended properly. /
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 I
1°e vocal apparatus consists of three _ar~as of tension:
A. ·Actuator ·- ' ------........___
____
The actuator of the voice the pressure of the brea -is governed
by tension on the breathing m · irato d expiratory)
of the diaphragm and the lower back ribs. ( See Fig. 1. )

B. Vibrator
The vibrator of the voice is the larynx. It is, indeed, the source
of sound and might be termed "the voice," because without a larynx
there is no singing voice. ( See Fig. 2.)

C. Resonator
The resonator of the voice is the pharyngeal cavities and, for some
of the lowest tones, the trachea and bronchi. The shaping of the
resonance cavities determines the vowel and the resonation of the
fundamental-the pitch of the tone. ( See Fig. 3. )

A. Breathing Muscles (Actuator)

The breathing muscles hold the pressure of the breath against
' the closure of the glottis-the slit between the vocal cords which
closes in correct technic, because of tension on the arytenoid
muscle, and which opens for the act of respiration . ( See Fig. 2 F.)
The breathing muscles involved in proper technic are:
1. Diaphragm
2. Rib (lower, back rib) muscles. (See Fig. 1.)
These two groups are, in a sense, antagonistic-function oppositely.
That is, the diaphragm distends outward and forward when in ten-
sion. The lower, back ribs move outward and back when the muscles
governing them are in tension.
These two {fI'OOps of muscles, pulling in opposite directions, must
be held in balanced equilibrium during phonation and should not
move. This condition is only possible when tension is established
and mt· tained on both the inspiratory and expiratory muscles.
This te ion must be initiated at the moment of attack and main-
tained uring phonation .
.The •work done" in singing depends upon the degree of balanced
• tensior'i on these two groups of muscles which are held in equili-
brium.' It varies with the pitch and intensity of the tone. An essential
requisite for a proper technic lies in the ability to control and time
these tensions with consummate skill. This is not "breath control"!
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 Breathing muscles "give"-relax, when the technic is faulty. Under
such circumstances, the inspiratory tension is lost and the singer
starts to blow the breath , i.e., initiate the breathing act, with the

DIAPHRAGM
I I
LOWER RIBS (CUT AWAY)

I \ J
Fig. !-Breathing Apparatus
The lungs are 6lled with air when the thorax is expanded because of tension
on the inspiratory muscles, and are emptied of air ( except for the residual
breath) when the thorax is contracted, because of tension on the expiratory
muscles.
In phonation both the inspiratory and expiratory muscles are fn. tension
and the breath is, therefore, virtually held. lf,
When the technic is correct, the upper breathing muscles ( those of the
urper ribs-chest) and shoulders are relaxed and the work is done by means
o tension on the muscles of the lower ribs, especially the lower ba <'~-
~~p . •

result that the antagonistic, interfering muscles come into tension

and th~ tone becomes throaty. When this occurs, either the diaphrag-
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matic muscle, the back rib muscles or both "give" and the chest
and shoulder muscles come into tension. These muscles should
always be relaxed during phonation. If the tension spreads down
into the muscles of the abdomen, the technic is not interfered with,
but if it spreads up into the chest, shoulders and neck, the tone
becomes throaty.
We have, then, the first area of tension-the diaphragm and the
lower part of the back-and a corresponding area which should be
relaxed-the chest, shoulders and neck.

B. Laryngeal Muscles(Vibrator)
The larynx consists of a cartilaginous structure situated at the top
of the trachea-the windpipe. The vocal cords are two bands of
flesh which, when tensed and brought together, close the opening
of the trachea and stop the air from entering or leaving the lungs.
Thus, the larynx is primarily a sort of valve which, when opened,
permits the individual to inspire the air into the lungs and to expel
it from the lungs. The space between the vocal cords, which is
known as the glottis, is closed when they approximate ( come to-
gether). This closure of the glottis should be accomplished by
means of tension on the arytenoid muscle. ( See Fig. 2 F.) During
phonation, the vocal cords are brought together and stretched to
a certain length and te ion to determine the pitch of the tone.
The vocal cords are etch:'a by means of two groups of muscles
-the enoid and cric - roid muscles-which are situated re-
spectively at e ack and front of the larynx. ( See Fig. 2 A-D.)
They are ortene by means of tension e th o-arytenoid
muscles whic situate in the vocal cords themse ves. See
Fig. 2 D and F.) The combined, co-ordinated action of all these
muscles determines the pitch, which rises as the tension increases
and as the length decreases. In good technic the maximum length
for the given pitch to be produced is employed, while in faulty
technic, the vocal cords are unduly shortened. This condition is
known as "mixed registration"-the worst of all technical faults.
The larynx is the vibrator of the voice. When the glottis-the
space between the vocal cords-is closed and the pressure of the
breath is applied, the vocal cords come into vibration and sound
is initiated. The pitch of the sound depends upon the length of
and tension on the vocal cords. The muscles of the larynx stretch
the vocal cords and tum the larynx into a sound producing instru-
ment.

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 ----,.-;:---- HYOID BONE-- -,.---

THrno-H,00 D LOGAMENT/

-- ---l - 'THYROID CARTILAGE - .---

A-Anterior View of the Larynx B- Poaterior View of the Larynx

Flg. 2-The Cartilages and Muscles of the Larynx
 I
f
I

EPIGLOTTIS

RICOIO CARTlL.AGE

C-Side View of the Larynx D-Side View of the Larynx with Part of the Thyroid Cartilage Removed
Fig. 2-The Cartilages and Muscles of the Larynx (continued)
 I
I

HYOIO BONE

THYRO-HYOID" LIGAMENT

POSTERIOR WALL OF
LARYNGEAL PHARYNX

MUSCLE

GLOTTIS THYRO·ARYTENOIO MUSCLE::

E-Slde Vlew of the Larynx with the Thyrold and Crlcold Carfflage., Remooed F-The Larynx from Above, Showing the Glottis
Fig. 2-The Cartilages and Muscles of the Larynx (concluded)
 The larynx is suspended from the hyoid bone which is attached
to the tongue. It consists of four cartilages:
1. The thyroid cartilage (Adam's Apple)
2. The cricoid cartilage
3. The arytenoid cartilages ( See Fig. 2.)
The arytenoid cartilages, which are more or less triangular in
shape, are attached to the posterior, or back, of the cricoid cartilage.
The crico-arytenoid muscles hold the arytenoid cartilages firmly
to the cricoid cartilage when they are in proper tension for phona-
tion.
The muscles of the larynx are:
1. The crico-thyroid muscles
2. The thyro-arytenoid muscles
3. The posterior crico-arytenoid muscles
4. The lateral crico-arytenoid muscles
5. The arytenoid muscle ( See Fig. 2.)
The vocal cords are attached to the arytenoid cartilages at their
posterior end, and to the inner surface of the thyroid cartilage at
their anterior end. They are approximated ( brought together) when
the muscle which is attached to the two arytenoid cartilages-the
arytenoid muscle-is tensed. This action closes the glottis-the space
between the vocal cords-and makes possible the production of
sound without the aid of external-neck and tongue-muscles.
The vocal cords are stretched by means of tension on the crico-
thyroid muscles ( see Fig. 2). These muscles are attached to the
thyroid and the cricoid cartilages, and when in tension, bring these
two cartilages nearer together thus stretching the vocal cords, pro·
vided that the arytenoid muscles also are in tension so that th,
arytenoid cartilages do not "give." The tension on the arytenoid
muscles should balance with the tension on the thyroid muscles.
The thyro-arytenoid muscles lie in the vocal cords themselves
and, when they are tensed, they shorten the cords, thereby raising
the pitch. The crico-thyroid muscles raise the pitch by stretching

\ the cords, but at the same time they lengthen them. The stretching
action raises the pitch and the lengthening action drops the pitch.
The pitch is thus determined by the combined action of the crico-
thyroid and thyro-arytenoid muscles, which action is balanced
because of tension on the arytenoid muscles. All the muscles of the
larynx must be in tension during phonation. In proper technic they
are in balanced equilibrium.
The posterior crico-arytenoid muscles draw the outer angles of
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the arytenoid cartilages backwards and inwards. The lateral crico-
arytenoid muscles draw the arytenoid cartilages forwards and down-
wards. These two groups of muscles are, in a sense, antagonistic and
when both are in tension they "hold" the aryteooid cartilages firmly
to the cricoid cartilage thus making possible the "stringing" of the
vocal cords. Tension on both posterior and lateral crico-arytenoid
muscles establishes a condition of equilibrium between the cricoid
and the arytenoid cartilages.
The thyro-arytenoid muscles are, in a sense, antagonistic to both
the crico-thyroid muscles and the arytenoid muscles, against which
they pull. The entire structure of the larynx must hold firmly in
equilibrium if the length and tension of the vocal cords is to be
maintained constant, i.e., for defined intonation.
Because there are two groups of muscles which stretch the vocal
cords, there are two, and only two, registers. Vocal development
and improvement are possible only when these two groups of
laryngeal muscles are trained, developed, balanced and co-ordi-
nated properly. It is essential to isolate and purify the registers. If
one register overbalances-outpulls-the other, the equilibrium of
the laryngeal system is destroyed and the voice deteriorates rapidly.
Absolute co-ordination between the two registers is a goal which is
seldom reached, because it should only be attempted at an ex-
tremely advanced stage in the technical development. Any prema-
ture attempt at co-ordination is altogether destructive , because it
leads to the worst of all vocal ills-mixed registration ( excessive
thyro-arytenoid tension).

C. Muscles of the Tongue (Resonator)

Io proper technic the resonator of the tone is the pharyngeal
cavities-the laryngeal, oral and nasal pharynx, plus the trachea and
bronchi for the lowest tones. ( See Fig. 3.) Io incorrect technic the
mouth is used.
A resonator must consist of a relatively undamped, ad;ustable
cavity which is filled with air ( or gas). It acts as a resonator when
it is "tuned," or shaped, for the pitch and vowel which are to be
produced.
When the pharyngeal ca 'ties,.areemployed, the laryngeal pharynx
-the throat-is held in ensio in an open posture. The size and
shape of the cavity changes with each alteration of the pitch, the
vowel and the vowel color. This opening and shaping of the throat
is accomplished by means of the proper tension on the muscles
which "position" the base of the tongue. Thus, the muscles which
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 NASAL
PHARYNX

ORAL
PHARYNX
RESONATOR
(PHARYNX)

LARYNGEAL
PHARYNX

Fig. 8-Resonance Cavities

The resonance cavities of the voice, when it is properly produced, are:
A. The laryngeal pharynx. C. The nasal pharynx. ·
B. The oral pharynx. D. The trachea and bronchi.
The first three cavities named are adjustable cavities which are relatively
undamped and which can be shaped for the resonation of the tone.
The trachea and bronchi are added to the resonance system for the resona-
tion of the lowest tones which demand a larger-longer-cavity than can be
adjusted by means of the pharyngeal cavities alone. These cavities then become
part of the resonance system, and the adjustment for the pitch and vowel is
looked after by means of the shaping of the upper part of the compound
cavity-the pharyngeal cavities.
The nasal cavity is highly damped with loose folds of flesh and it is not
adjustable. Therefore, it cannot be employed as part of the resonance system.
The sinuses are non-adjustable small cavities and cannot function as part of
the tuned resonance system.
The position of the base of the tongue determines the shapingof the pharyn-
geal cavities. In this illustration, the tongue is in a nonnal, relaxed position
and is not functioning in phonation.

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· determine the proper resonance adjushnent of the tone are primarily
the tongue muscles and the muscle which is attached from the chin
to the hyoid bone. Specifically, then, the principal muscles which

Fig. 4-Muscles of the Tongue and Hyoid Bone

When the base of the tongue is drawn forward, it opens the throat and
shapes the pharyngeal resonance cavities for the resonation of the tone.
Many muscles of the tongue take some part in this shaping process, but
the most important muscle is the one which pulls the base of the tongue
forward and thus establishes the opening-the genio-glossus muscle. Of equal
importance is the muscle which is attached from the hyoid bone to the cltin
-the genio-hyoid muscle. The fibers of these two muscles, which insert into
the chin and into the tongue and hyoid bone, are more or less parallel and
both muscles come into tension for phonation when the technic is correct.
The muscles used to push out the tongue are antagonistic to the genio-hyo-
glossus muscles. Thus when the tongue comes forward, the genio-hyo-glossus
muscles relax and the throat closes; therefore, constriction is established.
should come into tension for the resonation of the tone, and which
must, therefore, be developed and trained are the genio-glossus
and the genio-hyoid muscles. ( See Fig. 4.) These muscles not only
shape the resonance cavities, but they also determine the position
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 of the larynx, which must, at all times, be held in its proper position-
not too low and not too high. ( See Fig. 12 A-C.) When these
muscles are relaxed, their antagonists ( opposing complementary
muscles) come into tension and the base of the tongue is dropped
or, sometimes, raised and held back against the posterior wall of
the laryngeal pharynx, thus closing and constricting the throat.
Tension on the neck muscles (see Fig. 26) always accompanies
this condition, which determines the technic known as "throaty
singing."
The proper training of the voice depends, primarily, upon the
correct development, balancing and co-ordination of these three
groups of muscles. This development takes place in stages. All three
groups must be developed simultaneously and in balance. If this
balance is lost, equilibrium between the parts is destroyed and the
voice deteriorates . ____ _ __ ._
Vocal development depends also upon the progressive relaxation\
of the interfering muscles-muscles which come into tension for \
throaty technic. These interfering muscles are the E.£Els. muscles, \
the muscles which lock the faw for a mouth-vowel production, the j'
l!E_muscles, which function furthe same purpose, the t911:gUe mus-
' cles, which are antagonistic to the genio-glossus and the genio-hyoid
"" muscles, the !JMst muscles, the shoulder muscles, excessive tension
~ -the expiratory muscles and excessive tension on the thyro-aryte- __,
noid -musoles:-:=-
There is, then, an area which should be relatively relaxed and
which should, under no circumstances, function during phonation,
i.e., the ch~ sho'!!hk.rs, naand ~ . ( See Fig. 24 A:E,) Other
areas of the body which do not function during phonation should
not be tensed, despite the fact that a proper state of muscle tone
must be maintained during phonation . No part of the body should
be over-relaxed, i.e., soft and flabby.
The diverse procedures, which may be employed to develop
the muscles which should be used during phonation, and put out
of action those which should not be used, are described in detaiJ
in this book.
These procedures include various physical manipulations of the
larynx, tongue, jaw, etc., which accelerate the training process to
a remarkable degree.
Table II indicates what has been stated in this chapter.
The vocal apparatus is a single co-ordinated sound producing
unit , each part of which is dependent upon the other parts. If any
one part breaks down, the other parts break down also. It is similar
to an electrical circuit connected in series ( like the lights on a
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 TABLE II

AREA OF
PRINCIPAL MUSCLES USED PRINCIPAL INTERFERING MUSCLES
TENSION

A. Actuator Diaphragmatic muscle Neck muscles

(Pressure Lower, back rib muscles Chest muscles
of the Shoulder muscles
breath) Inspiratory 11lw Excessive expiratory tension in
Expiratory tension conjunction with relaxation of
inspiratory tension

B. Vibrator Arytenoid muscles Neck muscles

(Larynx) Crico-thyroid muscles Tongue muscles antafonistic to
Thyro-arytenoid muscles the genio-glossus an the
genio-hyoid muscles
Excessive thyro-arytenoid tension

C. Resonator Genio-glossus muscle Jaw muscles

( Pharyngeal Genio-hyoid muscle Lip muscles
cavities) Neck muscles
Tension on the muscles antagon-
istic to the genio-glossus and
the genio-hyoid muscles

Christmas tree) . Thus, all the muscles which function in phonation

must be developed simultaneously and in balance-equilibrium-
in every stage of the "opening" process.
When the voice is produced properly, the breath pressure is
''held," the laryngeal muscles ''hold" and the pharyngeal cavities
''hold" in their resonance adjustment. These "holds" occur when
the muscles involved are developed, balanced and co-ordinated
properly, and not otherwise.
When the technic is incorrect, equilibrium is destroyed and the
breath is blown out through a constriction which is established by
means of tension on the muscles of the neck and tongue. The proper
balance and co-ordination of the laryngeal muscles is lost. The
mouth, instead of the throat, which is constricted (closed) and,
therefore, out of action as a resonator, is employed as the resona.tor
of the tone. This type of voice production may be termed "throaty
singing" or, quite literally, "neck whistling."

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 Chapter 1

GENERALREMARKS

Since the publication of The Voice, Its Production and Repro-

duction, in 1933, investigations have advanced constantly to a
point at which it becomes incumbent to issue an account of the
findings.
A great many important problems regarding the proper function-
ing of the vocal apparatus are now solved. The nature of the
muscular actions which occur when the voice is incorrectly pro-
duced is also clear. But, most important of all are the tremendous
advances in the training of the voice and the procedures which can
be employed.
As a result of these advances, the process of training the voice
has been appreciably speeded up. Many of the rather unpleasant,
intermediate processes have been eliminated and it is possible to
make the pupil produce relatively good quality tones at an early
stage in the training.
Certain manipulations which may be performed by the teacher
have been developed. Happily, these manipulations eliminate the
necessity for the extreme "carrying up" of the lower register and
the use of high, shut-off tones in the falsetto.

Manipulationsvs. Old Process

Before the evolution of these manipulations, the only available
method for developing the l~geal muscles was that of first isolat-
ing the registers and then workin on the I , at
high on, y carrymg each register up very high~This had to be
done even when such upper tones in both registers were sung with
the throat more or less constricted. Because the laryngeal muscles
can be developed only under high tension, this procedure was
absolutely necessary. It involved the production of quite ugly
tones duringthe earlystages of training. Nevertheless, the process
was, indeed, effective in making many really fine voices, and in
improving every voice with which it was used. However, if it was
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halted before a certain stage was reached, the pupil was in the
unfortunate position of having relatively good high and low tones
with a gap, or poor quality area, in the middle of the voice. Fur-
thermore, the scale was uneven, both from the intensity and the
quality standpoints. The subsequent opening-up process was then
quite a long drawn out affair. If this opening-up process was not
carried through completely, the pupil was left with what the unin-
formed teacher would have called "a fine, untrained, crude, natural
voice." Only too often the pupil who reached such an intermediate
stage became conceited and thought that he could really sing when
he was, in fact, merely a beginner.

Poor Tone Quality No Longer Necessary

There is also another point of view-that of the teachers who
endeavor to teach according to these established principles. During
the training process, the pupil, in carrying up the lower register and
establishing the very high falsetto tones in the early stages of train-
ing, was unavoidably forced to produce tones of unpleasant quality.
Before the introduction of the manipulations, these rather unpleasant
tones were necessary to bring the laryngeal muscles into a high
degree of tension and thus develop them. No other means of accom·
plishing this end had been devised. Unfortunately, certain teachers
took this statement to mean that the quality should be as nas' as
possible in the early stages. This, of course, is contrary to fact. ,~,
Furthermore, while these very high, lower-register tones were used
to develop the laryngeal muscles, pupils could not use such tones
in performance. Thus, despite the fact that often the lower register
can be carried up to high B flat or even C in technic, this register
in performance should go only up to D ( fourth line on the treble
clef) even with the advanced pupils, and the average, quite ad-
vanced pupil should use it up to only about B Hat. No pupil should
be allowed to employ bad quality tones in performance. The height
to which one should carry the lower register must be determined
by the point to which one can carry it open with a pleasing quality.
Now things are quite different. The process is now far more
direct, and although a very extended range is not attained at so
early a stage, when it is attained, the voice holds up permanently.
Legitimate, free, open, high tones are established very much sooner,
and when they are established, they are never lost, unless the pupil
deliberately destroys them by adopting a wrong technic.

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 The Teacher's Ear
With the latest developments in the procedures which can be
applied, the possibility of these errors is greatly lessened. This does
not mean that a teacher can be trained in a few lessons. The process
is still a difficult and complex matter.
The competent teacher must, more than ever, have a sensitive
and trained ear, if he is to interpret the virtues and faults of each
particular tone the pupil is producing. He must be able to interpret
the particular sound from the physical point of view; to sense the
physiological ad;ustments of which the sound being produced is
the auditory manifestation-he must be able to hear the physical
faults as well as see those which are visible. In utilizing the manipu-
lations which follow, the teacher must be able to use, and to be
guided by, his ear. If his ear is not specially trained, he cannot teach.
Of course, he must know the sound of a great voice-he must know
the sound he is aiming to make the fully-trained pupil produce.
With these most modem procedures, the process of training is
clarified, simplified and speeded up greatly. However, the training
of the voice is still a personalized process and not a "patent method."
There never can be a "patent method" or a "set" process. Each case
is a problem which must be worked out on its own merits. All that
can be done is to make clear the goal at which the teacher is aiming,
and to give him procedures and "tools" with which to work.
The procedures which were established earlier worked, and
worked well. These newly evolved procedures, however, work far
better and more efficiently. The fundamental principles are, of
course, unchanged. They are true, and truth never changes. It is
only the procedures which can be adopted in order to reach the
goal that are modified, changed and improved. As one works along
the lines indicated by the fundamental principles established, new
devices and improved procedures will evolve continually. The
process of training the voice is always being simplified and speeded
up. This process of development must continue and rrogress,
as does all scientific research. To do otherwise is to die.

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 Chapter 2

OPENING THE THROAT (THE TONGUE)

Resonator
At this point a few statements regarding the nature of sound are in
order, because of the confusion of ideas which seems to exist among vocal
teachers and singers on this subject.
Sound is transmitted through the air, or any other medium-solid,
gaseous or liquid-which can transmit it, by means of alternate com-
pressions and rarefactions of the medium. Thus, when sound is trans-
mitted through the air, the air particles are alternately grouped more,
and less closely, thereby generating alternate compressions and rarefac-
tions.
Sound travels from its source at a velocity of about 12 miles a minute
( 1100 feet per second) in free air . This rate of travel has nothing to do
with the rate of emission of the breath which only travels with a velocity
of about a few inches a second. Sound is not a stream of vocalized breath
and does not travel out from its source in a stream of air.
The 'P'essure of the breath in the lungs provides the motive force by
which the vocal cords are vibrated and it is the source of the pressure
pulses which result from the alternate opening and closing of the vocal
cords.
'f!'~ r~sona_tors of the voi~e consist of adjus!abk, -,~ir:..fill~i~s.
havmg flexible, dissipative walls, which must be tuned to the necessary
frequencies if they are to act efficiently.
An air column, the natural period of which is a hundred cycles, will
resonate to a hundred cycle tuning fork, but will not resonate to a fork
which vibrates, say, two hundred and fifty-six times a second. When a
tuning fork is brought into the neighborhood of a properly tuned cavity-
a cavity whose natural speed of vibration is the same as that of the
tuning fork-the air in this cavity will come into sympathetic vibration
and, in this manner, produce an enormous amplification of the initial
sound.
If a series of equally loud tuning forks, all with different speeds of
vibration, are brought into the neighborhood of an air column which is
tuned to the frequency of one of them, the tone sounded by this tuning
fork will be picked out, resonated and heard above all the other forks.
Let us consider a string or wire stretched to a given len~ and ten-
sion: Vibrating at its full length, this string will give out a cle6nite pitch
which is designated "the fundamental tone." An exactly similar string or
wire at the same tension, but of half the length, will produce a funda-
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 mental of twice the frequency-an octave higher. A string one third the
length will produce the filth above this octave, and a string a quarter
the length, two octaves above the fundamental of the first string, etc.
Suppose that one goes to the piano and holds down the key for the
tone middle C ( 256 cycles) without sounding it. He will, in this manner,
have raised the damper from the strings and thereby made it possible for
them to vibrate freely. If he then sounds the C an octave below (128
cycles) by striking the key and then letting it come up, thereby allowing
the damper to come down on the string and damp this tone out, middle C
( 256 cycles) will be heard to ring out. This string can only have been
brought into vibration in sympathy with a sound source which produced
its own natural frequency. Hence, when striking the key which pro-
duced a tone of frequency 128 vibrations per second, the frequency of
256 vibrations per second must have been generated. But this frequency
is that of a string of half the length of the one whose fundamental is 128.
Therefore the lower C string must have segmented in halves. A similar
phenomenon occurs when the G key, a filth above middle C, is held down.
Thus the low C string must have trisected, etc.
Actually when a string, or practically any other source of sound, with
the exception of a specially designed tuning fork or electric oscillator, is
brought into vibration, it vibrates at its full length to produce the funda-
mental, or the lowest frequency which it can produce, and also segments
into halves, thirds, fourths, filths, sixths, etc., thus producing a series of
harmonic overtones. Each of these overtones, or harmonics, has a fre-
quency which is a whole number times that of the fundamental. Thus, a
string with fundamental 16 will have overtones of 32, 48, 64, 80, 96, 112,
128, etc.
Any phonated sound can have not only a definite pitch, but also a
' 1 de6nite quality. The quality depends upon the overtones present, the
intensity of each overtone and the intensity of the fundamental (the
sound spectrum).
Remember, each fundamental is associated with a series of overtones.
It is the accentuation of certain bands of these overtones which produces
what is called the "vowel sound." The term "vowel" is, then, a special
case of "quality" or "timbre," in which certain groups of harmonics are
either accentuated or suppressed by means of the shaping of the adjust-
able cavities. The accentuation or suppression of harmonics by the 6xed
cavities (these cavities will be discussed later) contributes to that part
of quality or timbre which is generally so called. This characteristic of
the quality of the tone varies in the individual according to the sizes and
shapec; of his 6xed cavities. Most of the energy in the tone, however, is
concentrated in the fundamental and the vowel areas. The variable factors
lie only in the rroportion of vowel frequencies to fundamental, and in the
possibilities o vowel differences and modi6cations. Thus, from the
singer's point of view, quality-especially if we consider variable quality
-is much the same as vowel. It is a very good plan, then , for the singer
to conceive the vowel sound merely as the quality of the tone.
The principal means of expression in singing lies in what is termed
the "color." Color changes are actually variations of timbre and, to a
great extent, take the form of vowel modi6cation.
In writing the English language we utilize the 6ve vowel symbols-
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 a, e, i, o and u. Thls does not mean that there are only five vowel sounds.
Actually over eighty have been isolated. Each of these symbols can
represent a great many different vowel sounds. Consider the letter "a"
for example: The vowel sound indicated in the word "man" is far dif-
ferent from that in the word "father." There are many more examples, but
the point is apparent. Not only do each of the vowel letters represent
several different vowel sounds, but also the letters "a," "i" and "o" are
often double vowels (diphthongs) .
The vowel sound is determined by the bringing out of certain bands
of overtones-generally two bands and sometimes three-and while the
particular overtones which are accentuated vary with the fundamental,
these bands have a fixed frequency range for each vowel, irrespective of
the fundamental. (See Table I-acoustical glossary.)
The fundamental and all of its accompanying overtones are generated
at the larynxthe moment the vocal cords come into vibration. Our problem
is to find a means of picking out and amplifying the fundamental and the
bands of vowel frequencies. This is accomplished by means of an exact
ADJUSTMENT of the resonance cavities.
We will now consider which cavities can be used as vocal resonance
cavities. (See Figs. 3 and 5.) They are:
a. Adjustable cavities:-
!. The mouth.
2. The laryngeal pharynx-the top of the throat.
3. The oral pharynx-the cavity behind the mouth.
4. The nasal pharynx-the cavity behind the soft palate.
b. Non-adjustable cavities:-
!. The post-nasal cavities-the cavities of the nose.
2. The trachea and bronchi-the air passagesbelow the larynx.
3. The sinuses of the head.
It has been pointed out that the problem is one of adjusting the
resonance system with great precision (for a physiological process) for
the vowel and fundamental which are being phonated. Hence, while
the fixed cavities must have some effect upon this system, and therefore
contribute something to the timbre or quality, they do not enter into
the singer's rroblem.
The vowe sound can be resonated either by the shaping of the mouth
cavity or of the back (pharyngeal) cavities. If the mouth is so shaped,
all its boundaries must be in a fixed or definite position; and these
boundaries include the soft palate, the tongue and the epiglottis. But
these members are also the boundaries of the pharyngeal cavities, and
determine, by their position, the "set" of those cavities. Therefore, if the
mouth is "set," the position of the back cavities is determined by this "set,"
and resonance adjustment by means of the rharyngeal cavities is impossi-
ble; they cannot be shaped for resonation o the tone.
When the back cavities ( the pharyngeal cavities) are used as the
selective resonators of the voice, inter:adjustment between the laryngeal,
/ oral and nasal pharynges, and variations in the size of the opening to
the mouth, between the uvula and the epiglottis or the base of the tongue
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(see Fig. 5), make it possible for the singer to ·set,. the resonance/
system with great precision and sensitivity for all the frequencies which
should be resonated. The mouth, which is a single cavity, cannot inter-
adjustl

SOF"T
PALATE

HARD
PALATE

Fig. 5-Cross Section of a Human Head

The above shows the vocal apparatus and should be referred to many times
in the study of this book.
The pharyngeal resonance cavities and the highly damped, fixed nasal cavity
are clearly shown, as is the trachea, which for the low tones becomes involved
in the resonation of the tone.

When the technic is good, the mouth and lips may be held in constant
position, and the vowel, the fundamental, or both can be varied. Inversely,
the mouth and lips can be moved while the pitch, the vowel, or both,
are held constant. These operations would be impossible if the mouth
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 were oeing used as an adjustable resonator. This is, then, a further proof
of the fact that the pharyngeal cavities can and should be employed as
th?' principal resonators of the voice.
/ When the technic is faulty, the mouth is set, and set rigidl.y,in a
) definite P.)Sition for the vowel, and any movement of the lips or jaw
( modifies the quality. This state of affairs is always associated with an
"-._unpleasant, throaty quality.
From the physiological standpoint, the setting of the jaw reflects ten-
sion to the muscles of the neck. This interferes directly with the proper
functioning of the laryngeal muscles. Therefore, when the mouth is used
as the vowel resonator, serious muscular interference with phonation is
bound to occur.
The use of the mouth as the vowel resonator presupposes the collapse
of the laryngeal pharynx. This collafse is associated with tension on the
constrictor muscles of the laryngea pharynx which directly interferes,
mechanically, with the laryngeal action.
Here, then, is a vital law of good technic: The pharyngeal, or back,
/ c.avities should be used as the resonators of the tone. The mouth rvity
should be completely out of action (i.e., resonance ad;ustment). /
In view of the fact that the sound is communicated to the outer air
through the open mouth, this cavity must have some effect upon the
/ quality. The vital point, however, is that, in good !,chnic, the mouth is
never used as a selective resonator-is never "set." r
Any vowel sound must always be associated with a fundamental, the
pitch of which can be varied. In a man's voice, practically all the vowel
sounds can be formed over the entire range of the voice. This, however,
is not true of the woman's voice, because it is pitched about an octave
higher than a man's.
Because the fundamental is the lowest pitch present, it is impossible
for the singer to produce the same vowel sound for a vowel whose fre-
quency characteristic is considerably lower than the fundamental, as he
would produce were the fundamental at a lower pitch. When, in vocal
music, a vowel, whose lower frequency is considerably below the funda-
mental, is called for, the vowel sound must, perforce, be modified, since
any attempt to perform the impossible, i.e., to sing a vowel in conjunction
with a fundamental whose frequency is several tones above that of the
lower frequency of this vowel, is abortive, and must effect a general
disruption of the resonance system, with the resultant production of an
extremely unpleasant sound. If a woman, for example, endeavors to sing
the vowel "ee" (as in "meet") on a high C, she will merely succeed in
emitting an unpleasant scream or squeak and she will not produce the
"ee" vowel.
From the point of view of diction, this forced modification of vowels
for the upper tones is not as serious as one would at first suppose. The
reason for this statement lies in the fact that it is the consonants, far more
than the vowels, which make for intelligibility.
This brings us to the question: What is a consonant?
A consonant is a sound of definite, and usually transient, quality char-
acteristics, which cannot be associated with a variable fundamental.
Thus, during the production of the consonant sound, the vocal cords are
separated, and are not in vibration. In other words, the consonant is an in-
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terruption of the phonated tone. It cannot be phonated. Furthermore, any
attempt to sing through the consonant is utterly destructive from the point
of view of resonance adjustment, as well as from that of clarity of diction.
While this definition is not in accordance with the generally accepted
theory of phonetics, it is valuable for the purposes of our present dis-
cussion. From the viewpoint of the singer, he is either phonating or
interrupting phonation. It is far better for him to consider the interrup-
tion factor as the consonant, because the problem with which he has to
deal, in this connection, is one of clarity of diction. This depends upon
vigorous, rapid movements of the articulating members. These rapid
movements of the tongue, lips, etc., interrupt phonation and form the
consonants.
The base of the tongue constitutes the front wall of the laryngeal
pharynx ( see Fig. 5) and this wall may virtually assume any posi-
tion according to the distribution of tension among the muscles of
the tongue. In other words, the opening and "holding open" of the
throat depend upon the tension on, and the position of, the base
of the tongue.
Tongue Muscles
No detailed discussion of the tongue muscles is necessary; these
may be looked up in any reliable text book on anatomy. However,
the substance of the tongue consists principally of muscle fibers
running in all directions. These muscles come under two groupings:
The extrinsic and the intrinsic. The extrinsic muscles of the tongue
are: Genio-glossus, hyo-glossus, stylo-glossus, chondro-glossus, pal-
ato-glossus. ( See Fig. 4.)
The vitally important one of these muscles, which should come
into tension in singing, is the genio-glossusmuscle,which muscle,
acting with the genio-hyoid muscle, holds the ha~ the tongue in
t~on away from the posterior wall of the l~geal pharynx ( see
Figs. 4 & 5) and thus opens the throat.
These muscles, ~cting in co-ordination with the intrinsic muscles
of the tongue, open the throat, "shape" the laryngeal pharynx for
the resonation of the tone and hold it in position.

G, en the genio-hyoid muscle is tensed in co-ordination with the

-glossus muscle, it holds the hyoid bone firmly in position
tops it from rising or descending. ( See Fig. 4. )
In view of the fact that the hyoid bone is held firmly in position
by means of tension on the genio-hyoid muscle when the technic
correct, and that the base _of the tongue is held forward, but not
dro ed because of tension on the enio- lossus muscle, the shap-
ing of the · ies takes lace above the yo1 one.
The base of the tongue "holds" and the p pe
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of the posture the tongue assumes. li the genio-hyo-glossus muscles
are relaxed, the tongue and hyoid bone will drop, and the resonance
chamber will be formed lower than it should be-by dropping the
tongue. Thus, when the technic is correct, the vowel "ah" is resonated
with the tongue relatively flattened; but the vowel dark "ee" is
resonated with the tongue arched. An elongated cavity is thus formed
which will resonate for the strong, lower vowel frequency band of
the dark "ee." When the singer makes a throaty tone, he drops the
base of his tongue in order to form this vowel. When he does so,
the hyoid bone and the larynx also drop-this can be felt. The dark
"ee" vowel thus produced is not really "dark"-it is thick and throaty.
Thus, for proper-open, pharyngeal-resonance adjustment the
base of the tongue pivots at the hyoid bone which is held up, in
its proper position, and the adjustments are made above this pivoting
point. The base of the tongue and the hyoid bone should never
move down in order to shape the pharyngeal resonance cavities.
While it is true that in most cases where the singer drops his
tongue and hyoid bone he is endeavoring-incorrectly-to produce
a "dark" or "mellow" tone. Some white, throaty tones are also pro-
duced with the tongue and hyoid bone depressed. It is, therefore,
the tongue which articulates the consonants and the base of the
tongue which resonates the vowels, because it "shapes" the laryngeal
pharynx. ( See Figs. 3 & 5.)
Our problem, then, is to bring these muscles into tension during
phonation and to strengthen them, so that they will hold their
tension in co-ordination with the tension on the breathing muscles
and on the laryngeal muscles. This demands a high degree of devel-
opment and accurate adjustment and co-ordination .
• Dark Tone
In the early stages of the "opening" process, the pu.t:>ilmust pro-
duce a "dark" 0 tone, especially in the falsetto register. In practically
every case of faulty technic, especially in the early stages, a "white"•
0 A tone consists of the fundamental ( the pitch of the toDe being sung) and

all the overtones (harmonics).

The overtones are accentuated by means of resonance adjustment, in two
areas, or bands.
The spectrum ( distribution of the fundamental and its overtones) thus
determined gives rise to the vowel sound.
When the lower band of overtones is strong with regard to the upper, the
tone ( or vowel) is dark. When the upper band is strong with regard to thP.
lower, the vowel is white.
The sound spectrum can be photographed and the vowel and vowel quality
( dark or white) can be deBnitely "read" from the photograph.
See The Science of V olce ( third edition) page S72.
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tone is throaty and, therefore, leads only to shouting, squeaking or
screaming. In the past, the only method of engendering this essen-
tial, "dark" tone was by imitation. In very bad cases, even this
tedious and difficult procedure would sometimes fail to eliminate
the throatiness.
Tongue Instrument
Figure 6 shows a very effective, speciaBy designed, small instru-
ment which fits under the tongue and which can be used to press
the tongue back into its proper position. In using this instrument,
the tongue is raised and pointed upward and then pressed straight
back-not down. ( See Figs. 7 & 9. )

Fig. 6-Tongue Instrument

This instrument was designed for the purpose of developing the muscles
of the tongue-especially the genio-glossus muscle. Its value to the vocal
teacher is inestimable , because its use speeds up the process of training the
voice to an extraordinary degree. Nevertheless, its employment must be subject
to all the conditions outlined in the text. If it is used incorrectly it can become
most harmful or even dangerous .
The width of the end which presses against the tongue is about 2.9 cen-
timeters and its height about 1.9 centimeters . The over-all length of the
instrument is about 23 centimeters . Part of the lower surface is cut away
so that it will not touch, and hurt, the little cord under the tongue . These
general dimensions seem to be best, because if it were any larger it would
press against the gums and hurt the pupil.
The instrument should be made of stainless steel or of copper heavily plated
with chromium. Stainless steel is best.
It is, of course, essential that this instrument be sterilized each time it is
med.
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 The instrument should first be placed lightly-without pressure-
against the under side of the tongue which should be . pushed
straight=horizontally-back just an mstant before the pupil is to
attack the tone. As he makes the attack the tongue reacts against
the irutrument and the genio-hyo-glo.ss,Lsmuscles come wto tension
reflexly, thereby puUiog the base of the tongue forward. (See Fig.
11.) The muscles of the tongue must not be tensed before the
moment of attack. They become tense reflexly for the resonation of

Fig. 7-Uscng the Tongue Instrument

In using this instrument the pupil must point the tongue upward toward
the roof of the mouth, being careful not to bend it over backwards or tense
it while it is being pressed back. The end of the instrument is placed against
the under surface of the tongue with the opening facing downwards so as
not to press against the little cord under the tongue. When the tongue has
been relaxed, it is carefully and deliberately pressed all the way back. Notice
that the instrument is pointing slightly upward-not downward-so that the
tongue is pressed back, not down. This is very important. Note that the rod
of the instrument rests in the curve between the thumb and first finger. This
inhibits perpendicular movement.

the tone and they set the pharyngeal cavities in the exact resonance
position (shape) for the resonation of the pitch and vowel, at the
precise moment of attack. If they become tense too soon or too
late the co-ordination is destroyed and the tone is throaty. It is the
reaction of the tongue against the instrument that brings the proper
muscles into reflex tension. When the tip of the tongue is pressed
back, its base comes forward, thereby opening the throat.
If the tongue is relaxed, instead of tensed, after it has been pressed
back, the teacher is liable to push it down the pupil's throat. (See
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 J
I

Flg. '-The Tongue in Normal Fig. 9-The Tongue Pushed Back

Relaxed Position Correctly by the Tongue
Instrument

~g. 10.) This is harmful and produces the opposite result from
ti; one desired, because, when the tongue drops down the throat
~d the tongue muscles which are antagonistic to the action of the
~mkJ-hyo-glossus muscles come into tension, a thick, throaty tone
JS produced .
.When the teacher is employing the tongue instrument, he must
nake certain that he never pushes the tongue down . When the
tongue muscles are very weak the instrument must be used extremely
cautiously or not used at all.
The value of this instrument is tremendous, because it enables
the pupil to produce a "dark" tone immediately. It starts the proper
tongue muscles in action and is a potent instrument for developing
these muscles. It greatly speeds up the process of training the voice
andenablf'!sthe teacher to work on, and help, these vitally important
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',muscles, which are one of the fundamental factors upon whicl a

,,
·proper technic depends. ,
\

t'·
(
'

A
Fig. 10-Inco"ect
B
Use of Tongue Instrument
C

A-The tongue being pushed down the pupil's throat thereby fo ng

him to produce an extremely throaty tone.
i
B- The tongue being pushed up instead of straight back. This serve! 1 ~Y
to bunch up the base of the tongue and does not bring the genio-glossus m e
into tension. .·
C-The tongue not pushed back far enough. This condition occurs rhen
the pupil has failed to relax his tongue at the moment that the teachE •·
deavors to push it back. The result of this misuse of the instrument is to i:!Jnch
up the base of the tongue and induce throatiness.

Equilibrium
Nevertheless, work on the tongue muscles is quite futile unlm
it is accompanied by the proper work on the registration action a:1d
on the breathing muscles, because phonation is a single co-ordlnattP
act. Each of the three factors-the laryngeal muscles, the tongt.e
muscles and the breathing muscles-are of equal importance. Thet8
three groups of muscles used in phonation must be developJ
simultaneously and balanced. Over-development of any one groul
is harmful-not beneficial-because it destroys the equiUbrlum o)
the system. Furthermore, the throat cavity cannot "hold" open, in
its resonance position, unless the muscles of the vibrator-the larynx
-are sufficiently developed for it to be possible for the vocal cords ·
to generate enough sound energy to actuate this open, "tuned"
cavity.
The concept of equilibr.um is important. The three systems of
muscles used in phonation must balance and hold in equilibrium
against each other. This means that the members employed in
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phonation must "hold,» i.e., must not move. Equilibrium must occur
not only between the tongue, larynx and thorax, but also in each
part of the system involved in phonation separately.
Equilibrium must occur in the thorax, between the diaphragmatic
muscle and the muscles of the back ribs. Thus, the diaphragmatic
muscle is held out, while the lower, back ribs are distended .
The diaphragm comes forward while the rib muscles expand
backwards,and these antagonistic muscles must exert an equal pull
against each other, and balance, thus holding the pressure of the
breath against the closure of the glottis. If one outpulls the other,
the equilibrium is destroyed, the weaker group collapses, and the
"hold" is lost. ( See Fig. 24. )
Equilibrium must occur in the larynx. The equilibrium of the
larynx is maintained by the equalization of the "pull" of the thyroid
muscles against that of the arytenoid muscles. This antagonism
must be absolutely balanced at all times during phonation. The
co-ordination, i.e., the actual amount of arytenoid as against thyroid
tension, depends upon the pitch and loudness of the tone. This is
why the proper, and balanced, development of the laryngeal mus-
cles, l.e., the registration action, must be worked out. ( See Fig. 36.)
Equilibrium must occur in the muscles of the tongue. They must
balance with each other, in order to hold the tongue firmly in
equilibrium in its exact position for the shaping of the laryngeal
pharynx, i.e., for the proper resonation of the tone. ( See Fig. 4.)

Tongue Position
When using the tongue instrument, the tip of the tongue must be
pointed up toward the roof of the mouth . This enables the teacher
to utilize the instrument, because the reaction of the tongue against
it engenders tension in the genio-hyo-glossusmuscles. However, the
tongue should never be pointed up when the instrument is not
being used, because then there is nothing for it to react against
and the tendency would be, therefore, to make the pupil swallow
his tongue and thus produce a throaty tone.
When the instrument is not being used, the tip of the tongue
should point down and draw back a short distance from the lower
teeth. This produces a sort of folding action of the tongue, whereby
its tip, which is pointing down, goes back a little, while its base is
pulled forward. ( See Fig . 11.) When too much of the floor of the
mouth is visible, the tongue has been dropped, or swallowed, and
the tone is throaty. 0£ course, the actual position of the tongue is
determined by the adjustment necessary to shape, or tune, the
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pharyngeal resonance cavities for each change of vowel, color and
pitch. It is important to realize that, when singing, the tip of the
tongue should never point up during the phonation of the vowel
(tone).

---

Fig. 11-Tongue in Position for Resonation of Well-produced Tone

The base of the tongue is drawn forward because the genio-glossus and the
genio-hyoid muscles are in proper tension. The throat is therefore opened .
Note that the tip of the tongue is pointed down, and drawn back somewhat
from the teeth. Note, also, the folded posture of the tongue . With the tongue
in this position, the vowel produced is probably a dark "ee" vowel, because
the cavity is relatively long.

Pharyngeal resonance adjustment occurs when the space behind

the back of the tongue has been shaped, or tuned, properly for
the resonation of the tone. True, the nasal pharynx takes part in the
resonance adjustment for a great many pitches and vowels, but it
is the section of the cavity ( see glossary) which is shaped by means
of the back of the tongue tha~ is of first importance in singing.
When the hyoid bone, tongue and larynx are dropped, the resonance
cavity is too low; actually, in practice, when the singer endeavors
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to use, or shape, the pharyngeal cavity too f- .t-down, he will inevit-
ably merely succeed in producing throaty, mouth resonated, tones.
Many pupils cling to this technic because they feel a double con-

A B C
Fig. 12-Position of Hyoid Bone and Larynx
A-Correct position of larynx and hyoid bone during the production of a
technically correct tone. Note that the larynx is neither dropped nor raised
and that the hyoid bone is held in position. These are conditions for an open
-not throaty-tone.
B-Dropped larynx and hyoid bone. Note that the larynx has dropped a con-
siderable distance and that the hyoid bone has dropped also. This happens
when a "thick" or loud white, throaty tone is produced.
C-Raised larynx and hyoid bone. Note that the larynx and hyoid bone have
become elevated. This happens when a thin "white," throaty tone is produced.

trol-which pertains to the muscles of the neck and the muscles of

the tongue which draw it down and back into the throat. They
then produce extremely throaty tones which are actually mouth
resonated. When the tone is really pharyngeally resonated, the
only tension, or control, which holds the positioning, or shaping,
of the cavity pertains to the muscles of the tongue and the hyoid
bone, i.e., the genio-hyo-glossus muscles. The pharyngeal resonance
cavity is relatively hcgh-it is not down the throat, or neck.

The Tongue and Throatiness

There are several types of throatiness, caused initially by the
position of the tongue and tension on the tongue muscles which
are antagonistic to the genio-hyo-glossus muscles.
In the first, the tip of the tongue is pulled forward, and its base
back and up. ( See Fig. 12 C.) This produces a "white-throaty" tone.
Some mis~ided teachers tell their pupils to press the tongue against
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the lower teeth-this L "- yery efficientmeans of engeoderiag
of tone. When this form of throatiness occurs, the upper surface of
the tongue will be seen to form a groove. A groove in the tongue is,
then, a sign of throatiness. An extremely throaty, white tone is also
produced when the base of the tongue is dropped and the body
of the tongue is very deeply grooved. Another type of throatiness-
thick throatiness-is characterized by an apparently "dark,"thick
quality. It occurs when the tongue relaxes, drops down the throat
and is tensed in this position. ( See Fig. 12 B.)

A
Flg. 18-Hyold Bone Manipulation
A-The index finger of each hand is plaCE!drather far back under the
hyoid bone, and the thumbs placed under the chin. The teacher should then
tell the pupil to relax and, having lifted the hyoid bone up into its proper
position, he should hold it there while the pupil sings. In mild cases of throat-
iness the effort necessary to hold up the hyoid bone may be relatively sUght,
but in bad cases the teacher may have to exert a very considerable effort to
accomplish his end. Any down movement of the hyoid bone, against the pres-
sure exerted by the teacher, destroys the efficacy of this manipulation.

Thus, when the tongue is drawn up and back, or down and back,
thereby nearly touching the posterior wall of the laryngeal pharynx,
the tone is throaty. The teacher must be able to distinguish between
a dark, open tone and a dark,thick-throaty tone.

Hyoid Bone-Position of Larynx

The hyoid bone is situated directly behind the lower borderof
the chin, in the ordinary attitude of the head. It may be felt in its
entirety through the skin. The base of the tongue and the genio-
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hyoid and mylo-hyoid muscles, which form the floor of the mouth,
are attached to its upper border. The larynx is suspended from its
lower border by the thyro-hyoid membrane and the thyro-hyoid
ligaments. ( See Figs. 2 & 4.)

B
Fig. 13-Hyocd Bone Manipulation (concluded)
B-This figure indicates the point on the hyoid bone against which the
index finger should press up and, in certain cases, forward when this manipu-
lation is being performed. It also shows the point in the front of the neck at
which the thumbs should rest. The manipulation is performed with both hands,
symmetrically.

When the base of the tongue is held forward, i.e., when the throat
is "opened,"because of the tension on the genio-hyo-glossusmuscles,
the curve at the base of the tongue is straightened out ( see Figs.
9 & 11).
When the tongue drops because the genio-glossus and the
genio-hyoid muscles have relaxed, and the antagonistic muscles of
the tongue have come into tension, the hyoid bone descends and
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the larynx also drops a considerable distance. This establishes the
conditions for absolute throatiness, because the dropped tongue
closes the throat. An excessively dropped larynx is, therefore, a
sign of throatiness. ( See Figs. 10 A & 12 B.)
There is, then, a correct position of the larynx and hyoid bone.
If they are too high, or too low, the tone is throaty. In practice,
the tongue and hyoid bone are far more often dropped than raised
when the technic is throaty. This form of throatiness is always accom-
panied by some degree of mixed registration.
When the genio-glossus muscle becomes tense, the genio-hyoid
muscle should also become tense, thereby holding the hyoid bone
in position and helping to eliminate the "swallowing" of the tongue.
The correct position of the larynx should be maintained at all times,
irrespective of pitch or vowel. The hyoid bone should neither drop
nor rise too far.

Hyoid Bone Manipulation

Where the hyoid bone drops, it may be held up by the teacher
by inserting the index finger of each hand under each side of the
hyoid bone, with the thumbs pressing up under the chin, and lifting
it up just before the pupil attacks the tone. ( See Figs. 13 A & B.)
This manipulation must be made before-not after or during-the
attack. The pupil must relax so that the teacher can make the adjust-
ment. In many cases the hyoid bone should be pressed forward as
well as up.
This manipulation is often very helpful in alleviating throatiness.
If there is any soreness of the glands, which often occurs in bad
cases of faulty technic, this manipulation may be somewhat painful.
Normally, however, it is not. Even when this soreness exists, it
generally disappears in a few lessons. Where the dropping of the
hyoid bone is very pronounced, it is often inadvisable for the teacher
to use the tongue instrument until this condition has been alleviated.
In such cases, really dark, lower-register tones should not be sung,
because such tones tend only to drop the hyoid bone still further.
Extreme whiteness, however, should not be employed.
The dropping of the hyoid bone is caused by the relaxation of
the genio-glossus and genio-hyoid muscles and by the tensing of
the tongue muscles which are antagonistic to them. ( See Fig. 4.)
This tension may be so great that it requires all the effort that the
teacher can exert if he is to overcome this antagonistic tension and
succeed in holding up the hyoid bone. Constrictor tensions can be
incredibly strong!
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 After the tongue instrument is used for a while, it may be aban-
doned temporarily. When an opening occurs its re-employment is
usually indicated. In this way there is a direct means of working
on the tongue muscles, whenever necessary, throughout the entire
process of training the voice.

Proper Use of Tongue Instrument

Teachers must be discriminating, correct, and careful in the use
of this tongue instrument. Remember, it is only a tool-a tool for
helping the tongue action and developing the tongue muscles which
should be used in phonation. It is neither a magic patent method,
nor a panacea for all vocal ills. If used incorrectly it does more
harm than good. The teacher must be skilled in its use or the results
are harmful .
While the tongue is being pushed back, it must be relaxed. If it
is tensed, it is impossible for the teacher to push it back by force-
if he endeavors to do so, he only succeeds in hurting the pupil and
in forcing him to produce a very throaty tone. If the teacher pushes
the tongue down the pupil's throat, he merely engenders throati-
ness. In using this instrument, it is best to put the left hand above
the pupil's chin, hold the handle of the instrument firmly in the
right hand, and let the rod rest in the arch between the thumb and
the first finger of the left hand in somewhat the same manner as a
• billiard cue is used. ( See Figs. 7-9.) This inhibits perpendicular
moyement of the instrument and permits the teacher to press the
tongue back in a straight (horizontal) line more efficiently.
The reader must not imagine that there is some secret, magic
method involved in this. However, it is dangerous for anyone to
attempt to use this tongue instrument without careful direction .
Its proper use should be taught carefully. Furthermore, the ultimate
guide to its proper usage is the teacher's ear-which must be able
to hear whether the tone is improved technically and in quality
when he uses it. This means that the teacher must not only know
a good tone from a bad tone, but also that he must be able to detect
relatively slight variations of quality . Many teachers, alas! aim,
deliberately, at a throaty quality. The incorrect use of this instru-
ment could, unfortunately, help such teachers towards their false
goal

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 Chaptef' 8

DEVELOPMENT
OF THELARYNGEAL
MUSCLES

Registration
(Controlof Intensity)
The vocal apparatus consists of three parts:
I. The actuator
2. The vibrator
3. The resonator
All other phases of technic rest upon the proper working out of the
problems of registration.
The term "register" has, in the past, been used with various meanings.
Most people talk of three registers-upper, midd/8 and lower, meaning
high, middle and low pitch ranges.
The entire question of registration rests with the proper co-ordination
of the muscles which stretch the vocal cords.
There are two groups of muscles which stretch the vocal cords and
hold them in tension against the pressure of the hreath:
a. The thyroid muscles ( crico-thyroid and thyro-arytenoid mUS<;les)
•
b. The arytenoid muscles (posterior and lateral crico-arytenoid
muscles)
The question of registration pertains to the co-ordination of these two

d
groups of muscles.
Since there are two, and only two, groups of mwcles in the larynx,
here are only two registers. As will be shown later, the regvtf'ation action
pertains to the control of intensity-not to pitch ranges.
When, for a soft tone which is being swelled, the tension on the vocal
cords is being held against the breath pressure by means of added tension
on the smaller muscles-the arytenoids-the falsetto register is in action.
When, at a certain degree of intensity, added tension comes into the
heavier group of muscles-the thyroids-the lower register has come
into action.
Let us flrst consider how the registers work under ideal conditions:
With a perfect voice the adjustment and co-ordination of the muscula-
ture used in phonation is virtually reflex, and the singer has a perfectly
clear, clean-cut mental concept of all the characteristics of the tone he is
about to produce, i.e., a concept of pitch, quality, intensity and vibrato.
As a result of this concept, nerve impulses travel along diverse nerve
fibers and bring into tension the muscles which should be in action in the
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 correct balance, i.e., correct co-ordination exists. For this reason, the
teacher must, from the very beginning, build up the concept that phona-
tion is a single, unit co-ordination.
For the given pitch, quality and intensity there should be a certain
definite balance between the action of the two groups of muscles which
actuate the vocal cords. The aryteooid action predominates for the high
pitches and for the low intensities.
It is found in practice that every voice-male or female-has two
definite registers. There is no functional difference between male and
female voices.
I . Falsetto
I
In its pure form the falsetto is very light in the middle of the range
and increases rapidly in power as the scale is ascended. This register has
definite limitations of power and will either crack or "mix" if pushed
beyond a certain point of intensity. When the falsetto is pure it is of
more or less pleasing quality.
2. Lower Register
The lower register is characterized by a far greater intensity at any
given pitch than is the falsetto. The quality of this register when unco-
ordinated is crude. The intensity can be increased to the maximum loud-
ness for the given vocal organs without the voice cracking.
In some voices, where mixed registration occurs, these two registers
must first be isolated so that they may be properly developed and ulti-
mately co-ordinated in the proper balance. The important point to note
is that both registers are present in every human voice.
When both registers are fully developed and properly resonated, they
co-ordinate of their own accord, provided that the proper concepts, espe-
cially that of the voice mechani,,n a, a smgle Wllt, have been engendered ]
in the pupil 's mind. The teacher must not worryabout co-ordinating the
registers. His problem is one of purifying, developing, balancing and
resonating them properly, and engendering the proper concepts. When
this has been done co-ordlnation is automatic . The attempt must never
be made to co-ordinate the registers at too early a stage.
The following diagrams indicate the probable manner in which the
registers ( laryngeal muscles) co-ordinate ( Figs. 14-17) :
Figure 14 represents the probable manner in which the laryngeal
muscles co-ordinate when the registration is correct.
The magnitudes of muscular tension are naturally a matter of judg-
ment, because there are no available means for actually measuring them.
Therefore, a scale showing a change in muscular tension, which would
correspond to a pitch range of three and a hall to four octaves if all of
the tension were employed for raising pitch only, has been chosen.
It is not unreasonable to assume this range, because some of the tension
is undoubtedly used for bracing the vocal cords, while some is used for
the increase in intensity. These diagrams probably show, in a rough way,
what is happening quantitatively, and almost certainly show the correct
qualitative picture .
The two curves in A (Figure 14) indicate the manner in which the
tension on, first, the arytenoid group of muscles and then on the thyroid
group increases, or is co-ordinated, for a low-pitch tone, as the intensity
rises.
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 Notice that at the pianissimo, i.e., the lowest possible intensity under
proper technical conditions, the tension on the lower register group of
muscles is considerably higher than that on the falsetto group. As the
intensity rises the tension on the arytenoid muscles increases up to a
certain point (still a very soft tone) while the tension on the thyroid
muscles remains practically constant. Above this point of intensity the
tension on the thyroid muscles increases regularly, while that on the
arytenoids remains constant up to the point of maximum intensity.

L = Lower ltetllter
=
F Felaetto
A= ltetl,,.r Coordlnetlon for low tone.
I= ..
C= "
.. 0 mlddle tone.
" hl9h tone.
P.P.P.P P.P.P. P.P. P MF F F.F. F.F.F. fff.F.
I I I I I i. 'j'
100

.-

/ <',.c
50
z:)

= . \
\

.. 20
,, /
/
i

>---•
iii

/
I
l
t 10
I
I /
/ .. I
I

$
Z 5
/ V
- I
a<,
\ V L

=
f..
/ / V
<
2

/r 2 5
SOUND PltESSUltEINTENSITY-AltllTltAltY
UNITS.

Fig. 14-Diagrammatic Representation of the Proper Co-ordination

of the Registers-Action vs. Pitch

B (Figure 14) shows the same phenomenon for a middle tone. Notice
here, however, that the initial intensity, i.e., the intensity at the pianissimo,
is considerably greater than that of the low tone. Notice also that the
initial tension on the thyroid muscles is greater, and that on the arytenoid
muscles far greater, than it was for the low tone. As before, the rising
intensity is first provided for by an increasing tension on the arytenoid
muscles, but in this case, the thyroid muscles do not start ta1cingon added
tension until the normal intensity (M.F.) is reached. Notice also that,
from this point on, the tension on the arytenoid muscles remains virtually
constant, while, as before, the thyroid muscles taJceon additional tension
until the point of maximum intensity has been reached.
C (Figure 14) illustrates this muscular co-ordination for a high tone.
Notice that at the pianissimo, which is considerably louder than that
indicated on either of the other curves, the tension on the arytenoid
88
I

Digitized by Google I
muscles is far greater than that on the thyroids. Notice also that the
arytenoid muscles continue to take on tension while the tension on the
thyroids remains constant until a very high point of intensity has been
reached.
A (Figure 14) represents a low tone, but not the bottom of the range
at which the lower register action would predominate in a far higher
degree. In this A diagram the lower register action predominates over
the entire range of intensity except at the very lowest end.
Lower register or falsetto action means the rate of change in tension
on the group of muscles which characterizes the register, and not the
actual tension on the muscles. Thus the register action in one or the
other register is indicated by the slope, not height of the curve.
Notice that in B (Figure 14) the action of the two registers, as already
defined, is evenly balanced, inasmuch as the falsetto action predominates
up to M.F. for this particular pitch, while the lower register predominates
above this intensity. Let it be very clear that, while the tension on the
arytenoids is increasing, the singer is using the falsetto. At the moment
when the tension on the thyroid muscles starts to increase, he is using
the lower register.
C (Figure 14) indicates a high tone, but not the extreme top of the
range, at which the falsetto action would predominate up to practically
the maximum point of intensity for this pitch. In the diagram indicated,
the falsetto action predominates up to a very high point of intensity. Thus,
for the very high tones, the falsetto only is used, unless the intensity is
absolutely fortissimo.
At very high pitches the falsetto muscles can hold the tension of the
vocal cords against the pressure of the breath up to nearly the maximum
possible intensity, although the lower register muscles are always "behind"
the falsetto. At the low pitches the falsetto only goes a very little way,
and actually, for such pitches, this register is such a light whisper as to
be practically toneless. In the middle of the range the balance is about
equal for normal intensities.
In Fig. 15 the proper balance of the registers, over the entire range
of the voice, is indicated in diagrammatic form.
In singing up the scale from the lowest pitch, the falsetto register is
added quite rapidly at fust and slows down in the middle pitch region,
so that, in this middle region, there is approximately an equal co-ordina-
tion of the registers. Above the middle region the falsetto action increases
rapidly up to the highest tone of the range which is pure falsetto.
These curves, and the two curves on mixed registration (Figs. 16
&: 17), are furnished to visualize the action of the registers, when
properly and when improperly co-ordinated. They are qualitative only
and are derived from observations made during the process of isolating
and co-ordinating the registers of a large number of pupils. They are
also based on a consideration of the physiological principles involved.
In Fig. 15 the intensity indicated is the normal intensity for the given
pitch. This intensity increases as the pitch rises. In Fig. 14 it will be
seen that the normal intensity for A (Fig. 14) occurs at the point marked
5 on the horizontal scale, whereas for B (Fig. 14) it is at about 25, and
for C (Fig. 14) it is at about 250. Equal distances along this horizontal
scale correspond approximately to equal differences in loudness.
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 When the voice is used properly, its normal (or natural) intensity
increases as the pitch rises, in about the proportion indicated in Fig. 14.
This is why the loudness of normal intensity (or M.F.) varies with the
pitch. The intensities ( marked according to the musical notation) in
Fig. 14 indicate the actual intensity range of the voice over its complete
pitch range.
100--------------"""T---------,

-
~751---~----+-------+-------t
m
"'
FALSETTO
J:
0

:~1--------1i-.;;:=------=~I---------;
0
w

z LOWER REGISTER.

...
~251---------1---------1-----""""C----t
...

0 a
OCTAVES

Fig. 15-Diagrammatic Representation of the Proper Co-ordination

of the Registers as a Function of Pitch
This figure illustrates the registration action at normal intensity for each
tone ( shown along the horizontal axis) over the range of a well-produced voice
(three octaves).
The perpendicular axis shows the percentage of each register employed at
the pitches shown on the horizontal axis. Note that, at the extreme bottom of
the range, pure lower register is employed, while at the extreme top we find
pure falsetto.

When the technic is correct, both groups of muscles are fully developed
and properly co-ordinated.
The actual control of intensity, when the technic is correct, is accom-
plished directly by means of the mechanism of the vibrato. It also depends
upon the proper co-ordination of the laryngeal muscles, and upon the
degree of tension on the arytenoid muscle. The function of this muscle
is to bring together the arytenoid cartilages and thus approximate the
vocal cords. At normal, or louder than normal, intensity the cords are
held in extremely close approximation. As the intensity chops below the
normal for a given voice, the arytenoid muscle tends to relax, and the
vocal cords gradually separate until, at the lowest possible intensity ( this
intensity varies according to the natural power of any given voice) they
are so far separated that the air rushes out and the tone becomes nearly
a pure whisper, For the absolute whisper the cords are so widely separated
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 that phonation ceases altogether. The characteristic of the absolute
whisper is that, while the vowels and consonants can be definitely dis-
tinguished, no variation of the fundamental or pitch is possible, because
the vocal cords are not in vibrat!on.
• We will now consider what occurs when the perfectly-produced voice
attacks a tone. For a tone of definite pitch, quality and intensity there
is a certain optimum co-ordination of the laryngeal muscles. Let us con-
sider a middle tone which is attacked softly: Both sets of muscles come
into action in the correct balance and stretch the vocal cords to the
proper length and tension for the tone. At this intensity the falsetto is in
action. Suppose that the tone is then swelled; the tension on the arytenoid
muscles increases, until a point of intensity is reached at which they would
begin to strain, or .overload, under the tension necessary for the holding
of the tension of the cords against the increasing pressure of the breath-
"on" vibrato impulse. At about this point the tension on the thyroid
muscles starts to increase while the tension on the arytenoids remains
approximately constant for all further increase in intensity. When the
pitch is higher, the falsetto action goes further, and when the pitch is
lower this action does not go so far. Note: The falsetto does not go out
of action when the lower register co-ordinateswith it.
Perfect co-ordination of the registers occurs only in the case of a
really great voice. There is no singer of today whose registration is per-
fect. In the past we have had such examples as Caruso, Emmy Destinn,
Kirkby Lunn and Sammarco.
One of the principal factors in vocal training lies in the endeavor to
approximate more and more closely the conditions of perfect registration.
Without the proper working out of the problem of registration, any radical
or permanent improvement in a pupil's voice is out of the question.
Remember that the entire vocal mechanism acts as one single co-ordi-
nated unit. Hence, if the registers are perfectly co-ordinated, the resonance
adjustment and the vibrato action must also be perfect. Inversely, when the
registration is faulty, the resonance adjustment and vibrato must also suffer.
The properly used voice should have an effective range of at least
three octaves. The limited range, which is so common a result of faulty
registration, practically always is traceable to improper training. Faulty
registration, with the accompanying incorrect resonance adjustment,
may curtail the range by an octave or even more. The production of good
soft tones, and above all, of high tones which are free and vibrant is
impossible when the registration is faulty. The alternative is either to
shout, which is obviously objectionable, or to produce deliberately throaty
(constricted) tones-"head tones."
So far we have been considering ideal conditions. In practice we do
not encounter perfect voices. Let us therefore consider the phenomena
of faulty registration.
Either the arytenoids, the thyroids or both groups of laryngeal muscles
may lack development.
There is absolutely no difference in function between the male and
female vocal organs, despite the fact that we often find women using the
falsetto alone, or mixed falsetto, for speech as well as for singing, while
normal men always use either the lower register or mixed lower register
and the man's falsetto is usually undeveloped. It seems obvious that
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the problem of the vocal teacher should center largely around the unde-
veloped register. Unfortunately, this is a fact which many vocal teachers
of today fail to recognize. They are wont to train, or endeavor to train ,
the lower register only of their male, and the falsetto only of their female
.
The untrained lower register of a woman starts, or is first discovered, as
a crude, loud, rather unpleasant sound such as is used by "coon shouters."
The untrained falsetto of a man is first discovered as a light, silly and
more or less effeminate sound . Proper, balanced development of the
laryngeal muscles and correct resonance adjustment completely trans-
form these unpleasant sounds, with the result that the registers ultimately
co-ordinate . The male falsetto should never be used in performance.
Practically all beginners are found to suffer from a lack of development
of the laryngeal muscles, and as a result of this condition, faulty co-ordina-
tion of these muscles occurs. Let us consider some of the cases of faulty
co-ordination found in actual practice :
I. The lower register only may be used.
Actually there is always some mixture of registration in this case.
( Mixed registration will be explained later .) Under these conditions the
range is extremely limited and the upper tones are altogether lacking . A
woman using this technic is generally termed a "coon shouter." With the
male voice the quality is always throaty and the highest tones which he
can reach ( actually middle tones) are extremely throaty and strained.
2. The falsetto only may be used.
Here again mixed registration is bound to occur to some degree, be-
cause the lower tones of a woman's voice in this register are so weak as
to be practically useless, and, however effeminate a man may be, he is
hardly likely to attempt to sing all the time in the pure falsetto register .
Very light coloratura sopranos may use this adjustment in its more or
less pure form. The best known example of this technic is the radio
coloratura , whose voice is practically inaudible until she reaches a high
tone.
The range of such a singer's voice is not nearly as limited as is that
of the one who comes under heading number one, where little more than
an octave and a haH can be covered . Very high tones indeed can sometimes
be produced with the pure falsetto adjustment alone. Such tones are,
however, mere squeaks, and of no real value artistically. Furthermore,
they tend to disappear after a few years , unless the lower register is
developed and they are related to, and balanced with, it.
3. Both registers may be used unco-ordinated and with a break between
them.
This is far better than the conditions outlined under headings 1 and 2,
provided that she employs it up to at least middle A or Bb, because the
mere fact that a woman is actually using her lower register , indicates
that relatively pure registration has been established.
It may be as well to mention here that the pupil who starts with a
definite break between the registers is far easier to train than one who
uses one register only or, worse still, mixed registration : The first process
in training a voice is to find and isolate both registers, and before this is
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 done no vocal development is possible. Thus, the pupil who starts with
two definite, unco-ordinated registers is in the same condition, or stage
of development, as the one who started with one register and has found
and developed the other; or the one who, having started with mixed
registration, has succeeded in separating the voice into two parts and
establishing relatively pure registration. The pupil with a definite break
starts in a fairly advanced stage of technical development.
The man who uses the pure falsetto for his soft tones will indeed be
making illegitimate, foolish and effeminate sounds, but he is not straining
his voice in anything like the same degree as the one who produces his
high, soft tones with an extreme constriction of the laryngeal pharynx
and mixed falsetto registration. Neither very high nor soft tones should
ever be sung by a man, in pedormance, before pure registration and
pharyngeal resonance adjustment have been established.
Mixed registration is the worst of all faults in singing or speaking.
' The individual who uses a pronounced form of mixed registration is
designated as one with "no natural voice." There are two forms of mixed
registration: Mixed falsetto and mixed lower register. In either case the
break in the voice may be absent and quite a wide range may be covered,
despite the extremely unpleasant quality which results from this technic.
This is what happens in the case of mixed registration:
a. Mixed Falsetto (See Fig. 16.)
F
L
=
=Falsetto
Lower lle,aIder
50

20
J/
/
.,;
!::
z
10
/
•
!:: /
••
J... 5 /
/
V
0
...
w

2 r
/

2 10 20 50 100
SOUND PRESSURE
INTENSITY-AIIIITIIAIIY
UNITS.

Fig. 16-Diagrammatic Representation of Mixed Falsetto

Registration
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 When the tone is attacked the balance or co-ordination between the
arytenoid and thyroid muscles is incorrect, both arytenoid and crico-
thyroid groups of muscles are undeveloped. The arytenoid muscles are
less undeveloped than the crico-thyroid muscles. When the intensity is
increased the added tension is taken up by both sets of muscles together,
so that the correct co-ordination never prevails.
Figure 16 indicates, in diagrammatic form, mixed falsetto registration
for a middle tone.
Notice that, at the attack (pianissimo), the tension on the arytenoid
muscles is far higher than that indicated in Fig. 14 for a tone of similar
pitch. Notice also that, as the intensity increases, the tension is added
to both sets of muscles ( the thyroids and arytenoids) uniformly and
simultaneously. For this reason the mixed falsetto characteristic or quality
is maintained throughout the entire intensity range.
That this is true is indicated by the fact that, in actual practice, anyone
employing this type of technic retains the extremely throaty, unpleasant,
mixed falsetto quality at all intensities.
The quality of a woman's voice using this technic is thin and shrill.
In the case of a man's voice it is extremely throaty and effeminate. No
part of the voice has any real power. The vibrato is absent and, in many
cases, a pronounced tremolo occurs.
Figure 17 illustrates, in diagrammatic form, mixed lower registration
for a middle tone.
If high tones can be reached at all, and this may be possible, they
are thin and throaty.
b. Mixed Lower Registration (See Fig. 17.)
This is the inverse of the case discussed above. When the singer
attacks the tone, the balance of tension is to the thyroid end. As the
intensity is increased, both sets of muscles take up the tension uniformly
and simultaneously as in the case of the mixed falsetto.
Notice that, in this case, the tension on the thyroid muscles, at the
attack (pianissimo), is far higher, and that on the arytenoids is far lower
than indicated in Fig. 14. Notice also that, as with Fig. 16, the added
tension for the increase in intensity is taken up by both groups of muscles
uniformly and simultaneously.
The quality produced by this type of technic is apt to be even more
unpleasant than that resulting from mixed falsetto. The power, however,
is considerably greater, while the range is more limited. A pronounced
tremolo often accompanies this type of mixed registration.
• The reader should be very dear as to the difference between co-
ordinated registration and mixed registration. The one and only point
of similarity lies in the fact that there is no break in the voice. With
co-ordinated registration the balance between the two groups of muscles
which actuate the vocal cords is corr_ectat the inception of the tone and,
as it is swelled, the added tension is taken up first by the arytenoid
group, until the point is reached at which they are fully loaded. At this
point the added tension is taken up by the thyroids, but the tension on
the arytenoids is maintained. Thus, pure registration persists despite the
fact that co-ordination has been attained.
In the case of mixed registration the co-ordination of muscles is incor-
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rect at the start, and the added tension is taken up by both groups of
muscles uniformly and simultaneously. Pure registration is always lacking.
The proof of this statement lies in the fact that a mixed-register tone,
irrespective of whether it be mixed falsetto or mixed lower register,
retains its unpleasant, characteristic quality at all intensities. Thus, if
such a tone is swelled to the greatest possible intensity, the lower register
never comes into action, because the characteristics of the lower register
do not appear. Inversely, when such a tone is softened to pianissimo, the
characteristics of the pure falsetto are not revealed. Thus, a mixed-register
tone cannot be changed into falsetto or lower register by any means
other than by the elimination of this form of technic and by the separa-
tion and isolation of the two registers througp a process of properly
conducted vocal training.
=
L Lowerlt~lster
F = falMlto
so---.-----......------~---r----,

2 5 10 20 !10 100'\.-.
SOUND PltESSUltEINTENSITY-AIIIITIIAIIY
UNITS.

Fig.17-Diagrammatic RepresentaUon of Mixell Lower Registr~

The regulation of intensity, under proper conditions of registratior...

is a function of the vibrato and laryngeal muscles.
In mixed registration this control of intensity becomes a function of
the constrictor muscles of the laryngeal pharynx and of the breath blast .
As the intensity diminishes, the tension which is already on these con-
strictor muscles, increases, so that the softening of the tone is actually
accomplished by the progressive constriction of the throat. At the same
time the breath expulsion diminishes-thus, the intensity is proportional
to the rate of expulsion of the breath. When the technic is correct, the
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breath expulsion drops as the intensity rises from P.P. to M.F. It is at
its maximum at P.P. and at its minimum at M.F. (the normal loudness
of a full free tone). (See Figs. 18 & 19.) For a further discussionof the
phenomena of mixed registration, see Chapter 11.

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INTENSITY

Fig. 18-"Breath-intensity" Curves of a Well-produced Voice

This figure sho~s a curve of the breath expulsion plotted against intensity
for a middle tone sung by a well-produced voice.
Notice that the maximum expulsion is at pianissimo, and that it drops pro-
gressively until M.F. ( a full, free tone) is reached, when it starts to rise until
the maximum loudness-F.F.-is reached. Notice also that the drop between
P.P. and M.F. is far greater than is the rise from M.F. to F.F .
In this case the breath output is a function of the laryngeal muscles and
of the vibrato-i.e., the singer is "holding" his breath and is not blowing it
out against a constriction.

When a tone is being swelled from P.P. to F.F. it starts in the

falsetto, which register persists during the period of added tension
on the arytenoid muscles, and the lower-register action comes into
play when, this tension having reached its maximum, tension is
added to the thyroid muscles. It should be clear that the proportion
of arytenoid to thyroid tension depends upon the pitch-thus, the
amount of falsetto tension rises with the pitch. The higher the pitch
the louder the intensity at which the lower register tension should
be added.
The development of the arytenoid muscles is essential, if a pure
falsetto is to be established. The arytenoid cartilages can be held
firmly in position during phonation, only when the arytenoid muscles
are fully developed. This means that they do not "give" (move),
that the pitch is thus held constant and that the vibrator ( vocal
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cords) is firmly strung, with the result that the tone produced,
under such conditions, is of pleasing quality. It is impossible for the
pupil to produce a powerful tone of good quality unless the lower
register has been isolated, purified and developed fully. The develop-
ment of each of these two groups of muscles depends upon the
isolation and separate development of the two registers. Without
such isolation and purification, no work whatever can be done on
the laryngeal muscles. Hence, technical-vocal-improvement is im-
possible unless the problems of registration are worked out properly.

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INTENSITY

Fig. 19-"Breath intensity" Curve of a Throaty Voice

This figure shows a curve of the breath expulsion plotted against intensity
for a middle tone sung by a badly produced-throaty-voice.
Notice that the breath output rises evenly with the intensity in a straight-
line curve.
In this case the singer is blowing his breath through a constriction. The
control of intensity is a function of the breath blast and of the degree of con-
striction-i.e ., tension on the muscles of the neck and on the muscles which
hold the base of the tongue back against the posterior wall of the laryngeal
pharynx.

Thyroid Manipulation-Development of Lower Register

Muscles
It is obvious that if the "pull" on the thyroid muscles determines
the lower register, this "pull" can be helped by pressing down the
thyroid cartilage. This manipulation is, then, immediately indicated.
It is of immense value. It enables the teacher to "pull in" the lower
register, by direct manipulation, when it is weak and undeveloped,
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and thus speed up the process ot isolating and developing it to an
enormous degree. Furthermore, the development and isolation of
the lower register automatically breaks off the falsetto register.
Hence, the thyroid manipulation helps also to purify and develop
the falsetto.

Fig. 20-Thyroid Manipulation

A-This is probably the most important of all the manipulations. Its employ-
ment speeds up the process of training the voice in a very marked degree.
In certain cases, it enables the teacher to train and develop voices which
could not have been dealt with before it was discovered. It has for its pur-
pose the development of the crico-thyroid muscles ( lower register). The in-
dex fingers of each hand are placed on the uppe r, posterior edges of the
thyroid cartilage, while the thumbs touch, but, in many cases, do not press
down, the center point of this cartilage . However, there are cases in which
the manipulation may be more effective when the thyroid cartilage is pressed
down from its middle point. The "pulling-in" of the crico-thyroid muscles
brings the lower register into action and helps these muscles to "hold," until
such time as their use with the aid of the manipulation has so developed them
that they can hold by themselves.
The down pressure exerted varies in different cases according to the state of
development of the laryngeal muscles and genio-hyoid and genio-glossus
muscles.
Even in cases where the lower register is very weak, or altogether absent,
it can, almost always, be pulled-in in a relatively few lessons. The judicious
use of this manipulation serves to maintain the relative balance in the state
of development of the crico-thyroid and arytenoid muscles; i.e., of the two
registers.
When the hyoid bone drops to a pronounced degree, this manipulation
cannot be employed until the hyoid bone manipulation has become effective.
However, both manipulations can be performed at the same time.
The thyroid manipulation is utilized with practically every beginner and is
employed in the later stages of technical development to engender further
"openings" of the voice.
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 T HUMB (Touch But
Do Not Prell Down)

B
Fig. 2<J-Thyroid Manipulation (concluded)
B-This fil!;ureshows the point on the thyroid cartilage on which the index
finger should press when this manipulation is being performed. It also shows
the point in the front of the thyroid cartilage at which the thumbs should
touch. The thumbs, however, only touch and do not press at this point. The
manipulation is performed with both hands symmetrically.
This manipulation is perfectly simple and straightforward. It is
an obvious outcome of an established theory of registration, and
its effectiveness is a direct proof of the truth of this theory.
The procedure is as follows: The teacher merely places the index
finger of each hand on the upper, posterior edges of the thyroid
cartilage and pulls down with a gentle, firm pressure. ( See Fig.
20 A & B.)
When the lower-register muscles and the tongue muscles are
weak, this pressure cannot be exerted too forcibly, but it may be
increased little by little until an absolutely pure register is estab-
lished, or "pulled in."
When the establishment of a pure, fully-developed lower register
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for the given stage of development is complete, pressure on the
thyroid cartilage has little or no effect upon the sound produced.
However, in the early stages, the effect of this manipulation soon
becomes quite startling, and full, pure lower-register tones may
often be "pulled in" and established in a relatively few lessons.

Value of ThyroidManipulation
This, and the other manipulations, materially modify and alter
the entire process of developing the voice. They eliminate the long
drawn-out, round-about path which formerly had to be traversed .
The lower register now can be definitely "pulled in" and established
tone by tone. Only "opened-up," full tones need to be established
and sung. It is generally best to start at about low D ( the D one
space below the treble clef) and proceed up the scale, one semitone
at a time, as far as the pupil can sing without closure. No closed,
throaty, "white," thick, shrill or really ugly tones need be sung.
In fact, they should never be produced . In a relatively few lessons
the pupil, who has not been seriously injured by bad teaching,
should be able to establish, under manipulation, pure lower-
register tones up to about middle B flat.
The procedure is similar for both sexes, despite the fact that the
man is singing an octave lower than the woman. In the case of a
man the purification of the lower register, and its development,
may be more difficult to accomplish than it would be for a woman,
because all his singing has probably been done in this register and
all his characteristic technical faults are, therefore, generally asso-
ciated with it. However, this manipulation is so effective that it has
been possible to take men who sang entirely in the mixed falsetto
register, and establish a definite lower register which finally enabled
them to produce really fine, virile tones. Of course, in cases of this
sort, the unbalance is so extreme that the process is quite long and
arduous.

Octave RelationshipBetweenRegisters
As soon as pure registration is established, the pupil can sing a
pure falsetto tone exactly one octave above the highest, pure lower-
register tone she can produce, but she is muscularly unable to go
any higher without closure. This applies only to women. In the
case of a man, a pure, wide-open, fully-developed, falsetto tone,
an octave above the highest lower register tone that l-f can produce,
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would be so powerful, and demand so much strength in the tongue
muscles and the muscles of the thorax, that it would be physically
impossible for him to sing it. For this reason falsetto tones above F
above high C should seldom be used even for the lightest possible
tenor and then only when his technical development is very
advanced.
Generally the use of the falsetto should be limited to about
high C and sometimes to B or B flat. The use of the tongue instru-
ment for obtaining the "dark" quality, which is essential for the
attainment of the pure falsetto, is very helpful. No pupil should be
allowed to sing throaty, or "shut off," falsetto tones. This limits the
range which can be covered in the early stages of training, but the
full range is ultimately attained without the necessity for singing
poor quality, "shut-off" tones. With this new procedure, the quality
is at all times as pleasing as possible, and a really fine voice is
developed much more quickly because the round-about path is
eliminated.

Illegitimateand "Squeak"Tones
The ability to produce high, "squeak" tones in the case of a
woman, or "shut-off," mixed-register tones in the case of a man,
does not mean that he or she actually has a wide range, because
such tones are illegitimate and do not really count.
Thus, if the woman's lower register is carried up very high, with
a "white," throaty technic, she can immediately establish "squeak"
tones in the falsetto an octave above. In this manner almost any
flexible voice can make a sound ( or noise) at F, G, or even C above
high C and, in som.e cases, even higher than this. If men resort to
"shut-off," mixed-register tones, they also may be able to reach
very high pitches. This case can be so extreme that a bass may
sound like a light tenor. Despite the fact that these are not legitimate
tones and cannot be considered as singing, some singers who are
able to produce them become extremely conceited. They may be-
lieve they are great singers because they can go very high. The
teacher then has the problem not only of eliminating these worthless
sounds, but of taking the conceit out of the pupil and making him,
or her, realize that such squeaking is not real singing.
In view of the fact that most radio singing is performed with just
such a technic, there are many individuals who think they are great
singers, despite the fact that they have never produced a single
legitimate tone. Of course, the same thing also applies to singers
who perform for the talking pictures.
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 Balancingof Registers
It has been shown how the lower register can be "pulled in" by
manipulation, and free, full tones produced at quite an early stage.
Only such tones, and no others, should ever be produced. The pupil
should never be permitted to sing a falsetto tone higher than one
octave above the highest "open" lower-register tone she can produce .
Furthermore, the registers must be balanced . When this balance is
attained, they must be kept balanced in all subsequent stages of
"opening." Excessive use of either register unbalances the system
and is harmful. Each "open," free, falsetto tone should immediately
manifest itself exactly one octave above each "open," lower-register
tone.
If the balance is to the lower register, this register must not be
carried up until such time as the corresponding ( octave above-
"open") falsetto tone has been completely established. This pro-
cedure develops a good quality voice at the outset. True, it takes
some time before the pupil can produce very high tones, but this is
quite a secondary consideration in the long run.

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 Chapter 4

DEVELOPINGTHE VOICE (MANIPULATIONS)

One of the principal goals of the vocal student is the attainment

of an even scale, in order that he may be able to interpret with real
artistry and musicianship.

EvenlyRising Scale of Intensity

This implies a scale in which the intensity rises evenly with the
pitch ( about 15 decibels rise to the octave) . When both registers
are fully devtoped, and properly balanced, the singer can use
the falsetto at full voice for the tone E Bat-on the top space of the
treble clef. If e, or she, starts singing in the lower register with a
free, full, "wide-open" technic, the registration changes naturally
at this E Bat. Thus, this E Bat in the falsetto, when fully developed,
is just a little louder than the properly produced D-a semitone
below-in the lower register. This is the same for both sexes, irre-
spective of the octave difference between the male and female
voices.
Hence, the lowest tone sung falsetto at full voice by the male
voice is actually E Bat above high C and, because this note is never
found in the vocal literature, he never actually sings falsetto at full
voice. At lower intensity, the register change is somewhat lower,
and vice versa.
For example, in the soprano aria Ritorna Vincitor (from Verdi's
Aida) the first phrase, which goes to F ori the top line of the treble
clef, should all be sung lower register, because this is an intensely
dramatic phrase. On the other hand, the quiet phrase which starts
at the 49th measure of this aria ( "e f amor mio") and goes from A
natural to D on the treble clef should all be sung falsetto. As the
falsetto descends below E Bat, the intensity drops rapidly, although
there is a reasonable amount ot tone at B on the third line of the
treble clef. It is apparent, then, that these lower, falsetto tones must
be fully developed and absolutely pure.
When an undeveloped voice is being worked out, the attainment
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J
 of the proper balance between the two registers is not very difficult
to accomplish. The "pulling in" of the lower register allows the
development of a pure, full, falsetto tone one octave above. The
tongue instrument is of great value in establishing such "open,"
pharyngeally resonated, falsetto tones. With each "opening" of the
lower register, the corresponding falsetto tone-an octave above-
must also be "opened up." Therefore, we can develop the voice in
stages, maintaining at all times the balance, or equilibrium, between
the two registers. The teacher must be careful to work out this
balance with absolute precision, or equilibrium will be destroyed.
The voice will then "carry up" one semitone at a time, as "opening"
is attained, but at certain periods of the development, sudden
"openings" may occur.

"Opening"
An "opening" is the result of a muscular development which
occurs because of a release of muscular interference as well as being
the mere outcome of the muscular development itself. Thus, an
"o~ning" of the throat may occur in order to match a laryngeal
development, i.e., a purification of the registration action, which
makes it possible for the singer to actuate a larger, better-"tuned,"
pharyngeal, resonance cavity. The actual opening of the throat
occurs beca.!15eof a development of the tongue muscles and this
development is accompanied by a release or relaxation of tension
of the nee muscles an a re uction of jaw interference . The actual
"opening" itself is, of course, a wi er opening ..of the throat, i.e.,
laryngeal pharynx. li this "opening" is attained suddenly, we have
a sudden "opening." If it occurs in slow stages, we have the slow
•opening" process, which is most often found with unharmed, but
undeveloped, voices.

Sudden "Openings"
When the release of the neck and jaw muscles and the develop-
ment of the tongue muscles occur suddenly, the laryngeal muscles
may not be able to meet the "opening," because the arytenoid muscle
is not strong enough to hold the closure of the glottis completely,
without the help of the neck muscles. Under these circumstances
the breath expulsion may become very high. It is vital that the
pupil make no attempt to check the excessive breath expulsion
J when such a sudden "opening" occurs, because at this stage, the
only means which he can use to bring about this reduction in the
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expulsion of the breath is by the re-establishment of the neck and
jaw control, by the elimination of the "opening" and by going back
again to where he started from. Thus, during the course of develop- ,
ment, the breath expulsion is apt to increase when an "opening"
occurs, and decrease, while the "opening" is being established,
through the development of the laryngeal muscles.
Note well, in this connection, that it is very harmful for a singer,
whose technic is throaty, to attempt to hold tones for a long time,
because he can do so only by bringing the neck, jaw and antagonistic
tongue muscles into tension, and this procedure merely tends to
increase the throatiness of his voice.
A sudden "opening" is generally accompanied by a potential
purification of the falsetto, despite the fact that the breath expulsion,
for this purer and better falsetto, may be high and, at times, ex-
tremely high. If the pupil attempts to check this high breath expul-
sion, the mixture of registration will be re-established and the
improvement lost. This does not mean that he should intentionally
blow out, or expel, his breath on a forced expiration during phona-
tion.
The breath expulsion may be so high that the falsetto may appar-
ently disappear for a short space of time, but before very long a
far better, purer falsetto will manifest itself.
A purified falsetto may often be considerably softer than the
mixed falsetto, which is helped by the constrictor muscles and can,
therefore, be pushed to a far higher intensity than the purer, breathy
falsetto which appears in conjunction with an "opening."
Another point in this connection is of vital importance: The
muscles of the jaw and neck are large and powerful. The laryngeal
muscles are relatively small. They cannot function properly and,
at the same time, fight these powerful jaw and neck muscles. For
this reason laryngeal development is impossible if the tension on
the muscles of the neck and jaw is not reduced. The same thing
applies to the tongue muscles: Any development of these muscles ..
is impossible unless some release of the neck and jaw muscles occurs. J
"Openings" and Quality Changes
Any permanent "opening" changes the resonance adjustment, so
that each time it occurs the quality is modified.
The teacher must have the ingenuity to recognize the correct
quality- "whiter" or "darker"-which should be used to meet the
"opening." When the pupil is energetic and highly strung, these
sudden "openings" are apt to occur. They are always accompanied
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by a very pronounced rise in intensity. If he can be made to sing
at this suddenly increased intensity level, the augmentation of the
breath expulsion is not distressing. If he "holds back," and tries to
sing at the old intensity level, he may find himself in trouble. He
must be forced to go after it as soon as the "opening" occurs-this
is not easy, because it implies a new and revised mental picture of
the intensity level and emotional "drive" required.

Meeting the "Opening"

If the pupil is able to meet each "opening" as it occurs, however
pronounced this "opening" may be, his problem is a simple one.
The difficulty occurs when he is psychologically unable to cope with
his vocal development.
The temporary loss of the falsetto register during a sudden
"opening" must not be confused with the loss of this register when
the voice has been forced. In this latter case, the falsetto muscles have
been strained because a blast of breath is forced out against a con-
striction. Serious forcing of the voice-especially the falsetto-is most
injurious.
Any such loss of the falsetto in a sudden "opening" occurs only
when the pupil fails to meet the "opening" and, with the talented
pupil, it need never occur.
In the case of young, undeveloped, unharmed voices these sud-
den "openings" need not occur. They can be "opened up" in slow
stages. "Openings" do occur, but each opening is relatively slight
and both registers can be kept balanced and intact. The sudden
and, in some cases, devastatingly great opening is only necessary
when the voice has become badly constricted. Such a condition is
seldom found with talented pupils who have not been subjected
to injurious methods of training.
The sudden "opening up" of the voice should be avoided, if pos-
sible, unless it is absolutely necessary in order to break down active
constriction. The competent teacher must know when to proceed
in easy stages and when to endeavor to "open up" the voice
suddenly.
In this discussion of "opening up" the voice and of "openings,"
the reader should realize the extraordinary degree to which voices
do develop or open up. When a big voice, which has been "shut off,"
either by bad training or because of timidity or inhibition, is opened
up, the increase in power can be so great as to be almost unbeliev-
able. Actually it is often the biggest voices which are the most
~shut off." If the individual whose vocal apparatus is designed to
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produce a high power level is inhibited-and this often occurs-the
shut-off condition may be so great that the resulting power output
is far lower than that of a very small voice which is, even slightly, .
"opened up." {;·
At Electrical Research Products, Inc., we analyzed cases of power
increases in voices, undergoing the training process, of nearly
1000 times, i.e., 30 decibels. However, these pupils were not tested
at the start of the training process and their voices were not par- I
ticularly powerful ones. It is fair to assume that the intensity of a
really powerful, shut-off voice could easily be raised about 40
decibels when fully opened up. This means a power increase of
about 10,000 times. Such figures stagger the imagination, but they
are confirmed by scientific tests and are by no means unusual.

"Opening" and PsychologicalProblems

Now, in realizing this fact, the teacher must also understand that
he has a very real problem to face in dealing with the psycholgical
side of his work. The difficulty of persuading the pupil who has
a powerful voice, which is shut off, to eliminate fear and go a~er
the tone is no simple matter. Nevertheless, this psychological devel-
opment is absolutely essential if he is to learn to sing with freedom,
using his real (natural) voice. Each time an opening occurs, the
psychological factor must be dealt with if the opening is to be
established. The mechanical process of "opening up" the voice is
now so efficient that this psychological problem looms far more
formidably than it did before.
It is interesting that, while the smallest voice which is "opened
up" produces far more power than the biggest one which is only
partially opened, there is another vital fact: A small voice which
has been fully opened and which is used with energy and freedom,
sounds far bigger in an auditorium than even the most powerful,
opened-up voice which is "held back" in performance. The drop
in power in an auditorium may, under such circumstances, be quite
pitiful.
This is especially true of the singer who started with a "shut-off"
voice and who has had it "opened up." He must be made to develop
the vitality which is instinctive with the singer who possesses a
naturally "open" voice. This is not easy to accomplish. Talented
pupils are apt to become emotionally excited and energetic in front
of an audience and sing with greater freedom and power. Less
talented ones slack off and sometimes drop to a lamentable degree.
A great tenor submitted to a pitch intensity test at Electrical Re-
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search Products, Inc. When he sang the climactic phrase of an aria,
he indicated a definitely higher intensity level on practically every
tone than on any corresponding tone he had produced in the
single tone test for the curve. The pupils either failed to rise or they
dropped when they sang a musical phrase. This is a most important
phase of the training process. It indicates one very good test of
interpretative talent.

Loud Singing
There is one point which comes up here : the question of singing
loudly. Those who unintentionally, or intentionally, misunderstand
this work, are apt to say that these procedures make pupils sing
every tone as loudly as possible. This statement is ridiculously
untrue. The intensity increases are due to technical improvements,
i.e., the strengthening of the laryngeal muscles and the opening of
the throat. Screaming and shouting often make more noise than
legitimate singing. A shouted lower-register tone of both sexes, and
especially of women, is far louder (noisier) over a certain (low)
range, than a properly-produced tone. This shouting is, of course,
harmful. Pupils should not, must not, scream! The mixed-register
singer may make a lot of noise. This type of noise must be eliminated!
It is the power over a wide range that counts, and even then
only good-quality , "open," free tones can be taken into account.
There are stages in the training process when the loudness may
actually drop. This generally occurs when working with a man who
shouts, a woman who screams, and above all, with a mixed-falsetto
singer of either sex. The pure falsetto is considerably softer for the
lowP-rpitches than is the mixed falsetto. Thus, as this register is
purified, the intensity nearly always drops, and drops a great deal
for the lowest tones for which it can be employed. Of course, when
the falsetto has been finally purified and fully developed, it is very
powerful at the higher pitches. The lowest falsetto tones never
become powerful and should never be used in performance-the
lower register must be used at all times, even at pianissimo, below a
certain pitch-about middle Ab. The advanced pupil can sing this
tone softly enough in the lower register and the less advanced pupil
will either mix the falsetto or it will be too soft to be heard.
Tone is what is desired-not noise. The teacher who thinks he is
teaching according to the principles here laid down and who merely
makes his pupils shout or scream is actually working in exactly the
opposite direction from the one which is indicated .
After the first major "opening," the opening process continues
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 indefinitely, but in the later stages it rather takes the form of quality
improvement and mellowing of the voice than of increasing the
loudness. The well-produced voice continues to improve and each
development is accompanied by an improvement in quality.

Incorrect Teaching Methods and Muscular Development

How different is the effect of muscular development in the case j ,1 A J.;,ii
of the throaty singer taught under the "building on the soft," "toning W ~;-v(
down," "singing in the masque," "head voice," "forward placement," [f;.
cO-ill\~
"focussing the voice," "breath control," etc., methods! In the casesp:,_.P' :'.J
of the victims of these schools of thought, each development of th~
muscular system means an increase in the degree of constriction or,
in other words, vocal deterioration. Each tone the singer produces
makes his voice more throaty and the voice never lasts very long.
Some voices can, indeed, take a lot of punishment, but all badly-
trained voices deteriorate and, in the long run, they disappear.
As the constrictor muscles-the muscles of the neck, ( see Fig.
26 A & B) the jaw and the muscles which hold the tongue back
against the posterior wall of the laryngeal pharynx (see Fig. 4)-
develop, the higher and lower tones start to degenerate and are
lost and the power of the entire voice decreases very greatly. There
is no such thing as "building on the soft." This process is merely
one of "shutting off." It is not the voice that is built up but rather
the constrictor muscles. Only too often nodules form on the vocal
cords of victims of this sort of training and then even surgery only
furnishes temporary relief unless the technic is changed by proper
training, when they will disappear without the aid of a surgeon.
When a singer who uses a throaty technic loses his voice, his only
recourse-if he does not have it trained properly-is to stop singing,
and even talking, altogether and let the muscles which he is using-
the constrictor system-weaken from lack of use. If he does this he
may sing again for a time, but the loss of voice will inevitably recur.
Muscular development improves a well-produced voice and plenty
of vigorous singing is good for it; while muscular development
eliminates a throaty voice, and singing, especially vigorous singing,
is bad for it. It is, indeed, a sad thing when the method of producing
the voice is such that the mere use of the instrument is harmful.

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 Mixed Registration
The straightforward case of the undeveloped voice is relatively
simple. Pupils who start with what might be termed as "no voice"
may progress better and faster than those who have what some
people would consider a "good natural voice," but who are actually
singing with a throaty technic and mixed registration. When the
registration is mixed, the problem is a more difficult one. Before
the manipulations were devised, there were certain cases of pupils
whose registration had become so mixed that it was absolutely im-
• possible to break it down. At that time it was necessary to consider
their voices completely wrecked; that they could not be taught to
sing. However, by the use of the manipulations, such problems can
now be dealt with quite efficiently.

A B
Fig. 21-The Larynx and Mixed Registration
These illustrations indicate what happens in cases of muscular, permanent
mixed registration. Note the space between the hyoid bone and thyroid carti-
lage in A, and observe how this space has become closed in the case of mixed
registration indicated in B.
This condition of mixed registration can be cured by manipulation. Until
such time, however, as the manipulation has become effective and permanently
changed the physical condition, it is impossible for the pupil to produce a
tone which is not completely throaty and mixed. It is interesting to note,
then, that the condition of mixed registration-the worst of all vocal ills-
can be felt by means of manual examination and determined without hearing
the singer produce a tone.
Of course, the pulling down of the thyroid cartilage establishes
the lower register with remarkable rapidity, but even this manipula-
tion is unavailing in extreme cases.
\ Where the registration is badly mixed, the falsetto muscles are
very weak, with the result that th~ "give" on the arytenoid cartilages
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causes the thyroid cartilage to be rotated upward, so that its upper
posterior edges virtually touch the hyoid bone. ( See Figs. 12 B & C,
21 A & B.)

Separation of Hyoid Bone and ThyroidCartilage

Here is another manipulation which may be employed in pro-
nounced cases of mixed registration: The two index fingers are
inserted, quite far back, between the hyoid bone and the thyroid
cartilage and then, just at the exact moment at which the pupil
starts to phonate, the teacher presses in and forward, thereby
separating the hyoid bone and the thyroid cartilage and at the same
time pulling in some thyroid tension. ( See Fig. 22 A & B.) This is
a potent weapon for breaking down mixed registration and estab-
lishing the lower register. It is sometimes effective when no other
known device will work.

Manipulationsfor Displaced Larynx

In some cases the laryngeal manipulations are somewhat compli-
cated by the fact that the larynx is tilted or out of proper alignment.
A violinist was found to have pushed his larynx over to the right
a considerable distance. Other cases have been found in which an
habitually tilted head position had displaced the larynx. Several
cases have been observed in which an uneven development of the
neck muscles had definitely displaced the position of the larynx.
Many other cases were encountered in which the space between
the hyoid bone and the thyroid cartilage was wider on one side than
on the other.
In all such distortions of the position of the larynx, manual ad-
justment is indicated, and such adjustments must be combined with
the thyroid, hyoid and separation manipulations.
Thus, the manipulations must be made with due consideration
for all the conditions encountered in each particular case, and the
necessary adjustments should be made. Absolute symmetry, as well
as proper muscular development, is essential.
Diverse modifications of the manipulations described must be
resorted to in order to cope with the various conditions encountered
in practice. These modifications are so dependent upon the par-
ticular case that it is impossible to discuss them in detail. The teacher
must understand the conditions towards which he is aiming and
he must be able to devise the necessary manipulations which fit
the particular case. The manipulations described indicate what
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must be done and are the principal ones which have been established
up to date.
Workingwith Mixed-registerVoices
Mixed-register voices must not be carried up too far, because it
is the higher falsetto and the higher lower-register tones that are
the most mixed. Despite the fact that, in such cases, the lower
register can, at first, be sung only with quite a "white" quality, this
"whiteness" should not be excessive. The falsetto must be sung
with as "dark"-not throaty-a quality as possible and the tongue
instrument should nearly always be used.

A
Fig. 22-Manipulation for Mixed Registration
A-The index finger of each hand is inserted rather far back in the space
between the hyoid bone and thyroid cartilage ( see Fig. 22B) and then pressed
forward to separate the bone and cartilage as much as possible.
This manipulation must be made at the moment at which the pupil is to
attack the tone. He must be instructed to sing as soon as he has felt the
forward pull. If he hesitates, he is apt to experience a choking sensation. If
he responds promptly, no discomfort is felt.
While this manipulation does tend to pull in additional crico-thyroid ten-
sion, its fundamental purpose is to separate the hyoid bone and thyroid carti-
lage, which have become too closely approximated because of the mixed-
register condition, rather than to augment the lower-register tension.
However, in certain cases, after the separation has been made, the lower
register may be pulled in by rotating the two index fingers in a clockwise direc-
tion and/ulling down. This down pull must not depress the hyoid bone, and
the hyoi bone may often have to be raised while this manipulation is being
made.
This manipulation is used only in cases of mixed registration, which technical
fault is manifested by a closure of the space which should be present between
the hyoid bone and the thyroid cartilage. This condition is known as "per-
manent, muscular mixed registration," and this manipulation is the best means
devised for breaking down this most pernicious of all technical faults.
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 If there were any way in which the falsetto muscles could be
helped by manipulation, this process would be considerably simpli-
fied, but they cannot be reached because they are situated at the
backof the larynx. ( See Fig. 2.) Nevertheless, the establishment of
a pure lower register does automatically break off and purify the

B
Fig. 22-Manipulation for Mixed Registration (concluded;
B-This illustration indicates the points between the hyoid bone and thyroid
cartilage at which the index finger should press forward to separate them
during phonation and thereby alleviate and finally effect the cure for mixed
registration.

falsetto. In cases of mixed registration, the falsetto is often very

weak when it finally appears in its pure form. Another reason why
the lower register must not be carried up too high ( never above C
on the third space of the treble clef) and then developed, in cases
of mixed registration, is because this procedure would overdevelop
it and still further increase the lack of balance between the weak
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falsetto and an overdeveloped lower registe~. The result of this would
be only to still further unbalance the equilibrium of the laryngeal
muscles. Our problem is to establish a pure falsetto and balance it
with the lower register, which generally tends to develop far more
quickly than the falsetto.

Unbalanced Registration
There are many cases of students who start with fairly pure, but
unbalanced, registration. Where this balance is to the falsetto the
problem is a simple one, because the lower register can generally
be "pulled in" in a short space of time, and the proper balance
established. When the balance is to the lower register, the problem
is a difficult one, because the building up of the falsetto, which
cannot be subjected to a heavy breath pressure, is relatively diffi.
cult. In such cases the use of the tongue instrument is most benefi-
cial. They are also helped by work on the neck muscles and on the
action of the breathing muscles which will be discussed later . How-
ever, the teacher must proceed carefully and slowly. He must never
take the lower register up too high and he must be sure to establish
and retain a pure, "dark" ( not throaty) falsetto. As soon as the
proper balance, or equilibrium, between the registers has been
established, the w01k ,·an be speeded up and progress may then
become very rapid .

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 Chapter 5

THE ATTACK-INTONATION

Laryngeal Pharynx
(Throat)
There are two types of muscular action in the human body:
a. Consciously controlled
b. Reflex, i.e., automatic, or not under conscious control
No muscle in the human body can be relaxed while the individual is
still alive. Thus, from the brain center, which supplies the reflex nerve
impulses, a certain degree of tension is maintained throughout the entire
muscular system of the body. When one is seated in what we might term
a "relaxed," comfortable position, this posture is not maintained by any
conscious eHort or muscular control, but by reason of the reflex tension
on the muscles which determine the posture. Such reflex tension is known
as "tonus" or "muscle tone." If the individual were to die suddenly, he
would collapse, by reason of the fact that this reflex muscle tone would
cease. An association of the concept of muscle tone with that of posture
should help the reader to understand this phenomenon.
In life we find every type of individual, from the extremely placid
person who is over-relaxed and relatively "dead," to the highly-strung,
neurotic one, who is always in a pronounced state of tension. Physiologi-
cally the difference between these two cases lies in the degree of reflex
muscle tone pertaining to each. It is interesting to note, in this connection,
an association between the state of muscle tone and the temperament of
the individual.
Suppose a person sitting in a relatively relaxed posture starts to move.
He will send out, from his conscious brain center, nerve impulses which
bring into tension the muscles which must be employed in the accom-
plishment of this movement.
Every muscle, when in a state of relatively high relaxation, must be
brought up to a certain degree of tension before it will actually "shoot off"
or come into contraction. When the state of muscle tone is too low, i.e.,
the individual is over-relaxed, the muscles will have to be brought up
to a state of tension at which they will contract, before movement is pos-
sible. Where the individual maintains too high a state of tone, many
muscles will already be in a state of contraction, and some of these must,
therefore, be relaxed until they have arrived at the ideal state of tone,
i.e., that condition where the slack has been taken out of them, and they
are just at the point where the application of the conscious nerve impulse
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 will bring them into contraction, before the movement can be accom-
plished. .
There is, then, an ideal state of tonus. Virtually the entire muscular
!>ystemof the body should maintain this ideal condition normally. Under
these circumstances the "slack" has been taken out of all the muscles,
except those which are in tension because they are maintaining the pos-
ture of the body, and those which are relaxed because they are antagonis-
tic to these tensed muscles, i.e., those muscles whose function is to reverse
the movement for which the tensed muscles are responsible.
To make matters a little clearer, let us consider a weight tied to a
piece of elastic: If one commences to lift the weight by means of the
elastic, it will be found that the elastic will stretch until a certain point
of tension has been reached, and then, not until then, the weight will
start to move. In other words, the weight will not move until the slack
has been taken out of the elastic. This exact point of tension, at which
the slack has been taken up, and the slightest degree of added tension
lifts the weight, corresponds to the optimum condition of muscle tone.
Too high or too low a state of tonus must lead to inefficiency of action,
slow response and inaccurate adjustment. When the condition is overly
relaxed, the conscious nerve impulses must first be applied to take up the
slack before the muscles can come into contraction. When the state of
tone is too high, the muscles must be relaxed before the application of
the conscious nerve impulses can be utilized in order to bring them into
action as part of the co-ordination of muscles which actuates the move-
ment.
The goal of the singer, or of the participant in any other field of activity
in which muscular action is involved, is generally the attainment of rapid
and accurate muscular response. Such response is, in a large degree,
dependent upon the attainment of an ideal condition of reflex muscle
tone. This corresronds to the state of the muscular system of the athlete's
body when "set' at the mark, ready to spring at the pistol shot (every
muscle is in a state of active preparedness) . This condition engenders a
sense of freedom which might, perhaps, be mistaken for relaxation by
anyone who is unversed in the fundamental principles of physiology,
despite the fact that it is not really a relaxed state. It is not a state of
"Oop."
When teaching vocal technic or, for that matter, many other technics,
some unqualified teachers are wont to direct their pupils to relax. Such
a direction is not only physiologically incorrect, because of the difference
between relaxation (or "Oop") and muscle tone, but also because the
muscles which are used in phonation ( or in the accomplishment of any
other physical action) must come into tension in order to accomplish
this action.
The creation of muscle tone is largely a question of controlled
emotion. Voluntary muscle tone can be obtained only by a complete
understanding and command of every thought and action during a
song or speech.
Every time, before the singer starts to sing, he must first relax as
much as possible-especially the muscles used in phonation. Having
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relaxed, he must create emotion voluntarily, becoming emotionally
active, alert and expressive without coming into tension. This will
automatically tend to set up the proper state of muscle tone. If he is
emotionally "dead" and if his face is expressionless-"dead pan"-
his muscular condition is either over-tensed or over-relaxed. Over-
relaxation resulting in inexpressiveness can be overcome by his work-
ing harder and becoming more excited-but not to the point of
being over-excited ( causing pre-tension) and losing self-control.
The singer must be able to relax rapidlyall muscles used in phona-
tion, because he must relax them each time before he starts to sing a
musical phrase-each time he takes a breath. /
Also, he must relax momentarily during transitions to new emo-
tions. This ability to relax, then come in the proper state of
tonus, and then attack the first tone of ·the phrase with properly
timed tension on the muscles used in phonation, must be developed
and practiced until it is second-nature. As the pupil learns to asso-
ciate free phonation with emotio_n,he also learns how to come into a
proper state of muscle tone. ./ ·

Attack
One of the most vital phases in the establishment of the falsetto
depends upon the pupil's ability to start, or attack, the tone in the
center of pitch. If he slurs or "feels up" into a tone, the registration
is always more or less mixed, because there is no more arytenoid
tension than the amount which is determined by the production of
the initial sound he makes. If there is an octave slur the registration
must be mixed to a very high degree, because the amount of falsetto
tension is only sufficient for the tone one octave below the tone to
be sung ( the first sound produced). Even a slight slur tends to
engender mixed registration.
The attack has been discussed in previous books; that discussion
will be amplified here. Attack depends, in the first place, upon a
clear mental concept of the tone-pitch, vowel and loudness to be
sung. No "self listener" can ever make a proper attack.

Relaxationbefore Attack
Attack also depends upon the relative relaxation of all muscles
used in phonation at the instant before the tone is initiated. Let
this point be very clear! Muscles which have come into tension
before the inception of a given act cannot be used for that act,
unless they are first relaxed and then re-tensed. Only when the
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muscles used in phonation come into action at the exact moment
of the attack can they co-ordinate properly in the production of
the tone. The preparation for this act is, then, one of relaxing ten-
sion, not of setting it. The proper tongue muscles must become
tense at the moment of attack. H they become tense too soon the
antagonistic muscles come into tension and constriction is estab-
lished.
Pre-tension
Some pupils have been erroneously told to tense the tongue
before the attack, hold the tension, and then sing. This procedure
will develop constriction and tongue tremolos. The tension on
the proper tongue muscles must occur at the exact moment of
attack. The tongue should be drawn back in a relaxed condition
just before the attack, and should be ready to come into tension
for the attack. This procedure is, however, sometimes fraught with
danger because, if it is drawn back and pre-tensed ( tensed before
the attack), the tone will be very throaty. Therefore, this direction
should be given only in certain cases in which its application is
beneficial.
Tongue Instrumentand Attack
When the tongue instrument is being used for the attack, the
tongue must be relaxed and then, gently but firmly, pushed back
just a moment before the attack. The tension on the proper tongue
muscles occurs reflexly. This means that the pupil must not attempt
to tense his tongue volitionally. If he does so, he will inevita-
bly pre-tense it and then bring the antagonistic muscles into ten-
sion at the moment of attack . The tongue instrument functions
beneficially only because of the reflex reaction of the tongue against
it at the moment of the attack.

Tongue-tie
Another handicap, which is sometimes encountered, comes to
mind: Bad tongue-tie. The little cord under the tongue is some-
times very short and thick. In some cases it may be as close as I"
from the tip.
Any such tongue-tie makes it impossible for the teacher to employ
the tongue instrument, because all he would succeed in doing, if
he were to attempt to use it, would be to bunch up the base of the
tongue in the throat. Furthermore, it is impossible for a tongue-tied
individual to assume the proper position of, or tension on, the
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tongue for phonation. It is, therefore, physically impossible for him
to produce a tone which is not throaty. Fortunately such a condi-
tion can be cured very easily by surgery. In this case a surgeon
may sever the little cord under the tongue. This very minor opera-
tion will release it and make it possible to work with the student
effectively. ( See Fig. 23 A & B.)

A B
Fig. 23-"Tongue-tie" and Normal Tongue
B shows the normal tongue with the relatively long cord underneath it. The
tip of the tongue must, of course, be elevated to show this cord. In A, an abnor-
mally short cord is indicated. Note that in this case the tip of th_e tongue
cannot be pointed but is actually pulled down, when the tongue is pointed
upward, with the result that a small in-~urve is formed at the tip of the
tongue. In such bad cases of tongue-tie, it is physically impossible for the
pupil to assume the proper position of the base of the tongue for the pharyn-
geal resonation of the tone. A bad tongue-tie renders it impossible for the
singer to produce a tone which is not throaty. If the tongue instrument is used
in such cases, the only effect is to bunch up the base of the tongue against
the posterior wall of the laryngeal pharynx, thereby engendering extreDle
throatiness. Fortunately this condition can be cured by very simple surgery.

BreathingMuscles and Attack

The third phase of the attack depends upon the breathing mecha-
nism. The muscles of the thorax must come into tension at the exact
moment at which the singer attacks the tone, and not before or
after. Furthermore, the inspiratory muscles must be in the process
of tensing through, and a little after, the moment of the inception
of the tone.
Inspiration
In inspiring the breath, the chest must never be involved in the
slightest degree and the shoulders must be relaxed. For this reason
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 A B
Flg. 24-Posture
The assumption of a proper posture is extremely important because it has
a large influence on the ability of the singer to hold the breath with the lower
baclc rib and diaphragmatic muscles, and also because it influences the tension
on the neck muscles. A and B indicate the proper posture. The head is raised
but neither stuck out nor held back too far. The shoulders and chest are
dropped. The body is erect. The back of the neck and the small of the baclc 1

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 C D E

F4g. 24-Posture (concluded)

are as slightly curved as possible, i.e., the spine is as straight as possible.
The upper part of the legs is relatively horizontal. The lcnees are slightly
bent. The feet are slightly pointed out, separated a short distance and one
foot is placed a short distance in front of the other. The body is firmly and
freely balanced on both feet, which are squarely set upon the lloor. The body
is neither tilted backwards nor forwards and the muscles of the arms, neck,
chest and shoulders are relaxed.
C-Incorrect posture; the shoulders and chest are raised and the head is
dropped and pulled in.
D-Incorrect posture; the chest is forced down and the back and neck are
curved badly. The head is pulled back and in.
E-Incorrect posture; the upper part of the legs are bent backwards from
the hips, thus throwing the spine out of alignment and forcing two curves
of the spine in the small of the back and at the neck. The head is stuck out.
The weight of the body is on the heels.
There are, of course, innumerable wrong postures which can be assumed.
In some cases the entire body is too tense. In other cases it is too relaxed.
All cases of wrong posture serve to engender tension of the neck, chest and
shoulder muscles, and to destroy the proper equilibrium, or "hold," of the
breathing muscles.

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 the posture of the body is most important.' ( See Fig. 24.) The
expansion takes place between the lower back ribs which move out
and back, and the diaphragm, which moves out, or forward. From
the singer's standpoint it is the forward, or out, movement of the
diaphragm and the back, or out, movement of the ribs which must
be considered. And here again we come to the vital question of
equilibrium. Equilibrium implies a series of forces which pull in
different directions and are completely equalized so that the system
is static and cannot move. Movement is concomitant with a break-
down of equilibrium. The reader must associate in his mind balanced
tensions, which inhibit movement of the members involved, and
their equilibrium. The equilibrium of the breathing system is of
' fundamental importance-it implies holding the breathing muscles
in tension. ( See Fig. 25 A & B.) This balanced tension, in which
both the inspiratory and expiratory muscles take part, co-ordinates
with the closure of the glottis. It is this co-ordination whicL makes
legitimate phonation possible. Such holding of the breathing muscles
is exactly the reverse from the idea of "breath control" which is
based upon the concept of a controlled stream of air which is blown
out through the glottis. "Breath control" implies movement of the
breathing muscles, while properly-produced tones can occur only
when these muscles "hold" in equilibrium.

"Out" Gesture-to Establish lnspiratory Tension

Just before the pupil attacks a tone he must inspire with his dia-
phragm and lower ribs. Before the inspiration is quite complete he
must start to sing on inspiratory tension; that is, he must continue
this expanding-inspiratory-gesture of the muscles of the dia-
phragm and lower back ribs through the attack without relaxing
them or making an "in"-i.e. expiratory-gesture. This "out," or
inspiratory, gesture must be made smoothly, and relatively slowly,
and must continue through, and a little after, the moment of
attack. The breath must be inspired as easily as possible and the
necessary degree of tension, which depends upon the pitch and
loudness of the tone to be sung, must be applied for the attack of the
tone. After the breath has been inspired, the continuation of the "out"
gesture occurs, through the attack, because of the tension on the
breathing muscles which is necessary in order to attack the tone prop-
erly. The final expansion is caused by tension on the breathing
muscles. The inspiration of the breath ceases at the moment of attack.
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 Fig. 25-Holding the Breath
This illustration shows the manner in which the breath is "held" for phona-
tion. Note that both the back and front of the torso, at the lower back ribs
and at the diaphragm, are expanded and, as indicated by the arrows on the
drawing at the left, the pull is downward and out at the diaphragm, and back-
ward and out at the lower back ribs. The singer is holding the expansion
and pressing out against the in-pull . There must be no "give" on the muscles
which hold this out-pull during the entire execution of a musical phrase or
figure. These two pulls, out and back at the back, and downward and out at
the front, must exactly balance and hold in equilibrium. As the tension in-
creases for a rise in pitch or a decrease in intensity, the posture and equilib-
rium, i.e., the balance between the two groups of muscles, must at all times
be maintained. Note that the chest and shoulders should not interfere with
this "hold" of the diaphragmatic against the back rib muscles.
This condition of balanced "held" expansion must be established at the mo-
ment of attack.
The tension must be established in the abdomen, but it should never spread
up into the rectus abdominis muscles, the chest, and the shoulders.

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 Tensionon Laryngealand PharyngealMusclesin Attack
Note in this connection that the tension for the attack starts at
the larynx and tongue and goes on down into the breathing muscles,
the tension on which muscles is not completed until after the initia-
tion of the tone. In this way the closure of the glottis is established
a split fraction of a second before the breath pressure is completely
applied. This closes the valve and stops all forced expulsion of the
breath. If the closure of the glottis occurs too late-after the tension
is applied to the breathing muscles-the valve does not close, and
the singer is only able to produce tone by means of a forced expira-
tion which must then be checked by means of the neck and tongue
muscles, i.e., throaty technic. Of course, the closure of the glottis is
intimately associated with the definition of the pitch and loudness
concepts and with the tensing of the tongue muscles for the shaping
of the pharyngeal cavities for the pitch and vowel concepts. In other
words, if the mental picture of the tone is not absolutely and clearly
defined, the laryngeal and pharyngeal adjustments are incorrect and
uncertain, the glottis does not close properly, and any accuracy of
adjustment is impossible. The vocal apparatus does not work with-
out a reason-without a mental picture! Of course the self-listener
always has a blurred tone concept and is, therefore, never able to
close the glottis without the use of his neck muscles.
Thus, for the attack, the throat-larynx and tongue-leads. The
tension in the breathing muscles is not completed until a fraction
of a second after the throat tension has been established. If the
thorax leads and the larynx and tongue lag, the glottis does not
close because of tension on its own intrinsic muscles and the breath
is, perforce, blown out.
I Despite the fact that the throat '1eads," the attack should actually
vbe one single, properly-timed, co-ordinated act.

Maintenanceof "Hold"
/
Having once established this "hold," the singer must never, at
any time, let go (relax) until he takes a new breath . Furthermore ,
this "hold" must always persist, even through the production of
consonants and changes of pitch, throughout the singing of a musi-
cal phrase . It is imperative for it to be maintained while the pitch
is being changed, despite the fact that the degree of tension in-
creases as the pitch rises and lessens as it descends. Thus, the equili-
brium of the breathing muscles must be maintained, in spite of the
changes in the degrees of tension, until a new breath is inspired.
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 "Give" on the BreathingMuscles
There are a great many ways in which the pupil may "give,"-i.e .,
relax the breathing muscles. The most prevalent is by means of a
movement, up or down, of the chest and shoulders. These gestures
translate into a "give" of the muscles of the back. The diaphragm
may move in, out, up or down. Any such movements automatically
destroy the equilibrium of the system, and the singer commences
to blow breath, thereby destroying legitimate phonation. ( See
Fig. 24.)
Pre-tensionand Interference
The tension on the muscles used in phonation must occur for this
act. If any muscle becomes tense before the moment of attack, this
muscle cannot come into tension for this act.JSuch tension on any
such muscle may be called "pre-tension." Pre-tension on any group
of muscles used in phonation constitutes the most pernicious form
of interference, or antagonistic muscular action. J

Work Done in Productionof Tone

A certain amount of work or energy must be expended to produce
any given tone. This varies to a~enormous degree, according to the
state of technical proficiency of the singer. Under ideal conditions
the effort which must be expended is determined by the amount
of work necessary to tense the muscles which are, and s~uld be,
used ~phonation. In practice other muscles oome mto tension.
These muscles come under two headings:
1. The interfering muscles which co-ordinate-incorrectly-with
phonation. "Pre-tension" comes under this heading.
2. Muscles which come into tension but which do not co-ordinate
with phonation.
Both these groups of muscles should, of course, be relaxed and,
during the process of training the voice, the tension on them should
always be lessening. In bad cases, however, the tension on these
two groups of muscles is extremely high, under which circumstances
the work which must be done in order to sing is enormously aug-
mented.
We could state this in the form of an equation.
Thus, if:
W=Total muscular tension ( i.e., total work done by singer when
he produces a given tone)
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 X=Tension on muscles which should be used in phonation
Y=Tension on interfering muscles
Z=Tension on muscles not co-ordinated with phonation
Then: W=X+2Y+Z.
This means that the "work done" ( muscular tension) required in
order to sing a given tone is equal to the "work done" in order to
tense the muscles which should be used in phonation, plus the
"work done" on interfering muscles which co-ordinate with phona-
tion, but should not do so, plus the "work done" in order to over-
come this tension, plus the "work done" on muscles which become
tense but do not co-ordinate with phonation.
In view of the fact that both Y and Z can be of any magnitude,
the reader will readily understand why it is that the singer who has
been trained incorrectly, or who uses his voice badly, is forced to
make so distressingly great an effort. In extreme cases it would be
conceivable for the tensions Y and Z to become so great that it
would be impossible for the singer to produce tone at all. The ten-
sion Z does not count in producing the tone and the tension Y must
be overcome by an equal tension if the singer is to produce sound
at all. Thus, he can do an enormous amount of work, i.e., make a
tremendous effort, and actually be doing no work at all, as applied
, to the production of tone.
Apart from any other consideration, then, it will be seen how
important a part of the teacher's work lies in the elimination of
interfering and incorrect tension when the pupil is singing. When
he has succeeded in reducing both Y and Z to minimum propor-
tions, the work done by the pupil in order to produce tone, is by
no means great; in fact he is then able to sing with consummate
ease.

Fallaciesin TensingExtraneousMuscles
The idea that certain muscles, not used in phonation, should be
tensed to "support" the voice is entirely fallacious. There is a
"school of thought" which believes that the legs and buttocks should
be tensed to "support the tone." The idea musf"be that tension on
muscles not used in phonation helps those muscles which are used.
This is an absolute fallacy. While the muscles used in phonation
must be tensed for that act, all the other muscles in the body should
be in a condition of optimum tonus. This means that the singer
should be in a state of freedom and alertness, but that the muscles
not used in phonation should be relatively relaxed.
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 One teacher pointed out that he believed in the "breath clutch"
which he associated with tension on the buttocks. One need hardly
discuss the absurdity of such notions. The only effect of tension on
the muscles not used in phonation is to increase the effort the singer
is making and to radically impair his muscular efficiency. If a tennis
player were to tense his left arm, while striking the ball with the
racket held in his right hand, this tension would probably so impair
his ability to make accurate muscular adjustments that he would
miss the ball altogether, or at any rate, stroke badly. The same
thing exactly applies to the singer.
If the "pre-tension" on the muscles used in phonation is too great
it is quite impossible for the singer to produce a legitimate tone.
Complete "pre-tension" on this group of muscles would render the
production of tone impossible.

"Timing"of Tension
The pupil who tenses his entire body and then tries to attack the
tone becomes virtually paralyzed. He is making a tremendous effort,
but he is doing no work at all-he is only fighting himself. The
· proper preparation for the attack depends upon the release, the
"toning up," of the entire muscular system of the body, but it is
most important for him to relax, as much as possible, the muscles
which are about to be used in phonation. The throaty singer pre-
pares himself by tensing and then throwing this tension into reverse.
The properly-trained singer prepares himself by relaxing and, then,
he is able to "time" the tension and bring the proper muscles into
action at the moment of attack.
"Timing" is of fundamental importance in singing. When the
singer is performing he must graduate the degrees of tension for the
pitches and loudnesses of the tones he has to sing with great preci-
sion. He must never relax between tones. Thus, he should relax only
when he takes a breath, and then he must relax as completely as
possible. These changes of tension apply to the muscles of the
larynx, tongue and thorax. They depend, for adjustment, on the
pitch changes, during the performance of a melodic line, in which
the loudness should not be varied on any single tone. They must
be perfectly "timed" and must co-ordinate with each pitch change
with absolute precision. If the pitch is not centered properly, such
accurate "timing" is impossible to accomplish. When the skill in
"timing" and the pitch precision are not of a high degree of accuracy,
it is impossible for the singer to interpret a melodic line with a
really "open" technic.
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 "Timing"and Changes of Tension(Pitch)
If the tone is produced properly the adjusbnent between the
laryngeal muscles ( arytenoid and thyroid) alters with each change
of pitch and loudness. When singing a melodic line it is pitch-not
loudness-which need be taken into account, when considering the
laryngeal muscles, because any change of loud!less on a single tone
-swelling or making a decrescendo ( except for special effects)-
destroys the How of the melody. This type of "emotional" effect is
cheap, unmusical and offensive to the ear of the musician. Thus, it
is the accurate co-ordinations of the laryngeal muscles for pitch
with which we are most concerned. The degree of tension and the
co-ordination of the laryngeal muscles change with the pitch, but
the tension should not relax until a new breath is inspired.
When the tension relaxes, the pitch will probably drop and the
singer is then forced to slur into the next tone. This .is disastrous
because, with each slur, the co-ordination of the laryngeal muscles
goes further and further out of adjustment and, after a relatively
few tones, the singer, who is trying to sing with an "open" technic,
will "tie up" and, in bad cases, may be unable to go on singing.
Thus, the singer must develop a high degree of skill in "timing"
the tensions and in holding tension without "giving," if he wants
to sing legitimately. In conjunction with this skill, his intonation
must be virtually perfect. Singing "off key" is very unpleasant, but
slurring and "giving" are much worse faults, from the technical
standpoint, because they eliminate the possibility of any real singing.
No singer whose voice is really well-produced deviates from the
pitch. The ability to sing a melody properly depends upon the
establishment of tension on all the muscles used in phonation at
the moment of attack, and the holding of the tension until the next
breath is taken, plus the ability to vary the degree of tension-
without "give"-with the rise and fall of the pitch.

ThroatyTechnic and Slurring

The throaty singer has no such problem, because he is only blow-
ing air through a constriction, and no changes in the co-ordination
of the laryngeal muscles, nor "tuning" of the pharyngeal resonance
cavities for the pitch and vowel, occur. Because the registration is
mixed, the laryngeal co-ordination for pitch does not change and
he can, therefore, slur, "give," "choke-off" the tone and destroy the
melodic line, with cheap unmusical whines and wails, as much as
he likes, and he can go on wailing at will. The constriction is always
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there and as long as he holds on to it he can go on making a noise
and calling it singing. His "art" requires no technical skill and his
pedormance demands only the interpretive ability of the "torch
singer." So long as he is satisfied with making his emotional effects
merely by slurring into and out of the tone and by fading the loud-
ness in and out he has nothing to wony about.

Equilibrium-Larynx, Tongue, Thorax

The establishment of equilibrium in the larynx depends upon
the equalized develo ment of the a enoid and thyroid muscles.
The establishment of equilibrium in the throat epen s upon e
development and proper co-ordination of the tongue muscles. Fur-
thermore, this equilibrmm must be established not only in each
part involved in phonation, i.e., thorax, ]a:cynxand ton~e, but also
between these parts individually. ( See Fig. 1.) Thus, e pressure
of tlieoreath should not exceed that required by the given state of
development of the laryngeal muscles. Breathing exercises which
develop excessive strength in the breathing muscles, before the
laryngeal and tongue muscles have been developed, are harmful.
Actually, this muscular development occurs just through singing.
While it is the excess of expiratory over inspiratory tension that
builds up the pressure of the breath against the closure of the
glottis, the problem, from the standpoint of the singer, rests pri-
marily with the question of holding the proper degree of inspiratory
tension. This balance of expiratory with inspiratory tension for
phonation does not occur for any other act. Thus, the proper func-
tion of the breathing muscles for singing can only be experienced
and attained by singing. No other act co-ordinates the breathing
muscles in !l similar function-therefore, no form of breathing exer-
cise helps the singer's control of the breath pressure which is the
motive force used in phonation. Singing develops the co-ordinate
tension of the expiratory and inspiratory muscles and develops
these muscles, in co-ordination, when phonation is pedormed prop-
erly. Breathing exercises, pedormed without singing, develop these
muscles out of co-ordination and are bound to intedere with the
proper balance between them, thereby only doing the singer's voice •
technical harm.

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 Balanced Development and Energy
The strength of the laryngeal muscles must match the strength
of the tongue muscles. If the opening action of the tongue muscles
exceeds the strength developed in the larynx ( and this sometimes
occurs in the process of training the voice) the breath expulsion
will suddenly become excessive. This occurs also when an excessive
breath pressure is built up. Under such circumstances the pupil
must be forced to produce a tone which is loud enough to meet
the "opening." H he can do this, the progress will be very rapid,
because the pharyngeal improvement is met and established. H he
fails to meet the "opening," with the extra energy required, it is
lost, and progress will cease until he can be persuaded to exert
himself to the necessary degree. As the intensity rises from soft
( P.P.) up to the normal loudness ( M.F.) the breath expulsion goes
down, because the glottis closes more completely when the technic
is correct. It is far easier for the pupil to sing a full than a soft tone,
provided that his throat is not constricted. Thus, the louder tone
which must be produced, under such circumstances, requires less
effort, but more energy, than does an overly soft one.

Development of Balance
It will be seen then that the teacher must work on all three phases
of the technic-thorax, larynx and pharynx ( tongue )-simultaneously,
and endeavor, to the best of his ability, to keep the development
of these three phases in line. In accomplishing this end his work is
simplified and immeasurably abetted by the use of the physical
manipulations which have been described. Thus, when development
of the laryngeal muscles is indicated, he should use the manipula-
tions described for working on these muscles. When tp.e tongue
muscles need development, he should use the tongue instrument.
When it is the breathing muscles which should be worked on, he
can help this phase of the technic by doing everything in his power
to stop the particular movement, or "give," which indicates the
lack of "hold" by these muscles and which is characteristic of the
pupil with whom he is working. He has to tum from one phase to
the other as the pupil progresses. First it may be the larynx which
requires work, then the tongue, then the breathing, and these three
phases may occur in any order and keep changing in their require-
ments. The process is now very direct and far more efficient than
it has ever been in the past, but it is not easy, and the teacher must
not only understand how to handle the problem, but he must also
be willing to work very hard.
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 Pure RegistrationEssential
It is absolutely impossible for the teacher to make any real im-
provement whatever in the pupil's voice, unless he thoroughly
understands the process of purifying and developing the registers.
No opening of the throat is possible if the laryngeal muscles have
not been developed, and this cannot be accomplished without the
proper work on registration. Work on the registers alone does little
or no good if it is not accompanied by work on the opening of the
laryngeal pharynx ( the tongue), and both are unavailing if the
singer is not taught to establish the ''hold" on his breathing muscles
instead of blowing air through a constriction.

Absolute Co-ordinationFinalStage of Perfection

In the final analysis, when the technic is perfect, the registers are
absolutely balanced and the lower register can be carried up over
almost the entire range-thus, a great woman singer can produce
even a high C in the lower register when she wa,nts to sing fortis-
simo. At the same time the registration is completely co-ordinated
and the throat is held open at all intensities over the entire range,
which covers at least three octaves. Of course, the entire system
of muscles used in phonation is completely balanced and in equi-
librium, and all interfering and constrictor muscles are relaxed and
out of action. This is an ideal condition which is found only in the
case of a supremely great singer. Caruso and Destinn are two of
the few singers who even approached this state of perfection. In
training the pupil's voice the teacher must remember that this is the
goal. The pupil who attains a reasonable degree of technical pro-
ficiency can become a very fine artist

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 Chapter 6

THROATINESS
Neck Muscles
When the voice is produced properly the muscles of the neck
are relaxed. The glottis is closed by its own intrinsic muscle-the
arytenoid ( the muscle which approximates the arytenoid cartilages
and thus closes the glottis-see Fig. 2 F )-and the throat is held
open by means of the tongue muscles.
When the voice is throaty, the arytenoid muscle does not come
into proper tension; therefore, the glottis does not close by itseH.
To produce sound, this closure is brought about by means of tension
on the muscles of the neck and jaw.
The principal muscles of the neck which come into action in
throaty singing are:
I. Sterno-mastoid
2. Sterno-hyoid
3. Sterno-thyroid
4. Thyro-hyoid
5. Omo-hyoid (See Fig. 26.)

Fig. 26-Muscles of the Neck

The illustration on the opposite page shows the principal muscles of the neck
which come into tension when the technic is throaty.
Note the fact that the sterno-mastoid muscles are attached to the mastoid
bone and, when in tension, press against the larynx, thereby providing a most
efficient conduction of sound to the inner ear. The greater the tension on
these muscles, the more efficiently they will act as conductors of the sound
directly to the ear and also the throatier the tone will become.
While this is the most prominent of the neck muscles, the function of the
other neck muscles enumerated in the text is probably just as important for
the establishment of constriction and for squeezing the larynx. There are a
very large number of combinations of tensions on the neck muscles which
are found to occur in practice.
The muscles of the neck are brought into tension because of movements of
the head, which shorten the neck, and because of tension on the chest. which
has been raised, and has, therefore, served the same purpose. They can also
be brought into tension through tension on the jaw, especially when this member
has been "set" in the middle position. One, or more, of these actions always
occurs in co-ordination with the production of a throaty tone, and very often
they all occur simultaneously.
Because of the attachments of these muscles, it will readily be seen that
they can be brought into tension from above ( head and jaw), from below
( chest and shoulders), or both.
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 -·
ff,
,co__
:::
........

I\~«
#////,-:;
;.:;::.

--~....---
...
-;~":\
J

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 Figure 27 shows the neck muscles of a young singer who had
studied for several years with a typical "radio technic" teacher . This
teacher has been responsible for numerous cases of nodules on the
vocal cords. One glance at the illustration should indicate just why!

Fig. 27-0ver-developed Neck Muscles of a Badl,y Trained Singer

Note the prominence of the stemo-mastoid muscles. Note, also, the head,
which has been pulled in and back, and the chest, which has been raised and
tensed. The jaw is locked in the middle position, and the mouth and lips are
set for the mouth resonance adjustment .

Tension on Neck Muscles Causes Nodules

These highly developed neck muscles perform the function which
should belong to the arytenoid muscle. ( See Fig. 2 F.) The glottis
is not closed by means of this muscle, because the singer is blowing
air, and the arytenoid muscle reftexly relaxes when the breathing
act is initiated . The closure is then brought about primarily by
means of tension on the neck muscles. Any such external closure
brings the vocal cords together unevenly, so that they are more
tightly pressed together at one point of their length than at another,
because of this external pressure. Therefore, they are more or less
bound to rub together at one or more points. This friction of the
unevenly approximated vocal cords often brings about the forma-
tion of nodules which are actually com-like growths. The greater
the development of the neck muscles, the greater the danger of the
formation of nodules becomes.
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 Cure of Nodules
Nodules can be cured very easily-simply by training the voice
properly. The purification of the lower register, the opening of
the throat and the releasing of the neck muscles, plus some steps
towards the development of pure, balanced registration, will soon
alleviate, and ultimately cure, this condition. Without proper train-
ing nodules may disappear, if the singer goes through a period of
absolute silence, but they soon recur if the technic is not changed.

Forcing of Voice and Neck Control

When the breath is blown through a constriction brought about
by tension on muscles of the tongue and neck, the singer is "forcing"
his voice. The harder he blows the air, the more he "forces." Thus,
the production of loud tones sung with the neck-controlled, "breath-
control" technic is always injurious. As a matter of fact, any tone
produced in this manner is "forced," no matter how soft it may be.
Forcing is not a matter of intensity, but of blowing air against a
larynx which is being squeezed by the neck muscles. When the
voice is produced properly it is beneficial for the singer to produce
full, free tones. Only throaty, constricted singing is "forced." True,
when the throaty singer swells the tone he forces his voice more
and more with each increase in loudness. "Open," free, full-throated
singing, on the other hand, benefits and develops the voice.
It is most important for the singer to realize what "forcing" really
is. Constricted singing is generally, basically, very soft. "Radio
technic" singers are barely audible, but they are forcing their voices
with every tone they produce. Caruso's voice improved every year-
he sang out loud practically all the time, and he was always singing.

Saving of Voice Unnecessary with Correct Technic

There is a very foolish notion current to the effect that the voice
must be "saved." It has even been said that the tenor can sing just
so many high C's and that when he has exhausted the supply he is
through. This is only too true-when the voice is throaty/ If it is
produced properly, he can sing as many as he likes and it does him
good to sing them. Singing is a natural function, if it is performed
in a technically correct manner, and the voice does not, under such
circumstances, "wear out." If the voice is abused, it "wears out"
very quicldy.

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 Sterno-mastoidMusclesand Throatineu
Returning to Fig. 27: Notice the extraordinary development of
the sterno-mastoid muscles. These muscles are always in tension
when the technic is throaty and they are the most prominent of the
interfering neck muscles. The tone was "white," thin, shrill, throaty
and pinched. There was also a pronounced, rapid tongue tremolo.
Under normal singing conditions the head was pulled down and in,
and these muscles came into a high state of tension, which tension
increased as the pitch ascended. This girl was a "squeak voice"
coloratura. The very high tones were sung in an absolute "squeak
voice" with the maximum possible constriction and sometimes they
even shut off altogether. In this sort of technic the larynx is raised
and squeezed together by these muscles in conjunction with a
rigid jaw lock. They develop enormous strength and in ~e become
so enlarged as to be noticeably prominent even when the singer
is not phonating. It is interesting to note that practically any voice-
even the deepest contralto-can be made to sound like a "squeak-
voice" coloratura, if sufficient constriction of this type can be estab-
lished. This is, unfortunately, not very difficult to accomplish.

Reductionof Sterno-mastoidTensionby Manipulation

The first procedure in dealing with this voice was to try to release
the control of these sterno-mastoid muscles by holding up the
singer's head. The effort required to accomplish this end, against
the extremely strong pull of these muscles, was almost incredible
but, when it could finally be done, a vastly improved, far less throaty,
pinched tone immediately resulted. For a long time it was im-
possible for this unfortunate girl to hold up her own bead, however
hard she might try to do so.
Her lower register was completely absent. However, with the
aid of the thyroid manipulation, the "pulling in" of this register was
not difficult to accomplish, although it was a long time before she
could produce anything other than a very "white," thin tone. The
registration was not mixed because she had always sung very softly.

ExcessivelyDropped Larynxand Neck Muscles

Where the teacher insists upon a dropped larynx, the squeezing
action is brought about by means of the development of the other
neck muscles more than by the sterno-mastoids. There are cases
where the muscular development in the lower part of the front of
the singer's neck is so pronounced that it looks like a bad goiter.
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 ThyroidManipulationand ExcessivelyDropped Larynx
The entire larynx should not descend when the thyroid cartilage
is pulled down. In fact, when the muscles are so relaxed that the
larynx does drop when this manipulation is applied, work on
the genio-hyoid muscle and tongue muscles is indicated before the
thyroid manipulation can be employed . Thus, the hyoid bone must
be held up, as described, and the tongue instrument used, until
the tongue and hyoid bone assume their proper position. Even then,
the thyroid manipulation must be employed cautiously, and the
pressure exerted must never be great enough to pull down the entire
larynx to any marked degree.
The sole purpose of the thyroid manipulation is to "pull in" more
thyroid tension, i.e., to help the intrinsic, laryngeal muscles, not to
"position" the larynx itself. This is accomplished by means of work
on the muscles of the tongue and hyoid bone from which the larynx
is suspended.

ThroatySinging
Two forms of throaty tecbnic manifest themselves in somewhat
different developments of neck muscles. The first is based upon
"squeakvoice," or shrill, "white," relatively soft singing with the
larynx raised and the tongue drawn up and back, and tensed. The
second is based upon rather loud, thick, or very throaty, loud, white
mixed-register singing with the larynx dropped too far and the
tongue dropped down and back, and tensed. ( See Fig. 12 B & C.)
In both forms~e jaw is practically always locked in the middle
position. Of course, when the technic is correct, the muscles of the
neck are relaxed and are not brought into tension in co-ordination
with phonation. The better the technic, the less prominent the neck
muscles become.

Head, Chest and Neck Muscles

The neck muscles come into tension when the chest is raised and
the head is dropped, stuck out, pulled in or inclined back too far.
When in tension they actually squeeze the larynx, and mechanically
close the glottis by external pressure in varying degrees of tension,
accordingto the amount of throatiness ( antagonistic tension)
present. The problem is then to relax these muscles, while the genio-
glossus muscle holds the tongue firmly in position, and the genio-
hyoid muscle bolds the byoid bone in position. The elimination of
this tension on the neck muscles is a straightforward matter, but
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by no means an easy one. Because the sterno-mastoid, sterno-hyoid
and the sterno-thyroid muscles are attached to the chest ( see
Fig. 26), any raising of this member tends to shorten the neck and
throw them into action. This provides as vital a reason for the non-
involvement of the chest in phonation as the one mentioned in the
discussion of the proper action of the breathing muscles. Further-
more, any downward or backward movement of the head, which
also tends to shorten the neck, brings these muscles into action.
Actually, both movements-those of the chest and head-occur with
throaty sin~g. The chest must not be raised and the head must
be held up, so that the neck is as long as possible, because the con-
traction of the neck muscles shortens the neck. Neither the head
nor the chest should ever be moved during phonation. When these
muscles contract ( come into tension) the head is pulled down, or
the chest is pulled up, or both movements occur. It is important to
note that, if the head is raised, these muscles relax but, if it is held
back too far or stuck out, they are thrown into tension.

Head and SpineAlignment

When the head is tilted too far backward it forms a curvature
at the top of the spine. This curvature is generally balanced \\ith
another curvature in the small of the back. ( See Fig. 24.) It will be
seen then that there is a physiological association between a "give"
of the back muscles and a tilting backward of the head. The "give"
of the back (breathing) muscles is associated with a movement of
the chest, which tends to bring the neck muscles into action. This
gesture is then associated with the head movement which serves
the same end. Thus, the double curvature of the spine, at the back
of the neck and in the small of the back, will throw the neck muscles
into tension from their upper and lower attachments and at the same
time initiate the breathing act-blowing. This often occurs with the
throaty singer, and the teacher must do everything in his power
to inhibit both movements, or "gives." It is interesting to note the
co-ordination of the head movement with the breathing action, and
to observe the fact that, because phonation is a single, co-ordinated
act, such co-ordinations are always apt to occur.
Some singers ( especially coloraturas), whose technic is extremely
throaty, not only pull their heads down but also pull them in and
to one side. Any such movement is extremely harmful; it not only
brings the neck muscles into a high degree of tension, but it also
pulls the larynx out of position and tilts it sideways. The controlling
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neck muscles are then used unevenly, and the intrinsic laryngeal
muscles are employed in a distressingly distorted manner.
The head must be held erect, perfectly centered and absolutely
still during phonation.

Relaxationof Neck MusclesEssential

Here then, is one of the fundamental phases in the attainment of
a proper technic. The muscles of the neck must be put out of action
-relaxed. This relaxed condition of the neck muscles depends largely
upon the assumption of a proper head position in conjunction with
an absolute inhibition of any movement whatever of the head, and
also upon the dropping ( not forcing down) of the chest and
shoulders, in conjunction with the inhibition of any tension on, or
movement of, these members during phonation. It is also associated
with a release of the muscles of the jaw. A jaw lock and a high
degree of tension on the muscles of the neck nearly always occur
simultaneously.

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 Chapt61'7

THE JAW (MANIPULATION)

Not only does the setting of the jaw help in the formation of
a mouth resonance adjustment and thereby reflexly close the
throat, but also tension on the jaw tends to bring the neck muscles
into action.
Droppingthe Jaw
It is important to note that the jaw swings down more or less
perpendicularly until a certain point of opening is reached. Further
opening is then attained by moving it down and back. The opening
of the jaw occurs then in two phases. First: clownto a certain point.
Second: Down and back. The pupil must be able to go through this
middle position and make the complete opening, if he is to put the
jaw out of function in phonation. ( See Fig. 28.)

Middle or Lock Positionand Neck Muscles

The neck muscles can be brought into tension very easily, by
means of tension on the jaw, when it is in the middle, or locked,
position. When it is completely opened, it is almost impossible for
the singer to tense his neck muscles by means of tension on the
muscles of the jaw. It is not nearly as easy to tense the neck
muscles in this manner when the jaw is nearly closed, as when it is
in the middle position. ( See Fig. 29.)
It is important to observe the physiological relationship between
the tensing of the jaw and the bringing into tension of the neck
muscles. It will be seen that the setting of the jaw for the formation
of the vowel ( i.e., mouth resonance adjustment) associates physio-
logically with the neck tension employed in throaty singing and
vice versa.
Another important point arises when we realize that it is from
the middle position of the jaw that the neck tension can most readily
be developed and it is also from this position of the jaw that most
of the mouth vowels are formed.
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 '

Fig. 28-The Properly Opened Jaw

This illustration indicates the proper position of the jaw and lips when
complete opening has been attained. The singer should always either sing
with his mouth almost closed or with it wide open in this position.
Note that the comers of the lips are drawn tight and that the mouth is
more or less rectangular. Some of the teeth, upper and lower, are showing. The
Jaw has been pulled down and then down and back. This final down and
back gesture is essential. The head is raised and is not stuck out, pulled in,
dropped or thrown back. There is no pursing or spreading of the lips.
It is impossible for the singer to produce free, open tones until the jaw has
been completely released in this manner.

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 !

Fig. 29-Middle or "Locket!' Position of the Jaw

This shows the worst jaw position which the singer can assume. Here the
jaw has been dropped into the middle position and not pulled down and
back. Notice that it is somewhat stuck out and is in a high state of tension.
The jaw drops easily into this position and does not "lock" or come into
tension until phonation has been initiated. It is from this jaw-lock that all the
worst forms of constricted technic emanate. ,
From this jaw-lock, the muscles of the neck can most efficiently be brought
into tension. Jaw tremolos, etc., emanate primarily from this "locked," middle
position of the jaw. The neck muscles cannot be actuated from the jaw when
it is fully opened in the manner shown in Fig. 28.

Tongueand Jaw Lock(MiddlePosition)

Still one other point becomes apparent in this connection: Relaxa-
tion of the tongue muscles is associated with this middle position
into which the jaw drops when it is relaxed. Hence, the tongue tends
to draw back ( up or down), and .close the throat, when the jaw
sets in the middle, or lock position. Thus, when the jaw is dropped
into the middle position the tongue is apt to recede into the throat
and the neck muscles come into action, so that relaxation of the
tongue and jaw at the moment of attack manifests itself in the
establishment of all the tensions necessary for absolute constriction
( throaty singing).
Jaw Tremolo
The complete opening of the jaw is often difficult to accomplish.
Where the pupil has been subjected to a course of incorrect train-
ing, his jaw may have become very rigidly locked. This lock nearly
always occurs in the middle position. To find this dangerous middle
position, the jaw is merely relaxed and dropped as far as it will go
without any effort-hung. Thus, the relaxed dropping of the jaw
manifests itself in phonation as tension in its worst form-jaw lock.
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It is from th.is middle position that all of the most pronounced and
harmful jaw locks emanate. The m<>stdisagreeable jaw tremolo
( tetanic flutter of the jaw), a most pernicious fault, always occurs
from the middle, or locked, position. It is often accompanied by a
tongue tremolo, because it usually starts as a tongue tremolo from
which the tetanic tension spreads to the jaw which then also starts
to shake. Such tongue and jaw tremolos, in a pronounced form, may
produce a pitch flutter of a fifth or even more. This flutter may
be as slow as three a second. It is most disagreeable to listen to,
and is very injurious to the vocal apparatus. It indicates extreme
throatiness accompanied by intense jaw and neck tension as well
as tension on the tongue muscles which are antagonistic to the genio-
hyo-glossus muscles. It is always accompanied by extreme throatiness
and neck tension and often, but not always, by mixed registration.

Jaw and Lips

In all these cases, the jaw must be completely released-opened-
or the pupil can never learn to sing. When the jaw is fully opened,
the comers of the lips are tight. This tightness is only indicative of
complete jaw opening when the lips are slightly raised off the teeth
and not spread or over-pouted. ( See Fig. 28.) They can be tightened
by mere spreading, but under these circumstances, the jaw is not
fully opened. This gesture is generally harmful, because it tends
to lock the jaw and shape the mouth for a "white," mouthed vowel
( throaty tone). ( See Fig. 30.)

A
Fig. 30-Inco"ect Mouth Positions
A-This shows the spread lips and locked jaw of the throaty singer who gen-
erally produces a "white," or shrill, throaty tone. Note that the jaw is more
or less in the middle position and the lips are spread and shaped for the
vowel. This position of the jaw and lips never occurs when the technic is
oonect.
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 B
Fig. 80-Incorrect Mouth Positions (conUnued)
B-This shows the pursed lips and locked jaw of the singer whose technic
is throaty and who generally produces a thick, throaty tone. Note that the
lips are pursed and the corners drawn in, and that the teeth are, in this case,
completely covered. In some cases the upper lip can be drawn up by means
of the nose and some teeth may show. This pursed position of tlie lips pulls
in the cheeks and forms a mouth cavity for the production of a thick, throaty
tone. It never occurs when the technic is correct.

C
Fig. 30--lncorrect Mouth Positions (concluded)
C-Here the jaw is locked and the corners of the lips are pulled down. This
position of the lips and jaw is always associated with a horribly throaty tone.
As a result of this mouth position very great tension is induced in the muscles
of the neck.
A large variety of wrong jaw and lip positions could be illustrated, but
these four cases ( the jaw locked in the middle position, the spread lips, the
pursed lips and the lips with the corners pulled down) indicate tlie four
most frequently encountered types of jaw-lock and mouth-vowel positions
employed when the technic is throaty. Of course, many throaty singers em-
ploy more than one jaw set and lips position and in virtually every case of
throaty singing the jaw is found to be locked.

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 There are, of course, an almost infinite number of different jaw
and lip positions which occur in co-ordination with the production
of a throaty tone. The definitely spread and the pronouncedly
pursed, or pouted, lips occur most frequently. Another lip "set,"
which is often observed, is associated with a mouth, vowel position
in which the comers of the lips are pulled down and the lower teeth
are either completely covered or very prominently displayed. ( See
Fig. 30 C.)
For most of the middle tones, and when the music moves too
rapidly for the singer to be able to open his jaw completely, a
re'latioelyclosed position should be maintained. In this relatively
closed position, the jaw is dropped slightly and the lips are held
away from the teeth-upper and lower-but they should not be too
obtrusively stuck out, pouted or spread. This position is shown in
Fig. 31. In both the open and closed positions ( the only two posi-
tions which the singer should assume during phonation) there
should never be the slightest sense of shaping the lips or cheeks,
or setting the jaw for the resonation of the vowel.
If the voice is pharyngeally resonated, the tone need not become
throaty when the jaw stops in the middle position. However, this
position is always dangerous. This is an advanced stage of develop-
ment; at any earlier stage, the middle position is most harmful.
Actually, one never sees a really great singer assume the middle
position of the jaw, or "set" his lips for the resonation of the vowel
during phonation.
The jaw can be completely opened only when the lips are opened
and neither spread nor pouted. Inversely, if the opening of the jaw
is absolutely complete, the lips must perforce assume a virtually
correct posture.
The lips and cheeks control the distance to which the jaw can
be opened. When the lips are spread and the comers of the lips
are drawn, or pouted, together, the degree to which the jaw can be
opened is definitely curtailed. Therefore, the position of the lips
is of major importance in the "opening up" process.

Droppingthe Jaw
When the jaw is being dropped, the opening gesture should
always be made in one movement, passing completely and rapidly
through the middle position. It should never, under any circum-
stances, stop or hesitate in this position. The opening movement
should be made definitely, as a single, unhurried gesture, without
jerking or "sticking" on the way down. If the singer fails to go right
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 Fig. 31-CON'ect, Relatively Closed Position of the Jaw
The singer should either have his jaw completely opened, as in Fig. 28, or
sing with it relatively closed, as indicated in this illustration. It is, of course,
impossible for him to open his mouth all the way and articu1ate when the
notes are of short duration. Under such circumstances the jaw should not be
dropped, but should remain in the position indicated above. Actually, the
'llger should seldom, if ever, open his mouth for the production of middle
tones.
Note that the lips are neither spread nor pursed and that the teeth are
showing, but that only a small amount of both the lower and upper teeth is
uncovered. The lips are held away from the teeth but not unduly stuck out.
The jaw is opened slightly but not far enough to come into the middle,
'1ocked" position.

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through the middle position, he is generally unable to complete
the opening gesture and his jaw locks in this position. The tone will
then almost inevitably become throaty. When the jaw is being
closed, the closing gesture also must be made in a single, relatively
relaxed, movement. The opening tension must be relaxed and the
jaw allowed to close, practically the whole way, with a single gesture.

PassingThroughJaw Lock
Sometimes the jaw is badly articulated naturally, or because of
bad training. In such a case it is very apt to catch or "set" in the
"lock" position, until the pupil stretches the ligaments and learns
to pass through this position into complete opening with a single
unchecked gesture. In such cases, the closing gesture must be
made with the greatest possible degree of relaxation especially while
the jaw is passing through the middle position.
When pharyngeal resonance adjustment is completely estab-
lished, the jaw is out of action, under which circumstances the
singer can produce a free, "open" tone with his jaw in any position,
including the middle position. It locks when there is a tendency
for the singer to form mouth vowels, i.e., produce throaty tones.

Jaw Manipulation
The teacher can force a complete opening of the jaw by placing
the thumb of his right hand on the pupil's chin and the third, fourth
and fifth fingers behind his neck and pulling down and then, through
the middle position, back and down, while he holds up his head
with the thumb and middle finger of the left hand. The teacher
should hold the pupil's face just below the cheekbones. ( See Fig.
32 A & B. )
The head must not, under any circumstances, be allowed to move
in any direction while this manipulation is being made. It must be
held absolutely still, otherwise, when the teacher pulls the jaw
down and back, he may push the head back, and thereby not only
choke off the tone, but also actually hurt the pupil's larynx; or he
may let the pupil's head go back too far and this movement serves
to bring the neck muscles into tension just as definitely as would
the "down" movement. The left hand must hold the head in position
firmly and inhibit any movement whatever of the head .
The head must be held up in the position in which the neck is
as long as possible. If it is allowed to drop, or go backward, it is
shortened and the neck muscles tend to come into tension.
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 ,Relaxed muscles are long. Tense muscles are contracted, or
snortened. Thus, holding the head up with his left hand, the teacher
can pull the jaw down with his right hand, by pulling down and
then down and back firmly, through the '1ock" position. The down
swing of the jaw should be started rather slowly and accelerated
as it passes through the middle position. While this manipulation
is being made the pupil's lips must be held slightly out, away from

A
Fig. 32-Jaw Manipulation
A-The thumb and third finger of the left hand are placed just below the
two cheekbones and the head is raised into the proper position and held
absolutely still. The thumb of the right hand is jlaced in the center of the
chin and the third, fourth and filth fingers behin the neck. The jaw is then
pulled down all the way through the middle position with a firm,well-deftned
gesture. The head must not be allowed to move in the slightest degree or
the manipulation may become dangerous. The opening of the jaw must be
absolutely complete so that the comers of the lips are tight. The lips must
be slightly raised from the teeth and neith~read nor over-pouted.
( This manipulation may be somewhat un ortable or even painfulwhen the
1 ligaments require stretching and the jaw is badly locked. lt is generally
"\ absolutely essential, because it is impossible for ayone to learn to sing cor-
rectly until the jaw has been completely freed.
After the stiffness and lock have been worked out of the student's jaw,
little or no discomfort is experienced when the manipulation is made .
When complete opening has been established by means of manipulation, the
pupil must be forced to make this gesture, whenever necessary, without as-
sistance.
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his teeth, neither spread nor over-pouted. When the jaw tends to
stick, or crack, at the lock point, the teacher must be extremely
careful not to allow it to come down and out too far when he is
pulling through the lock point, or he may dislocate it. He must
perform this manipulation firmly, smoothly and definitely, and
carefully.
Where there is a crack of the jaw at the middle, or lock, point,
this crack must be carefully and completely "worked" out. The
process is not an easy one, but it can nearly always be mastered.

THUMB,
LEF'T HANO

--

THUMB,
RIGHT HANO LITTLE F'INGER,
RIGHT HANO

. B

Flg. 32-Jaw Manipulation (concluded)

B-The thumb of the left hand is placed under the right cheekbone and
the third finger of the left hand under the left cheekbone. The thumb of the
right hand is placed on the chin. The little finger of the right hand is placed
at the baclc of the neclc. However, if the distance between the point of the
chin to the back of the neclc is short enough, the third, fourth an<f fifth 6ngers
of the right hand should be placed at the back of the neck as shown in A.
The head is raised and held up by the left hand and the jaw is pulled
down and baclc all the way by the right hand.
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The complete opening of the jaw by the teacher may, at first, be
somewhat painful to the pupil, but as soon as the jaw has been
released, no distress whatever is felt. When the release has been
established, the manipulation can be abandoned . However difficult
the releasing of the jaw may be, it must be done. If this phase of
the technic is shirked, the pupil's voice will, inevitably, always be
throaty. The teacher may have to exert a considerable effort in
order to accomplish this manipulation .

Co-ordination
In dealing with head and chest movements and with the jaw
lock, etc., it is important to remember that phonation is a single
co-ordinated act. Thus, if a certain group of muscles has been used
in co-ordination for a certain act, when any part of this co-ordination
occurs, the entire co-ordination will come into effect reflexly. Thus,
a movement of the chest will start the co-ordinate cycle which
results in the production of a throaty tone and, as soon as this ges-
ture occurs, the tongue will relax and move back, the glottis open,
the muscles of the thorax will "give" and the jaw will set for the
resonation of the vowel. Similarly, the locking of the jaw will bring
about the muscular co-ordination which determines a throaty tone.
Even a lip gesture for the resonation of the vowel may start this
co-ordinate cycle and set in action the entire co-ordination for
throatiness. It will be seen then how alert the teacher must be, if
he is to inhibit all the gestures which may start off the cycle which
throws the voice into the co-ordination for throatiness. Such work
is highly personal, and the teacher must know and understand
every peculiar and characteristic gesture, which brings this throaty
cycle into action, in the case of each individual pupil. There are too
many different phases of this sort of thing to discuss it ·exhaustively
here.
When the technic is good, the breathing muscles "hold," the base
of the tongue is held firmly in position, the glottis closes and the
pressure of the breath is, therefore, held against this closure of the
glottis. The system must be kept in a state of equilibrium.

ThroatyTechnic-Neck Whistling
What happens in throaty singing? The tongue is relaxed and
then drawn back to the posterior wall of the pharynx in which posi-
tion it is held in a high degree of tension-it may be raised or
dropped. The glottis is not closed by means of the arytenoid muscle,
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but this closure is attained because the vocal cords are squeezed
together by means of tension on the neck muscles. In other words,
the neck muscles hold a constriction at the larynx, and breath
is blown through this constriction. When it is blown hard, a rela-
tively loud noise occurs. When it is blown more gently, the intensity
is reduced . But, actually, what is this form of sound production?
Surely it is merely a form of laryngeal whistling! It is not really
singing at all! In the old days of vaudeville we heard many pharyn-
geal whistlers, who blew through a constriction of the pharynx
and could even produce a tremolo with the tongue. This form of
whistling was quite powerful and rather agreeable to listen to.
Going one stage further: Throaty singing is exactly the same thing,
except inasmuch as the constriction is moved down a stage further
to the larynx and, under these circumstances, vowels can be reso-
nated by the mouth. Pharyngeal whistling, however, does not injure
the larynx-laryngeal whistling does!
Here, then, we have a very significant viewpoint. There are funda-
mentally two forms of voice production. One form is legitimate
singing, which follows the laws presented in this book and which
was brought to a high state of perfection by such artists as Caruso,
Destinn, Melba, Kirkby Lunn, Sammarco, etc. The other form is
merely "neck whistling"! It may be called by complimentary terms,
such as "singing in the masque," "producing heador covered tones,"
"voice placement," "forward voice production," etc., or by other
terms, when performed softly, such as "mezza voce," "crooning,"
"diction singing" or "radio technic." Nevertheless, this type of sing-
ing, which is almost universal today, may well be designated as
"neck whistling."

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 Chapter 8

ESTABLISHINGTECHNICAL IMPROVEMENTS
(PSYCHOLOGICALFACTORS)

The previous chapters have dealt with the various manipulations

which may be used to obtain improved adjustments of the student's
voice. It should be clearly understood that such manipulations con-
stitute only a means of speeding up the process of training the voice.
They are of little value in themselves, unless the student is taught
to establish the developed muscular condition and the improved
co-ordination of the muscles, used in phonation, without manual
assistance.

Conscious Control of MusclesUsed in PhonationImpossible

Direct conscious control of the muscles used in phonation is im-
possible to accomplish, and all directions of a physical nature are
primarily inhibitory. At first, it would seem that the employment of
certain of these manipulations nullifies this statement. Such, how-
ever, is not the case, because the manipulations are made by the
teacher and, even if made by the pupil himself, are only effective
in aiding the improved phonation of the tone, which is initially the
. outcome of a mental concept. If we consider the use of the tongue
instrument, all that really happens is that this instrument puts the
tongue in position, in a relaxed condition, and the tongue mus-
cles come into tension reflexly for phonation. The tongue reacts
against the instrument at the moment the tone is attaclced. The
instrument helps the tongue muscles to come into tension, but the
attack emanates from the mental concept of the tone. The nerve
impulses which actually bring the muscles into tension emanate from
the brain, not from the instrument. In fact, excessive pressure on the
tongue, before phonation is initiated, only tends to interfere with the
proper action of the tongue muscles.
With regard to the laryngeal manipulations, the muscles are in-
deed helped, but here also they only come into tension as the singer
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attacks the tone, and are not tensed, but are merely helped, by the
manipulation.
The manipulations of the jiaw, head, etc., are of an inhibitory
nature and do not demand explanation.
In spite of the great value of these manipulations, they are un-
availing if the pupil does not ultimately learn to produce as good
a tone without, as he does with, their aid.

Limit to Use of Manipulations

Therefore, after having made the manipulations which are indi-
cated, and after having helped the pupil produce a definitely im-
proved tone, the teacher must proceed to work with him, without
the aid of the manipulations, until such time as he is able to establish
the new adjustments. For this reason there are, in the course of
training, periods during which the manipulations are made and,
following these, other periods during which they are temporarily
discarded, when the pupil learns to establish the improvement which
hasresulted from their use.

Psychological
Factor
This brings out a question already mentioned: The psychological
factor. The importance of building up the proper mental concepts,
and of breaking down the various inhibitions to which the vocal
student is subject has been stressed already. When manipulations
are used this problem becomes harder, not easier, because the
"opening up" process is so greatly accelerated that it is only too
often difBcult for the teacher to break down the inhibitions which
interfere with the production of the greatly increased volume of
tone and to build up the memory pictures for the greatly improved
quality of tone which is produced. This work must be done before
any increased, new "opening" is brought about, or the pupil will
lag psychologically so far behind his muscular, or technical, equip-
ment as to flounder helplessly when he attempts to sing.
There are two principal reasons why the human voice does not
function naturally in a technically correct manner.

Faulty Ear and Bad Technic

The first is because the ear is faulty or undeveloped. When the
individual is actually tone deaf he cannot learn to sing. Furthermore,
where the ear is really ·poor, the process of training this pupil is so
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difficult and arduous that it is hardly worth the effort. The unde-
veloped ear can be trained, and it must be trained if the pupil is
to learn how to sing.

Inhibitionand Bad Technic

The second reason is primarily psychological or inhibitory. Most
people are more or less inhibited, and this inhibition is very apt
to take the form of "holding back" the voice. The properly-produced
voice is always powerful and even the smallest, human larynx can
produce sufficient tone to be clearly heard over an orchestra in a
large auditorium. Inhibition will cut down the intensity of the voice
to the merest fraction of the power it should produce. There is only
one means by which the inhibited individual can bring about this
reduction in intensity, and that is by "choking off' his voice ( throaty
technic). Hence, the inhibited pupil will instinctively make the
gestures which bring the constrictor muscles ( muscles of the neck,
tongue, jaw, chest and shoulders) into action and destroy the proper
function of the vocal apparatus. Therefore, most pupils automatically
tend to raise their chests and drop, or pull in, their heads in order
to "hold back" the tone; these gestures are apt to become more
pronounced as the pitch, and therefore the intensity, rises.
Jerking and slurring are also an outcome of inhibition, because
the inhibited pupil instinctively tends to check himself and cut
down the intensity of the tone. This "check" gives rise to either a
jerk or a slur.
The teacher must work hard to overcome this instinctive fear,
or inhibition, on the part of the pupil. If he fails to do so, he will
never succeed in making him sing. It is hard work and rather cruel,
because the psychological breakdown of the pupil's fear and inhibi-
tion, which are seated in the very roots of his nature, is a very
radical process. However, it can be done, provided that the teacher
is willing to tax himself sufficiently, and the pupil is able to subject
himself, and surrender to the teacher's "drive."

Self-listening
Much has been said about self-listening. It is not an overstatement
to say that an absolute self-listener is unteachable: First, because
he is unable to change his mental concepts of tone quality. Second,
because he cannot learn to define his pitch concepts. Third, because
he hears the tone quality completely inverted, i.e., the throatier the
tone becomes, the better it sounds to him.
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 Sterno-mastoid
Musclesand Self-listening
There seems to be a very direct physical reason for this apparent
improvement of tone quality to the singer's own ear, when the
technic is throaty . In throaty technic, the neck muscles come into
tension and do the work that should be done by the laryngeal mus-
cles. Reference to Figs. 26 & 27 will show that the most prominent
neck muscles used in throaty singing are the stemo-mastoids. When
these muscles are in a high state of tension, they make a hard, firm,
direct conductor of sound from the larynx to the ear, by means of
these rigid muscles. Under such circumstances it would appear to
be obvious that the singer must perceive a vastly greater richness
and volume of tone than he is actually producing. When these
muscles are relaxed, the conduction is lost. Therefore, as soon as
the throatiness is relieved, the singer will hear a ·tone which is con-
siderably reduced in power and "ring" to his own ear, despite the
fact that it is actually far fuller, freer, and of better quality to the
ear of the listener. So true is this that the teacher is forced to work,
or shall we say fight, dreadfully hard to stop the pupil from pro-
ducing tones which are throaty, shut off and unpleasant to the ear
of anyone other than himself. In fact, unless the pupil can be forced
to stop listening to his own voice, it is impossible for the teacher to
stop him from deliberately producing the throatiest possible tones.

TechnicalPractisingOutsideStudioHarmful
Technical practice by the pupil outside the shldio is harmful at
all times and at all stages of development. When practising alone
he will inevitably listen to his own voice rather than concentrate
on the teacher's directions. Since he is then guided by his own ear,
which hears an improvement in power and quality when the tone
has merely become throatier, such practice will serve only to
engender throatiness. The pupil who insists on practising technic
alone never learns to sing well-his voice is always throaty!

Futility of Fine Voice without InterpretiveAbility

In some cases, individuals who start with "no natural voice," but
who have considerable talent for learning the required technic, may
have no capacity for learning repertoire and no talent for interpre-
tation and performance. Therefore, occasionally there is developed
a beautiful voice, through the sheer efficiency of the process. But
the satisfaction of such achievement is converted into unmitigated
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chagrin when the pupil is found to be the possessor of a grand organ
which he is unable to use in performance. It is also true that the
highly talented performer may sometimes be so neurotic that he is
unable to concentrate satisfactorily on the working out of his tech-
nical problems; he cannot learn to produce his voice really well.

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 Chapter 9

PROBLEMSOF REGISTRATION

In training the man's voice, and in a lesser degree the woman's,

one of the most important exercises is the one in which he starts
a tone in the falsetto register and adds the lower register. This
exercise, which may be termed "going through the falsetto," has
been described in the author's previous books, but with the use of
laryngeal controls and the tongue instrument, the procedure has
been considerably modified.

Going Throughthe Falsetto

The effectiveness of this exercise depends upon the production
falsetto tone. It should not be used before the falsetto has
of a 'P.!!!'__e
been com~letelypurified,or an increase in the degree of mixed regis-
tration an throatiness will result. In other words, if this exercise
is used before the pure falsetto has been established, the result will
be harmful, because it will merely serve to engender an increase in
the mixture of the lower register.
The "dark•·e· vowel is nearly always employed for this exer-
cise. However, because the tongue instrument is generally used at
the outset, this vowel is often ill-defined. because the tongue position
determines the vowel and the instrument determines the position
of the tongue. The pupil should not resist the tongue position which
the teacher has brought about by the use of the instrument. He must,
therefore, sing the vowel which results from this position. If he
forces the vowel himseH, he will move his tongue and thus make it
impossible for the teacher to use the instrument effectively. Further-
more, very few pupils have a clear concept of this "dark" vowel at the
outset of their studies and they must, therefore, sing the vowel which
the instrument-controlled tongue position determines. The teacher
can force the pupil to produce something like a "dark" "e" vowel
by means of the tongue irtstrument, if the pupil does not resist the
adjustment, before he is able to conceive it himseH.
The pupil's jaw should be completely opened and his lips un-
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spread, unpouted and, at the same time, held slightly away from
the teeth . Under these circumstances he cannot form a mouth
vowel, and the tongue action will be definitely brought into play,
i.e., pharyngeal resonance adjustment will be established.
When the pure falsetto has been established in this way, the
pupil may be directed to "go through" to the lower register, i.e., to
add the lower register to the falsetto. At the moment of transition
the tension on all the muscles used in phonation must be suddenly
increased and the intensity must instantaneously rise considerably.
At this vital moment of transition the pupil must not be allowed
to make any movement whatever of his tongue, jaw, lips, chest,
shoulders, diaphragm, back muscles, head, etc. The vowel must
not be modified in the slightest degree. The impulse which brings
the lower register into action must merely take the form of added
tension and equilibrium must be maintained. Under no circum-
stances may the pupil be allowed to relax, break off, decrease the.
loudness of the tone or jerk at the moment of transition. If he does so,
the exercise is completely nullified, because the falsetto tension is
not retained .

IntensityRiseswith Addition of Lower Register

It is also essential that the rise in intensity, at the moment of
transition, is sufficiently great or the lower register will not be com-
pletely established and mixed registration will result. The pupil
must be forced to exert sufficient effort to establish the pure lower
register, at the proper intensity, rapidly and skillfully. If he fails
to add sufficient tension at the moment of transition, the exercise
is not only futile but harmful, because mixed registration results.
If he feels slowly into the lower register, throatiness and mixed
registration occur. Of course, the falsetto must be sung as loudly as
possible without mixture. This intensity is, however, quite soft for
the lower tones. Nevertheless, if the maximum tension on the fal-
setto muscles, which can be attained at any given stage of develop-
ment, is not brought into play, the exercise is of little value. The
lower-register tension is only ad~ed, in proper technic, at an inten-
sity which is greater than the loudest possible intensity which can
be produced in the falsetto.

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 No IntensityOverlap of Registers
At no time should the registers overlap from the intensity stand-
point. The pure falsetto can never be sung as loudly as the softest
lower-register tone at the same pitch, and vice versa, the softest
lower-register tone which can be sung at any given pitch must
always be louder than the loudest possible pure falsetto. In working
out the problems of registration, it is vital for the reader to bear in
mind the fact that the registers should be matched in quality-not
in intensity. Whenever this rule is broken mixed registration and
vocal deterioration result.

ThyroidManipulationin Going ThroughFalsetto

The thyroid manipulation may be employed in the "going through
the falsetto" exercise. Either the tongue instrument is not used, or
the pupil may use this manipulation himself while the teacher em-
ploys the tongue instrument, or vice versa. In the early stages, tht
training process is nearly always accelerated when the teacher uses
this manipulation . It is most helpful because it enables the pupil to
do this exercise effectively very much sooner than would otherwise
be· possible.
This exercise should be used in practically all stages of the vocal
development. When pharyngeal resonance adjustment and pure
registration have been definitely established, the manipulations
and the use of the tongue instrument become unnecessary and
should be abandoned . However, each time an opening occurs this
exercise becomes essential, because pharyngeal development must
be met with the necessary laryngeal work.

Vowel Must Be Held Constant

When the tongue instrument is not being used, the pupil must be
sure to bold the vowel absolutely constant for the two registers.
He must not be allowed to "whiten" the lower register when he
goes through from the falsetto. If he does so, some degree of mixed
registration is apt to occur.
It is not utterly essential that the dark "e" vowel be used. Any
"dark" vowel may serve much the same purpose . It is the darkness
that is essential, because the pure falsetto is always associated with
darkness, until a very high state of development has been attained,
when the color range, concomitant with proper technic, become~
very wide.
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 Hyoid Bone Manipulationand Going ThroughFalsetto
In cases where the tongue drops badly, the hyoid bone may be
held up, as previously described, for this exercise. In practice, how-
ever, this is seldom done, because, under such circumstances, the
registration is generally too mixed for the exercise to be beneficial.
While "going through the falsetto" is one of the most important
exercises for the male voice, it is used very seldom for the woman's
voice. This is because, in the first place, nearly all women sing
falsetto only and, therefore, we find that most of their technical
faults are associated with this register. Hence, the use of this exer-
cise would only tend to reflect these faults into the lower register.
In the second place, women sing about an octave higher than men,
so that they actually use the falsetto in performance and the influ-
ence of this register on the lower register is, therefore, more or less
automatic, when the other phases of the training are properly car-
ried out. Nevertheless, this exercise can sometimes be used for
women pupils with beneficial results, provided that the falsetto
is pure and "opened up." When it is used, the conditions which
must be observed are exactly the same as with a man.

BalancingRegistersin Women'sVoices
Balancing the registration in a woman's voice, when the two
registers have been isolated, purified and properly established, is
most important and must be dealt with at as early a stage as possible.
The exercises used for balancing and relating the registers are
relatively simple. The first one to be employed is the octave jump.
This exercise tends to balance the two registers in their octave rela-
tionship and it also helps to transfer the "opening" of the lower
register up into the falsetto.
In the performance of this ex~rcis~..,~e jaw should be completely
opened and the _tongueinstrument may be ~The lower-register
wf
tone lihould be attacked-loudly,- th ..tliepitch as accurately cen-
tered as possible. No slur should be passed ( a jerk is always accom-
panied by a slur). The thyroid control may be employed when
its use is indicated. On a cue from the teacher the singer should
release the lower-register tone and immediately strike the tone an
octave higher in the falsetto. This tone also should be sung at full
voice. No physical movements should be made during the transition
between the two tones. The upper tone should be attacked without
any jerk or slur. It is usually best for the pupil to sing the entire
exercise on one breath, because when she breathes, she must break
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off and the "opening" may not, then, be carried up into the falsetto.
It is vital that she should make no movement of the head, chest,
shoulders, jaw, tongue or lips as she makes the transition. The
attack of the upper tone should be made, with great rapidity, imme-
diately the cue is heard. The octave jump should be sung from
about middle C to as high as the lower register can be carried up
wide open at the given stage.
The term "attack" is not a very good one, because it may imply
a violent jerk which is absolutely wrong. The attack of both the
lower and the upper tone must be made on a smooth "out" move-
ment of the diaphragm. The muscles of the lower ribs ( back mus-
cles) must not "give" or the ''hold" on the diaphragm is nullified.
When the laryngeal control for the lower register is used, it must
be released for the falsetto tone.
The loudness of the falsetto tone should match that of the lower-
register tone with the necessary increase in loudness for the octave
rise in pitch ( 15 decibels rise in intensity ) .
While all the manual controls may be used for this exercise, when
and how they should be employed most effectively depends upon
the existing technical conditions. This, the teacher must be able to
determine.
After the upper tone has been attacked and held for a few sec-
onds, the pupil should "carry down" to the lower register again.
She should do so without breaking off, and end with a full, pure,
lower-register tone. This "carry down" is important, because it
helps in the association of the registers and, at the same time, adds
falsetto tension to the lower-register tension, thereby accomplishing
much the same result as the "going through the falsetto" exercise
for men.
There must be a complete "break off" between the lower and
upper tone, but no "break off" should be made on the way down.
This is important because it is essential that all falsetto tension
possible is present in the lower register, while there should not be
any lower register tension in the falsetto. Thus, the "break off" on
the way up must be complete and the falsetto tone must not be
attacked with any slur at all or the registration will tend to mix.
The "carry down" must be complete, so that all falsetto tension
possible is added to the lower register. Under no circumstances
should the pupil slide below the lower tone after singing the upper
tone, since too little falsetto tension would then be added to the
lower register, and this would eliminate much of the beneficial
effect of the exercise.
The "carry down" should be accomplished on a narrow vibrato,
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but even if the pupil does slur, the falsetto tension is added to the
lower-register tension, and some measure of the desired result
transpires. The exercise is of little value if the pupil breaks off on
the way down or either slurs, or jerks into the upper (falsetto) tone.
The vowel used for this exercise is generally a dark "ah," but
other vowels may be employed according to the pupil's ability to
resonate any one vowel with pharyngeal resonance adjustment
better than other vowels. Thus, the dark "e" vowel is sometimes best.
The actual vowel employed does not matter very much, provided
that it is dark and not throaty.
While the jaw is generally opened all the way for the entire
exercise, it may, under certain conditions, be found beneficial for
the pupil to attack the lower tone with the jaw nearly closed and
then open it for the upper tone. The jaw should never be allowed to
make a closing gesture when the pupil attacks the upper tone.
Other exercises must also be used for relating the registers in
women's voices. Thus, the interval should be reduced to a major
fifth, a major third, a whole tone and even a semitone. The register
change must always be accomplished with the minimum of quality
transition and without "give," slurring or jerking.
When the registers have been so far developed and purified that
the pupil can sing the tone D ( on the fourth line of the treble clef)
wide open, with the proper resonance adjustment (good quality),
the E flat, one semitone higher, can be sung in the falsetto at a
slightly louder intensity than the D is sung in the lower register.
Where the change has to be made lower, the falsetto is not in the
intensity line. If it is only a semitone to a tone and a half too low,
the intensity drop in the transition is not distressingly great.

RelativelyWeak MiddleTonesUnavoidableat First

An even intensity scale is obviously of fundamental importance
in the interpretation of a melodic line. However, an even scale is
not established until a relatively high stage of technical proficiency
has been reached. Before this stage has been attained, a few of the
lower, falsetto tones are unavoidably too weak. This may be unfor-
tunate, but it is an unavoidable concomitant of proper vocal training.
The singer, who can only use the lower register up to about F,
on the bottom space of the treble clef, has at least five semitones in
the falsetto register which are too weak. The F sharp, G, A flat
and A are much too weak-especially the F sharp and G. If, how-
ever, any attempt is made to level up the intensity line, either by
softening the lower-register tones by means of constriction below
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the intensity level at which they can be sung "open," or by pushing
the low falsetto tones by means of thickness or "edge," above the
intensity level at which they can be sung in the pure register with
the throat open, the result is entirely destructive . Under such cir-
cumstances, the registration becomes mixed and the voice dete-
riorates rapidly . Furthermore, the constriction of the lower register,
which inevitably occurs when this register is "held back," or sung
too softly, reflects up into the falsetto, which then also becomes
very throaty. This throaty falsetto in tum reflects down into the
lower register which becomes progressively throatier and more
mixed. This reflection of throatiness and mixture between the two
registers, as the singer changes from one to the other incorrectly,
builds up to a most distressing degree. This effect can be so pro-
nounced that the voice may "shut off" altogether in the progress
of a song even when it has been relatively "opened up" in the
technic.

A Little Lower Register More Dangerous than None tc

Many singers have been told by their teachers to use the lower
register ( "chest voice") up to E flat, E or, perhaps, F ( the first
space on the treble clef) but not to use it any higher. This pro-
cedure is definitely worse than not using the lower register at all.
When this register is employed for a few low tones only, the lower
falsetto tones are inevitably pushed and forced, because, if they
were to be sung in the pure, unthickened, unforced falsetto register,
they would be far too light and weak to be usable in conjunction
with the loud, lower-register tones in this low pitch range. The
singer who just "fades out" in descending the scale may possibly
retain a relatively pure falsetto and may, therefore, be properly
trained quite easily, but the singer who has pushed the lower fal-
setto tones must inevitably have mixed them and rendered them
throaty. A little lower register is not better than no lower register
at all. It is disastrous! The lower register must be developed, handled
and used properly, or it must not be used at all, under which cir-
cumstances the singer must resign herself to a sort of ''half baked,"
silly form of singing with her throat always in some degree of con-
striction. Half measures are destructiv~. ·

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 Lower Register Must Be Carried Up to Proper Pitch
At any given stage in the training process, the lower register must
be used up to a certain point at normal loudness. It must not be
used too high or too low; either fault is harmful. This point changes
as the technic develops. The voice is not really registered at all
until the lower register can be used consistently up to about B flat
on the treble clef. This means that the pupil can produce really
"open,n good quality, lower-register tones up to about C or D flat.

PermanentMixed Registration
There are two types of mixed registration. In the first type we
have a permanent muscular condition which can be changed only
in the course of a somewhat prolonged period of training. This
condition is manifested physically by the tilting of the thyroid car-
tilage which approaches too closely to, or in extreme cases, actually
touches, the hyoid bone. ( See Fig. 21.)

TemporarilyInducedMixed Registration
The other type of mixed registration is temporarily induced. The
most prevalent cause of this type of mixed registration occurs when
a singer endeavors to "even up" the intensity line before the pure,
"open," lower register can be carried up high enough. When this
is done repeatedly, for any length of time, a condition of permanent,
mixed registration results. The transient, or temporary, mixed regis-
tration leads only too often to permanent mixed registration-com-
plete vocal degeneration.
The pupil who can sing up to middle B flat with a pure, "wide
openn lower register, and up to the B Hat an octave higher, with a
pure, good quality, free, "openn falsetto, has what might be termed, a
"good natural voice," despite the fact that a few of the middle tones
are too weak. These weak tones need not be of poor quality and can
match the lower register in quality quite satisfactorily. Such a con-
dition is not injurious or distressing, and it is soon overcome when
the voice is being trained properly. Any attempt to correct it by
_ "shutting oft" the lower register or by mixing and pushing the
, \ falsetto destroys the quality of both high and low tones. The singer
L...., who has made this attempt finally finds herself with a few, poor
( quality, throaty, middle tones and not even passably good upper
or lower tones. In her attempt to alleviate a relatively minor tech-
nical failing, she has succeeded only in eliminating her voice.
164
 Eliminationof Mixed "Middle" Register
It is interesting to note that the process of training indicated has
for its goal the absolute purification of the lower and falsetto regis-
ters, and the complete separation of these two registers. It aims to
open them up, relate them and finally co-ordinate them. In the
carrying out of this process the so-called "middle register," which
is, in fact, only a mixed register, is eliminated. The pure falsetto
and the pure lower register are of good quality. The "middle regis-
ter" is throaty and of most unpleasant quality to the trained ear.
Unfortunately, today many teachers eliminate the lower register
and thereby inevitably eliminate also the pure, "open" falsetto, with
the result that, in the final analysis, they establish and "train" only
the mixed "middle register." They eliminate what should be trained,
and train what should be eliminated.

Use of Falsettofor Middle Tones

The falsetto can be used in a song as low as about middle G for
a very soft passage, but for all normal singing the lower register
should be carried through B Hat or B, and for loud singing through
D. At fortissimo the lower register, if pure, fully developed and
balanced with the falsetto, can be used for very high tones. It cannot
be carried up very high, however, until the pupil's voice is in an
extremely advanced stage of development. If it is carried too high
for the given stage of development, it becomes throaty and mixed
and this condition will be reflected up into the falsetto in an even
more marked degree. This is, of course, absolutely destructive to a
proper technic.

Octave Reflectionin Performance

Because the lower register controls the falsetto one octave higher,
the singer who cannot use the lower register above middle G should
never sing above the G, one octave higher, in performance.
When she can use the A in the lower register, she can sing the
high A in the falsetto, etc. This rule should be strictly adhered to
or the voice will inevitably suffer. ·
Until D on the fourth line of the treble clef, sung in the lower
register, is "in the voice," the intensity scale is somewhat out of
balance, because the lower falsetto tones are too weak, and they
must not be pushed. Nevertheless, when middle B Hat, sung in the
lower register, is "in the voice," the line is relatively well balanced
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for everything but forte singing. Furthermore, the falsetto B flat,
an octave above, may be sung freely and with absolute safety.
Therefore, the singer who has reached this stage of development
can interpret, satisfactorily, most arias and songs for the soprano
voice and any composition for the contralto voice.

Use Songsof Limited Range in Early Stages

Before the pure, fully "opened" lower register has been estab-
lished, the pupil must not sing songs which contain high tones,
although her voice may be a soprano-even a high soprano-or the
results will be technically harmful. For this reason most beginners
should start with compositions which have a limited range. Late,.,
as the lower register is opened up and balanced with the falsetto,
a more extended range can be used. This should not take very long,
because the unharmed, talented beginner is often able to sing in
the proper key for her voice in a few months.

Maintain Normal Tessitura

When the proper tessitura has been established, it is most inad-
visable for her to sing at a lower or higher tessitura. If she does the
former, she will tend to push for more power output than her voice
can produce. If she does the latter she is apt to "shut oH," because
she is unable to sustain the energy level which is necessary if she
is to maintain the "opening" at this tessitura. The voice is what it
is naturally-when it is used correctly technically. This is determined
by the size and structure of the vocal apparatus . It is true that any
properly-produced voice can cover a range of at least three octaves
of "open," legitimate tones. Nevertheless, this does not mean that
the contralto who can produce a D above high C can sing soprano
roles. The tessitura would be too high and she could not hold the
"opening," with the result that she would inevitably start to con-
strict, and her voice, which would become throaty, would ultimately
be ruined . Similarly, the soprano who tries to sing contralto roles
inevitably thickens and mixes her registration and thus destroys
her voice.

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 Chapter ~O

VIBRATOAND TREMOLO

Vibrato
The absolute whisper is produced when the resonance cavities are
shaped for the vowel and the vocal cords are so far separated that they
do not come into vibration. There is, therefore, no variable fundamental
present, so that the pitch of the absolute whisper cannot be altered. The
\ air is expelled from the lungs and, passing out in a stream, brings the air
in the shaped cavities into vibration, thereby producing the vowel sound.
As soon as the intensity rises above a whisper, phonation starts; the
glottis begins to close. At very low intensities, under proper technical
conditions, the vocal cords are still relatively widely separated. Under
these circumstances the breath expulsion is very high, and considerable
work must be done by the singer to maintain the breath pressure and
phonate with the resonance cavities held in their proper "set."
A further increase in intensity augments the tension on the muscles
of both the larynx and the pharynx, and narrows, and finally closes, the slit
of the glottis. At a certain point of intensity, muscular fatigue would result,
were this tension on the muscles of the pharynx and larynx to be held con-
stant and the breath pressure maintained. This intensity varies with differ-
ent voices. It might be termed the mezzo-piano of any given voice which
is free and in correct adjustment. It is important to note that even this
intensity is not so very soft-indeed it may be considerably louder than
the F.F. of the same singer were he to be using a throaty technic.
When this point at which the vocal muscular system (i.e., the muscles
of the thorax, larynx and pharynx) would fatigue, if it were held in
constant tension, is reached, the vibrato action begins to come into play;
and this action increases in amplitude as the intensity rises. Under
proper conditions the vibrato swing can become very great, so that,
while the maximum intensity of sound which can be produced by any
given vocal apparatus is fixed, a sense of increased loudness or emotion
ma be conveyed by means of a greater swing of the vibrato.
t it be perfectly clear, then, that the nature of the vibrato is an
"on" and "off" nerve impulse to the entire muscular system which actuates
the voice. In other words, the vibrato is, from the physiological stand-
point, QJJ_ate~ The nerve impulses should, under proper
conditions, appliect,at one and the same instant, to the muscles of
the larynx, pharynx and thorax, released and reapplied, etc., very rapidly.
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There is, of course, a de6nite limit to the frequency of the vibrato and,
under normal conditions, there is a normal speed._An increased frequency
of vibrato is used for the b'ill and for the high speed running of musical
&~es-scales, chromatic scales, cadenzas, etc.
~the vibrato frequency, (te ., the number of "on" and "off" impulses
per second) is probably never found to be too rapid in the case of a
true vibrato. It is often too slow when the technic is faulty. An ideal
vibrato frequency is about 6-6.2 per second. The frequency 6.2 was
found for a high B fiat, sung forte, on a record of Caruso's voice. The fre-
quency of the vibrato shoula be the same at all pitches.
Readings of the vibrato frequency and, probably, the pitch variation
so found are reliable, but no other characteristic taken from records is of
any real value in obtaining quantitative data .
In the past a great many such readings have been talcen despite the
fact that but few unaccompanied tones appeared on the records of the
great singers. It is impossible to obtain sufficient data from the records
of the voice of any given singer to make such an investigation of real
value, even if the other factors which render such readings unreliable
were not present .
In an investigation of the vibrato it is necessary that the singer, in
person, should produce a series of tones of varying pitches and intensities,
and that these tones should be sung under acoustical conditions which
can be definitely checked. Furthermore, the apparatus used must be
highly sensitive.
The investigator must also realize that a successful singer does not
necessarily use his voice well-success may be due to other causes. Again,
even the greatest artists vary, to a marked degree, with each tone they
sing, and the investigator must, therefore , be in a position to give a
definite criticism of each particular tone sung, from the standpoint of
registration and resonance adjustment as well as vibrato. Furthermore,
he must be able to distinguish, definitely, between the true vibrato, the
vibrato which has some of the characteristics of the tremolo, and the
tremolo. As will be shown later, these phenomena can easily be confused.
One last point with regard to deductions drawn from records: The
intensity range recorded is so limited that the singer is most unlikely
to produce his voice normally. If he is an experienced recording artist
he will probably never sing very loud or very soft tones. For this reason,
it is unlikely that any tone which is so soft as to be without vibrato will
appear on the record, despite the fact that when the tone is pianissimo
the vibrato should be practically absent . As a result of the "on" and
"off'' vibrato impulse, the intensity of the tone varies periodically (about
6-6.2 times per second) , and the degree of this intensity variation is
dependent upon the loudness of the tone being phonated . At normal ·
intensity this variation seems to be about 3-6 decibels, according to the
latest readings taken in the laboratories of Electrical Research Products ,
Inc. It is evident that this intensity variation must be accompanied by a
fluctuation of pitch, because the "on" and "off'' nerve impulses are applied
to the laryngeal and pharyngeal muscles as well as to the muscles of the
thorax. ,This pitch change is far greater than one would imagine. For
instance, Caruso's vibrato shows a pitch variation of a semiton~in other
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words, when this supremely great artist sang a full, high tone he was
producing an interval change equal to that of a semitone trill.
The pitch change of the vibrato can, however, be so greatly increased
that, in the case of an extreme fortissimo, an interval of no less than three
semitones has been recorded on the oscillograph. ( See Fig. 33.)
.................,u.........
· · ...........................................................,.•11111, ...,........,,...... .............
,,....

Fig. 83-Acowtic Spectrometer Read4ng of the Vibrato of a

Well-produced Voice Singing Fortissimo
Each dot ( or line) indicates an interval of a quarter of a tone. Note that
about six dots are involved in the vibrato ( the pitch variation is about one
and a haH whole tones).

The extraordinary feature of this phenomenon is that the ear hardly

seems to detect any definite pitch change at all.
One would imagine that an alternating pitch change of one to three
semitones would effect the ear unpleasantly, especially in view of the
fact that there is no harmonic relationship between the high and low
frequencies of the vibrato. But here we come to one of those interesting
psychological factors with which we are so often faced in our study of
the human voice. Every great voice of which we have any record has
always had a vibrato. In fact, it is not humanly possible for a singer to
hold the tension for the proper adjustments of the larynx, ph~ and
thorax for_a_ full.._free tone without this physical release of the 'on" and
"olt' ~plication of the 11~rveimpulse. Thus, if he attempts to hold a full
tone withqut vibrato, the entire resonance system will actually collapse.
Because every great voice has always had a vibrato, the ear has come
to associate the vibrato with a well-produced tone. Therefore it not only
accepts this pitch change, but rejects the tone which is steady, because
such a tone is always associated with a throaty technic and, hence, an
unpleasant quality.
The intensity vibrato varies from zero at pianissimo to about 10 decibels
aLfor.tissimo.At mezzo-forte, it is about 5 decibels. (See Fig. 34 A.)
The human voice differs from a mechanical sound-producing apparatus
inasmuch as the break-down of any one part of the system will bring
about a change in the functioning of other parts of the apparatus; with
the mechanical instrument, it will merely cause distortion or total collapse.
The actual effect of the vibrato, from the standpoint of the listener,
is that he seems to hear an enormously increased wealth of tone. This
effect is very striking in an auditorium, because of the ever-changing
sound pattern set up by the interferences of the periodically changing
sound of a voice which has a vibrato.
What is the ideal vibrato? It must, in the first place, be absolutely]
!egular. The frequency should be about 6-6.2 pulses a second. The pitch
variation should be about a semitone at normal ~tensity. This pitch
change may augment as the intensity increases. The intensity ftuctuation
varies with each individual voice, and goes from practically zero at
pianissimo to an unexpectedly large amount at fortissimo. ( See Fig.
34 B.) The rise in frequency should always occur simultaneously with
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the rise in intensity. If the nerve impulses to the larynx, pharynx and
thorax are not in phase, the high frequency point of the vibrato may
occur at the point of low intensity. This is particularly b'ue in the case
of a very loud tone. One would imagine that this phase relation would be
a vital factor in good quality, but, while further investigation is necessary
before any definite statement can be made, in actual practice this shifting
of the high frequency point does not seem to affect the quality of the tone
in any marked degree.

_ '"'
1uv-·-
"Annlll"lftAAJl/"IAJll\r"l/1.J\.nn~
- ... ¥ .... V ¥,.. .- -
--- .

Fig. 34-High Speed Level-recorder Tracings of the Vi"brato

A-This shows a reading of the intensity vibrato of a well-produced voice
singing forte. Note the evenness of the vibrato. The space between the hori-
zontal lines is 10 d.b. Note that the vibrato variation is about half this space,
i.e., 5 d.b.
B-This shows a reading of the crescendo on the vibrato of a well-produced
voice.
The accompanying tracing was registered on the high speed level-recorder
at the Bell Telephone Laboratories . The tone high F#, sung by a baritone whose
technic was good, was started softly and swelled to fortissimo.
This piece of apparatus registers, with great accuracy and at high speed,
every intensity variation. The reader will notice the definite increase in the
intensity variation of the vibrato as the tone is swelled.
This increase in the amplitude of the vibrato produces the effect of a far
greater augmentation of the intensity than actually occurs. The rise in intensity
of this particular tone appeared i:o be very great, while the actual increase in
intensity-the mean between the high and low point of the vibrato at fortissimo
as compared with the more or less even intensity of the soft part of the tone
which was practically without vibrato-was relatively slight.
It has been believed by certain investigators that the vibrato is switched on
like an organ-stop and does not vary with intensity. Readings traced by the
high speed level-recorder definitely prove the fallacy of this contention and show
that the amplitude of the vibrato is the main factor in intensity regulation .

If the vibrato is irregular, too slow, has too great a pitch change, or
too wide an intensity range for the intensity of the tone being sung, the
quality of the voice is greatly impaired. The most important factors,
however, seem to be regularity and frequency.
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 Of all the misconceptions about the human voice, even in the writings
of famous musical critics, and some scientists, the confusion between
vibrato and tremolo is one of the most striking. The vibrato is a vital
concomitant of good singing. The tremolo is a lamentable fault.
What is the nature of the tremolo? It consists primarily of a Butter on
constriction, i.e., a Butter of the tongue. Only a throaty singer has a
tremolo. Such a singer, especially if he persists in doing a great deal of
soft singing, will progressively increase the tension on the constrictor
muscles. As he continues to abuse his voice, this tetanic Buttering may
spread from the tongue, which will be seen to move in and out with
tlie tremolo action, to the jaw, which will also come into sympathetic
tetanic action.
This tetanic movement which causes the tremolo is generally of higher
frequency than is the vibrato movement and, according to our more
recent work, has a frequency of 7 to 11 Butters per second. The absolute
tremolo is without intensity variation. (See Fig. 35.)

,.
I
\
- . ,- .
Ill

Fig. 85-A High Speed Level-recorAr Tracing of an Absolute

Tremolo-Badly Produced Voice
Note that no intensity variation is indicated.

The vibrato shows an intensity characteristic which is absent in the

tremolo.
Inasmuch as the mtscles of the thorax are not involved in the tremolo
action, one wiild ex~ct the intensity variation to be absent, as indicated
in these oscilllgrams.
e tremoiis extremely common, and is a most injurious technical
fault. Teache who "build on the soft," "place the voice in the head,"
neglect the lo er register with women and the falsetto with men, and
those who fo~e their pupils to Batten and groove the tongue and hold it
pressed against the lower teeth, will ( provided that the pupil is con-
scientious) very often induce this injurious tetanic vibration of the
e iglottis, tongue and finally the jaw.
The vibrato consists of a periodically applied nerve impulse to all
muscles used in phonation, while the tremolo is merely an injurious,
tetanic Buttering of the walls of the resonance cavities. Of course, where
there is a tremolo, tension on the constrictor muscles of the throat always
occurs, so that the mouth becomes the resonator of the tone, and pharyn-
geal resonance adjustment is impossible. The tremolo occurs equally
with soft and loud tones, while the vibrato appears only at M.P. for the
given voice and then augments as the intensity increases.
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 Remember that when the vibrato is absent, the quality of the tone
is always unpleasant. The training of the vibrato is, therefore, of the
utmost importance.
The tremolo action occurs only when the throat is closed, i.e., when
technic is throaty. The true VJ'bratois in eJfect a fluctuation on open·
tension and occurs only when opening tension has been established.
means that an advanced stage in the technical development has
been reached. At this stage the tremolo has necessarily been eliminated.
The teacher must not attempt to develop the vibrato before this stage
has been reached. If any attempt is made to develop a vibrato from an
absolute tremolo, the effect will be merely to engender an unpleasmt
wobble in the voice.
There is, however, a type of vocal movement which is between the
vibrato and the tremolo, -despite the fact that the true vibrato and the
absolute tremolo are entirely different phenomena. This "tremolo vibrato"
movement is far more vigorous than the insipid tongue tremolo of the
typical radio singer.• For this reason it is often possible to change the
former into a true vibrato. This process is often quite a simple one. As
soon as pharyngeal resonance adjustment has been established, the
teacher should, in most cases, be able to co-ordinate, without much difB.
culty, the muscular.,_actionsof the thorax, larynx and tongue in their
proper phase and a,..,litude relations for the true vibrato. The hundred
percent light, soft ~1*1/J must always be entirely eliminated and the
tongue action reversed,~fore any serious attempt can he made to de-
velop a true vibrato. -
When the voice is "dea~ ateady,the process of developing a vibrato
may or may not be a difBcul!' one. In some cases, when the concept of
what constitutes a beautiful tone is lacking, the process is extremely
arduous. When the pupil has bee~subjected to injurious teaching meth-
ods, he may have developed the habit of holding a steady tension on the
muscles of the thorax ( especially on the expiratory muscles) to such a
degree that he has become virtually muscle-bound. Under such circum-
stances, the process of engendering the concept of a free movement of
the muscles of the thorax is indeed difficult. The v«fr untalented beginner
is sometimes found in a muscle-bound condition. l.Jnderi,ormal circum-
stances, however, where the pupil has a certaiD degr8' of talent for
singing, this vibrato concept is easily attained. Actually..tlte movement
of the diaphragm which actuates the vibrato is of very '1all
amplitude,
but it can be definitely sensed.
As soon as the necessary stage in the technical development has been
reached, it is absolutely essential that work on the vibrato should be
undertaken. Various devices may be employed to engender the concept
of the "on" and "off" impulse of the vibrato. One exercise which has
proved helpful is to make the pupil sing a vigorous but smooth, not jerky,
"shake," accentuating the upper tone. When doing this exercise he must
make sure that the diaphragm is in motion. The vibrato movement in-

• The "tremolo vibrato" and "vibrato tremolo" are brought about by means of
a fluttering action of the tongue which goes from "opening" to "closing" tension.
The true vibrato Is a movement on "opening" tension only, and the absolute
tremolo on constriction only. •
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volves a "'1woffon on a tenafon of the musclesof the thorax.which move-
ment-though slight-can actually be felt. When this shake can be
performedvigorouslyand smoothly,it is often possible for the singer to
speedit up and thus change it into the semi-reflexedvibratoaction.
Sometimesthe vibratomay be developedfrom a slow wobble which is
actuated by the muscles of the thorax. If the wobble is slow, the pitch
change is very wide. When it is speeded up to the desired frequency
( 6 per second), the pitch change should become normal ( about a semi-
tone) and the sensation of the vibrato movement should be experienc
Faulty methods of inspiration inhibit the vibrato action. This 1·
ticularly true of the pupil who inflates his chest and brings t ·
bear on the muscles of the upp er ribs. A proper inspiration ·
plished primarily through the inflation of the lower part o
which engenders tension on the muscles of the diaphr agm IIPIIMIJIIII• er
ribs. It is these muscles which move for the vibrato. son
anyone who, through faulty teaching methods , or beca abit ,
inflates and raises his chest, must be carefully instru proper
method of inspiration. If the muscles of the thorax tension
before the tone is attacked , the vibrato action is · e vibrato
action must be initiated at the moment of att ac} IP 'V !l:' ~ 111~-rsist as long
as the singer continues to phonate.
When a correct vibrato has been attaine d · n of the ability
to encompass all speed work, legato sin · the trill, becomes
quite a simple matter, which , . in the s dependent solely
upon the singe;;!t
·::~==~
co-ordinated, ...
- conceive, as a single,
es ( musical phrases) ,
each tone with d duration.
One of the IXJOl&flrlli er whose technic is faulty,
is slurring. The g is the production of musi-
cal tones, and •!l'lll
~u,n11~es and phrases. A musical
figure is a sma1\A~,Wl{(,'L" '.-·~·t• ore of these groups comprise a
melody. The of the phrase is always marked
with a cadence) g s of a far wider group of notes. Whether
it be the single oup of notes forming the musical figure
or the phrase , e itself a definite pitch or frequency , except
for the vibra Wh en playing the piano, one can only strike
the keys, an possible to strike a wrong key, it is not possible
to play bE"'i In other words, each time a key on a piano is
struck , ch or frequ ency is emitted, and this frequency
dilled, i.e., either sharped or Batted.
with the violinist, etc., is, unhappily, not in
tances as the pianist or the performer on any
e can slur. He can at any moment , especially
from one tone to the next instead of changing
iate noises. It is, of course, apparent , from
J t the singer should never, under any circum-
., •Y well-produced voice functions like a keyed
· -..- 1.. 1 e and clearly defined adjustments of pitch
n) , quality and intensity for each semitone.
nsity may be varied, the pitch adjustment
m e steps with absolutely nothing in between .
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 All badly taught singers slur, as do practically all beginners. Badly trained
singers, however , are generally the worst offenders in this direction. In
the case of a singer whose high tones are incorrectly produced and out
of resonance adjustment, the struggle involved in the attempt to produce
these tones engenders, in his subconscious mind, a sense of fear, or
inhibition. Such inhibition inevitably results in slurring . There is only one
way in which slurring can be eliminated-by means of the vibrato. Lack
" of vibrato always causes slurring .
slur may be defined as a smooth slide in frequency, whereas, when
·c is correct, changes of pitch are accomplished by means of the
echanism which enables the singer to climb up or down the scale

onation, whether on one tone or over a series of tones, the

ibrato should continue uninterrupted, unless a consonant
inte this vibrato movement which allows the voice to move
from e without slurring, stopping or jerking. The transition
from on oth er must take place in the space of one vibrato.
During tli e of the vibrato, the laryngeal and pharyngeal mus-
cles are rel ed, and the next "on" impulse allows the vocal
cords to take"llllff'lru.ll!t''llllr:isionfor the next tone while the muscles which
actuate the ton th eir tension, and "position" the resonance
system for the n its characteristics. As the singer moves up
a rising musical .6 to impulse which r_rusesthe pitch and
intensity must be au
It is possible to obt ing only when
this movement on the ViM'a ihaping of the
resonance cavities depen pitch, timbre
and intensity, and the mu cles oncept if they
are in what might be terme rato maintains
all the muscles used in phona g, condition.
One of the most vital phas of time and
rhythm . When the voice is produc ro of the vibrato
is nearly mechanically perfect. Hence, t proper vibrato
becomes a sort of human metronome . Each lffllte11a..il"'11Msical phrase has
a certain time spot. The minimum length of -produced tone
can be held is one vibrato-about a sixth of a can also be
held any length of time which is a whole m b vibrato . It
cannot be held for part of one vibra to . The ti is fixed
irrespective of the tempo - it is one vibra to.
phrase , each note in the music, according to
two three or more vibratos. Where a slur is ·
singer should execute a definite diatonic or c
In singing scales, or any other form of r
run must be accomplished on the vibrato,
work is called for, the vibrato can be quit
especially when the voice is a light one. In
can be obtained when the singer has learned
in these circumstances, each and every tone
distinct and there will be no slur between to
run" effect is accomplished.
If a singer tries to move over a musical fig e without vibrato,
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he has no time-gauge for the value of each tone, and he will, therefore,
inevitably slur, because he is uncertain as to the exact moment at which
he is t~ change the pitch.
It is transparent that, if a singer slurs from one tone to another, the
resonance adjustment must be faulty for one or both of the tones. If he
were to hold the adjustment for the first tone, the second tone, which
should have a different adjustment, would be out of adjustment . Generally
speaking, however, the singer who slurs will not hold the adjustment of
the lower tone, but will actually go into constriction as he pushes or forces
his voice up the scale.
The trill also is dependent upon the vibrato action. It is virtually a
speeded-up, exaggerated vibrato, which has been reflexed-"reflexed"
because, while the speed of the vibrato can, within certain limits, be
regulated, the speed of the trill is fixed for a given voice. It is probable
that both the laryngeal and the pharyngeal movements are greater in
proportion to the movement of the thorax for the trill than for the vibrato.
Unfortunately, imitations of vibrato runs and trills can be made with
the tremolo. The resultant effect is a squeaky, little run-up for the scale,
and a tremor for the trill.

One point regarding vibrato and tremolo must be emphasized.

Virtually every pupil starts with either some form of tremolo, or with
a "dead-steady" tone. Only a well-produced voice has a true vibrato.
When the "dead-steady" tone, which is always more or less throaty,
has been completely "opened up," the vibrato nearly always appears
spontaneously. If it does not dq, so, it is a relatively simple matter
for the pupil to bring it into action. Actually there is seldom, if ever,
any difficulty with the vibrato with voices which have been really
"opened up."
Eliminationof Tremolo
The elimination of the tremolo is, then, one of the first problems
to be worked out in training the voice. The tremolo generally
emanates from a lack of development of the genio-glossus muscle
and excessive tension on the antagonistic tongue muscles, also from
relaxation of the genio-hyoid muscle, from a tetanic quiver of the
jaw, or from a combination of these causes. The tongue instrument
and the lifting of the hyoid bone are of great value in checking the
tremolo, but where it is seated in the jaw, the complete opening of
this member should eliminate it. Tremolo is nearly always associate_c;l
_i~w

- -
_of_tl_!~
the lock, or middle, p_ositio!1 1 alfJ!ougli
~!Lci~ :~
whentheJilw ts closed, -or nearly closed.
----- -- - - - ---- ----- -

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 Violent Tremolos
Sometimes the tremolo action is so pronounced that it involves
the entire suspension of the larynx. Under such circumstances all
the manipulations which can be employed should be brought to
bear on the elimination of this shocking wobble, which may have
a pitch excursion of a fifth or even more.
There is also a violent tremolo which seems to be seated in the
larynx and is probably a result of excessive tension on the thyro-
arytenoid muscles. This tremolo is the result of a virulent form of
muscular mixed registration and is eliminated as soon as pure regis-
tration has been established.

Quality, Voice Movement and Reproduction

In regard to singing on the radio and for the records and movies,
there is not very much to be said here. Power is not a factor in
reproduction, because the amount of energy delivered to the am-
plifier depends upon the setting of the input control, which is
regulated according to the loudness of the singer's voice. We are,
therefore, only reproducing pitch, vowel, movement and, of course,
consonants.
Quality, i.e., pleasant or unplel<.ant quality, does not depend
primarily upon the spectrum, but rather upon pitch and intensity
movements in time. It is possible that changes of spectrum may occur
during the vibrato cycle, but further research is necessary before
anything more can be said on this subject .. The fact remains, how-
ever, that if the movement is regular, of the proper frequency, i.e.,
six a second, and of the proper amplitude for the intensity, and if
the middle pitch of the vibrato is constant ( i.e., the pitch is cen-
tered properly) the quality is pleasing. Now, unfortunately, a gentle
tremolo is very regular and, provided that the voice is not pushed,
the middle pitch of this movement may be relatively constant. This
is why the radio crooner sounds rather nice, provided that he never
attempts to sing out loud. Of course, if he does try to do so, the
laryngeal muscles do not hold and the arytenoid cartilages "give,"
with the result that the pitch starts to wander, and the quality
becomes definitely unpleasant.

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 Differenceof Vibrato from Tremolo
The singer whose voice is throaty and has a tremolo maintains
this flutter in his voice all the time he is singing. It is more or less
constant over his entire-very limited-intensity range. The singer
whose voice is produced properly, however, has virtually no move-
ment at pianissimo. As he swells the tone, the vibrato starts to
appear. At M.F. it is about a semitone. At fortissimo it may be as
much as a whole tone. For all normal, full, free singing the pitch
excursion of the vibrato is almost exactly a semitone, while the
intensity excursion is from three to five decibels. For extremely loud
effects the pitch excursion may be as much as three semitones. ( See
Fig. 33. )
Vibrato in Reproduction
With the old acoustical method of recording, when there was no
amplifier and no input control, the singer had to regulate the loud-
ness himself by moving into or away from the horn. Because the
intensity range which could be recorded was very limited, it was
necessary for him to become highly proficient in these movements.
Nevertheless, this procedure made it impossible for the vibrato to
be reproduced faithfully.
In order that the amplitude of the vibrato may be faithfully repro-
duced, it is essential that the intensity should not be monitored.
Thus, if the singer moved closer to the horn for a soft tone, the
reproduced sound was far louder in the intensity scale than he was
actually singing. Hence, every time he moved towards the horn,
the tone which was reproduced had too little vibrato for its in-
tensity. Inversely, when he moved away from the horn, the intensity
was very much reduced. Therefore, the amplitude of the vibrato
was too wide for the loudness of the tone when it was reproduced.
It was, of course, impossible for him to avoid these movements,
towards and away from the horn, because if he had remained sta-
tionary, and far enough away from it not to overcut the groove for
his loudest tones, the soft tones would have been entirely submerged
by surface noise, and therefore inaudible.
The old records, therefore, do not show the proper amplitude
of the vibrato for the intensity being sung. This effect was aggra-
vated because of the extremely high surface noise. Furthermore,
the softer tones were then, inevitably far too loud in comparison
with the louder ones. For this reason, the records of the voices of
the great singers of the past often show what seems to be too little
movement for the relative intensity of the tone being sung. This
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is especially true of women and is strikingly exempl.i6ed on the
records of Emmy Destinn, probably the greatest woman singer ever
heard.
Great Voices RelativelySteady
A great voice is generally far steadier than a throaty one, and a
perceptible vibrato movement occurs only when the intensity rises
above pianissimo. Virtually every singer today has much too much
movement, and this is especially true at low intensity. The basic
tone should not be a wobble. When the technic is good, it is firm and
the pitch is absolutely defined.
These facts must be borne in mind when listening to the record-
ings of the great singers of the past, because these records were all
made by the old acoustical method. Their voices are apt to sound
rather dead. This was most emphatically not true in life-their
vibrato control was excellent. In listening to these records, the dis-
tortion of the vibrato, as well as the failure to reproduce the highe1
frequencies, and the irregular speed of the turntable in the record-
ing mechanism, must be taken into account. Nevertheless, the in-
telligent listener should be able to detect the incredible difference
between the voices of such singers as Caruso, Destinn, Melba, Kirkby
Lunn, Sammarco, etc., and those of the best singers of today.
The reader should listen, for example, for the precision of intona-
tion, the perfection of attack, the continuity of the musical line, the
definition of intensity for each tone in a musical phrase, the vibrato-
regulated intensity control, the legitimate, open pianissimo, the
rhythmic phrasing and the flow and movement of the voice from tone
to tone. The most striking difference lies perhaps in the lack of slur
and in the fact that each tone in a melodic line is struck in the
center of pitch and held at constant intensity, for its entire time
spot, without pitch or intensity variation. The singers of today slur
into, and out of, practically every tone, and they keep on changing
the loudness of each individual tone in a musical phrase. This is
not singing music at all. More of this later.

ColoraturaTechnic-Vibrato and Tremolo

The constricted, "squeak voice" form of singing which emanates
from the so-called coloratura soprano moves on the tremolo. Such
coloraturas run on the tremolo, tremolo their trills, and squeak their
staccati. Fluttering up and down is not running a scale. A properly
executed run moves on the vibrato. When the vibrato is in proper
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control, all runs can be made legitimately and without difficulty.
The singer who uses a throaty tremolo should not be allowed to
attempt runs until she has learned how to sing.

PianissimoSinging
There has been a great deal of discussion about pianissimo sing-
ing. No pupil should sing softly until pharyngeal resonance adjust-
ment is completely established. There is nothing so technically
destructive as illegitimate, soft singing. The throaty singer can
squeeze off the tone with his neck and tongue muscles with con-
summate ease. It is far easier for him to sing a soft than a loud tone.
The inverse is true when the voice is "opened up" -not throaty .
This is not only because the control of intensity should be a function
of the laryngeal muscles, not of the neck and tongue muscles, but
also because there is virtually no vibrato in a soft tone, and a tone
sung without the muscular release of the vibrato action demands a
definitely augmented muscular effort and control. In decreasing the
intensity the balance of arytenoid to thyroid tension becomes
greater and the glottis opens slightly, so that the breath expulsion
becomes higher. 0 In order that the breath pressure may be main-
tained against a less closed valve (glottis), the tension on the breath-
ing muscles must be augmented . Furthermore, because the
balance of tension between the thyroid and arytenoid muscles in the
larynx changes as the intensity decreases, and because this balance
is about the same for a pianissimo tone as it would be for a full
tone about four semitones higher, it is impossible for the singer
to produce a legitimate pianissimo tone at a pitch which is higher
than about four semitones lower than the highest tone he can sing
forte with an "open" technic. Moreover, it is impossible for him to
sing legitimate pianissimo tones at all until "opening" has been
completely established. If he attempts to do so before his technic
has reached the necessary stage of laryngeal and pharyngeal
(tongue) development, he will inevitably use the neck and reversed
tongue control and produce absolutely throaty tones, thereby com-
pletely destroying his voice. One of the greatest baritones lost his
voice in a few months because he tried to give lieder recitals in which
he sang mezza voce most of the time. This mezza voce was produced
by means of constriction, with the result that his voice "shut off"'
completely and he never sang a free tone again.
A properly produced, pianissimo tone is very beautiful, and con-

• See Science of Voice, Douglas Stanley, Carl Fisher, Inc., New York.
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veys many intensely poignant interpretive effects. It is, however,
something of a tour de force. The effort required to sing an entire
song pianissimo is at least as great as it would be to sing it trans-
posed up four semitones. Even the greatest singer is unlikely to
be able to maintain this level of tension throughout a recital.

ConstrictionParticularlyDestructiveto Great Voices

It is well to point out that the result is far more deadly when a
great, really "open," voice than when a partly "open" voice goes
into constriction. Highly developed, opening muscles are balanced
by developed antagonistic muscles. For this reason, when an "open"
voice produces a throaty tone, it is extremely throaty. This is why
a great voice is so very rapidly destroyed by incompetent teaching.
Teachers of today who "shut off" their pupil's voices deliberately,
unknowingly can destroy great, contemporary, natural voices before
they have had time to develop. Only mediocre voices survive such
training. If Caruso's voice had gone into constriction it would have
been completely eliminated. If Emmy Destinn had fallen into the
hands of a teacher who eliminated her lower register and made her
"focus" her voice in the "masque" she never would have sung at all.

Controlof Intensity
The fully-trained voice can sing at virtually any level of intensity,
and can gradually swell the tone from pianissrimoto fortissimo and
then decresendo to pianissimo again on a perfectly even line with-
out any transition of quality, and without, at any time, going into con-
striction. The singers of today generally have a loud voice ( not very
loud) and a mezzo voce, which is merely a trick of squeaking, in
absolute constriction, in a more or less mixed register. These two
methods of product;on are unrelated and such singers are unable
to swell the tone without a pronounced quality transition. They
never sing a legitimate, pianissimo tone. They merely "choke the
tone off" with their tongues and necks. This, most emphatically, is
not singing pianissimo. Many of the most successful singers of today
go through entire recitals with this neck-controlled, mezza-voce
technic. Let it be emphasized again : It is a fact that it is impossible
for anyone to sing ·a legitimate pianissimo tone unless he can sing
· an absolutely open fortissimo tone, at least four semitones higher.
The comment of a critic who states that a singer's mezza voce is
beautiful, but that he forces his voice when he sings loudly is absurd .
His mezzo ooce must be completely throaty. The loud tones, derived
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from this technic, are objectionable to the ear because the registra-
tion becomes very mixed and the throatiness becomes apparent,
even to the uninitiated, at the higher intensity level.
When the voice is "opened up" and registered properly, it is not
difficult for the pupil to produce pianissimo tones. All he has to
learn to do is to stop the vibrato and "hold," or work, harder, in-
creasing the work by about the same amount that would be de-
manded for the production of a tone four semitones higher than
the one he is singing.
Legitimate control of intensity depends, then, upon pure, devel-
oped, balanced registration, ability to "hold" pharyngeal resonance
adjustment at all intensities, and upon control over the. amplitude
of the vibrato.
Falsettoand Vibrato(Male)
Because the falsetto, in the man's voice, is pianissimo, or softer,
over most of his singing range, the vibrato should always be vir-
tually absent from this register. It should always be sung without
any movement at all below about high B. Thus, in "going through
the falsetto," the falsetto tone should be sung firmly without any
movement whatever, except for the very high tones. Most beginners
sing their falsetto tones with a definite tremolo action. This tremolo
must be eliminated, or the lower-register tone, derived from such
a falsetto tone, will be throaty and will have a very pronounced
tremolo. All mixed-falsetto singers use a definite, and often a pro-
nounced, tremolo action at all times, or a "dead" steady tone. The
tremolo makes a mixed-falsetto tone sound more like a real tone,
especially in reproduction. A properly-produced falsetto tone below
high D does not sound like real singing when it is unco_-ordinated
wJth_the_lower register. When it does, it is throaty, has a tremolo
and is not legitimate singing at all. Under such conditions it is
always mixed and has an irritatingly effeminate sound.

Falsettoand Vibrato (Female)

The woman's falsetto should have no movement for the low
tones, but because she sings an octave higher than a man, she will
sing legitimately in the falsetto register at about middle B, at M.P.
Therefore, at this pitch, some vibrato is desirable. Above this pitch
a definite vibrato should be present and its amplitude should depend
upon the loudness of the tone. It should not be too pronounced,
unless a very full tone is sung, and such a tone would not be sung
in the falsetto below about F#, on the top line of the treble clef.
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 Again-most voices have far too much movement. Our principal
problem with regard to movement lies in the elimination of tremolo
and in the cutting down of excessive vibrato . In most cases the
vibrato appears more or less automatically as soon as real "opening"
tension has been established.

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 Chapter 11

MIXED REGISTRATION

When mixed registration occurs, the tension is added to the aryte-

noid and the thyroid muscles simultaneously, during the swelling
of the tone, while, when the registration is pure, the added te11.sion
is first taken up by the arytenoid muscle~ thereby holding the
arytenoid cartilages finnzy io positioo, aD!l,then, at a certain inten-
sity, depending upon the pitch, the added tension is taken up by
an increase in tension on the th oid muscles. The tension on the
arytenoid muscles must · use the vocal
cords are stretched at higher tension for the higher pitches, and,
therefore, the "hold" on the arytenoid cartilages mustbe augmented.
This is why the falsetto action becomes more important, and more
prominent, as the pitch rises. This theory seems to be supported
strongly by the efficacy of the laryngeal manipulations.
However, this explanation of the phenomena of mixed registration
demands further elucidation.

Length and Tension of Vocal Cords Controls Pitch

The fundamental pitch generated by the vocal cords depends
upon their length and tension. If the length is kept constant and
the tension is increased, the pitch rises: The pitch is proportional
to the tension. If the length increases and the tension is kept con-
stant, the pitch drops: The pitch is inversely proportional to the
length. However, when the tension increases, the cords would
lengthen, provided that some other mechanism did not come into
play for the purpose of shortening them. The problem is, therefore,
somewhat complex.

Thyro-arytenoidMuscles
The vocal cords are controlled by muscles which can stretch
them, shorten them or stretch and shorten them at the same time.
The crico-thyroid muscles stretch them. The thyro-arytenoid mus-
cles shorten them. ( See Figs. 2 & 36.) These muscles, which are
situated in the cords themselves, shorten them when they contract,
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i.e., come into tension. At the same time, they pull against-are
antagonistic to-both the crico-thyroid and the arytenoid muscles.
Here, then, we have a most significant fact: One set of muscles,
which can raise the pitch by shortening the vocal cords, is antagonis-
tic to both the crico-thyroid and the arytenoid muscles which stretch
them. ( See Fig. 36.)
If the rise in pitch were looked after by the stretching action of
the crico-thyroid and arytenoid muscles alone, the cords would
merely lengthen as the pitch rose. X-ray pictures of the vocal cords
in action indicate that this is not the case and that, actually, they
shorten. It is apparent, then, that strong thyro-arytenoid action must
occur. The problem is: How much thyro-arytenoid action should
occur when the technic is good, and how much occurs when it is
faulty-mixed registration?
X-ray pictures which have been taken up to date are of little or
no value in elucidating this problem, b~use they were taken indis-
criminately, without the recording of any data regarding the tech-
nical characteristics of the tones being produced. If this research
were to be carried out under proper conditions, much might be
learned, and would undoubtedly show that the vocal cords are longer
when the technic (registration) is good than when it is faulty
(mixed). To test this statement it would be necessary to find sub-
jects who could produce both good and throaty-preferably "squeak
voice"-high tones and who could do this under the physical con-
ditions necessary for the taking of the pictures.

Equilibrium
of LaryngealMuscles
This, then, is what probably occurs when the technic is good:
The laryngeal muscles are in equilibrium. The arytenoid muscles are
strong-strong enough to hold the arytenoid cartilages firmly in
position so that they never "give." The crico-thyroid muscles stretch
the vocal cords for the given pitch to the maximum possible degree.
The thyro-arytenoid action never outpulls the arytenoid tension
and at the same time balances the crico-thyroid pull. ( See Fig. 36 A,
B &C .) .

MixedRegistrationand Thyro-arytenoid
Muscles
On the other hand, it appears very probable that, when the technic
is faulty and the registration mixed, the thyro-arytenoid pull is
excessive, with the result that it "outpulls" the crico-thyroid tension,
and therefore over-shortens the cords, and at the same time over-
comes the arytenoid "hold" so that the arytenoid cartilages "give."
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This action could occur to any degree. Thus, any degree of mixed
registration can be present. When mixed registration is present, the
other laryngeal muscles ( crico-thyroid and arytenoid) never have a
chance to develop and, in actual practice, are put more nd more
out of action as the mixture increases. At the same time the tension
on the neck muscles increases with each increase in the ~'ture
of the registration ( excessive thyro-arytenoid action) b~au e these ·
muscles perform the function which should belong to the aryteno,d
muscles. The louder the pupil, whose registration -ismixed, sing!ithe
more pronounced does this condition become. Thus, as the excessive
thyro-arytenoid action augments, the tension on the neck ·muscles
also increases and the. voice, which deteriorates very rapidly indeed,
is ultimately altogether ruined.
In view of the fact that excessive thYJYlarytenoid tension pulls
against both the stretching action of the crico-thyroid muscles and,
at the same time, against the "holding" action of the arytenoid mus-
cles, we would expect to find that both registers partake of mixed
registration whenever one Jegfst« fs mixed. This is actually always
the case. Mixture of both registerscan progress until a point is
reached at which the regiltrationaction entirely disappears. When
this stage has been reached, the voice is virtually destroyed, be-
cause the singer only produce sounds-noises-of a most un-
pleasant quality.'Die physical distortions which accompany this
condition are extremely distressing and, in many cases, physical
injury resulb:. ( See Fig. 36 D.)

MuscularExplanationof Octave Reflection

This theorygives a possible explanatio, of the octave reflection
between the two registers. Let us suppose that, when the pitch is
raised an octave, the length of the vocal cords is reduced to half.
Then the tension required on -the crico-thyroid and arytenoid mus-
cles :o hold the vocal cords in tension for this pitch, would be the
SaJD~ as that required to hold them in tension at double the length
for the octave below. The maximum "hold" between these two
grrups of muscles, which can be attained at any given stage of
d.velopment, is determined by the highest tone which can be sung
iI' the lower register. This same stage of muscular development
\1fOuldthen, under these circumstances, allow the singer to produce
a tone in the falsetto exactly one octave higher, with the vocal cords
a half the length, and no more. It seems to be the first satisfactory
splanation of the octave reflection between the registers; and this
o::tave refiection is fact.
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 THYRO·ARYTENOID THYROID
MUSCLE CARTILAGE
ARYTENOID VOCAL CORD
CARTll,AGE Thyro-orytenoid tension

CRICO·
IJIYTENOID
MUSCLES
-,- \ -1-
ARYTENOIO END THYROID ENO
Crico-orytenoid Crico-thyroid
teft1ion tenMOft
CRICO·
THYROID
MUSCLE

CRICOID
CARTILAGE
l'ITCH INTENSITY
A
Fig. 86-Laryngeal Teri.>bnafor Pitch Adjustment and Intensity
Augmentation
A-This shows a s;mplified vertical cr~ss section of the parts of the larynx used
for pitch adjustment and also shows the ldlematic form used in B, C and D to aplain
intensity augmentation. The terms "aryteaold end" and "thyroid end" refer to the
ends oi the vocal cords controlled by the crico-arytenoid muscles and the crico-
thyroid muscles. Also arrows indicate forces or ..i>lllla,"not movement, during pho-
nation .
The rear and bottom part of the thyroid cartilage o;,rojects into the cricoid carti·
lage al the facet for articulation, shown in A. This joir.ing allows the cricoid carti·
lage to rotate at this facet. Therefore, when the crico-tl!yrold muscles are tensed ,
they approximate the thyroid cartilage and the cricoid cart',lage, tending to pull the
thyroid cartilage down and to rotate the cricoid cartilage at the facet for articula-
tion with the thyroid cartilage. This action causes the posterior part of the cricoid
cartilage to pull baclr. and its anterior part to 11111vetoward 6e thyroid cartilage;
this action stretches the vocal cords.
There are two "pulls" on the arytenoid cartilages when the cricc.-arytenoid muscles
come into tension. The posterior crico-arytenoid muscles draw the outer angles or
the arytenoid cartilages backward and inward , while the latera, crico-arytenoid
muscles draw the arytenoid cartilages forward and downward. (See Fig . 2.) The
combined action of these two pairs of muscles holds the arytenoid cartilages firmly
to the cricoid cartilage. The stretching action of the vocal cords bro~t about by
tension on the crico-thyroirl muscles can occur efficiently only if the Jl()lterior and
lateral crico-arytenoid muscles bold the arytenoid cartilaga firmly to the cricoid
cartilage .
At the same time the tbyro-arytenoid muscles, which lie In the vocal etrda them-
selves, shorten the vocal cords. Therefore, this shortening action is antaa,nistic to
the stretching action; one action "pulls" against the other.
In other words, there is the stretching action, or more or less forward "pull."
resulting from crico-thyroid tension, and the "holding" action, or backwa rd pull,
resulting from crico-arytenoid tension ( which stops the arytenold cartilage: from
moving forward). These two pulls are balanced by means of the contractng or
shortening action of the thyro-arytenoid muscles.
Pitch Adj11stme11t-Pitch is determined by the length of and tension on the ,ocal
cords. The thyro-arytenoid muscles shorten and tense the vocal cords. The c·ico-
thyroid muscles lengthen and tense the vocal cords. The joint action of the two gr<ups
of muscles determines the length of and tension on the vocal cords, provided bat
the crico-arytenoid muscles hold the arytenoid cartilages firmly to the cricoid :ar-
tilage.
As the pitch ascends, the tension on the laryngeal muscles becomes greater tnd
the vocal cords shorten. Therefore, the greatest amount of tension one is able to
put on the laryngeal muscles determines theoretically the highest pitch that an in-
dividual can sing.
For the low pitches , long vocal cords at relatively low tension are used. Tb11.
tension on the luyngeal muscles decreases as the pitch descends. Also, as the pllch
descends and the tension on the laryngeal muscles decreases, the voice "fades Ott."

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 THYRO·ARYTENOIO. MUSCLE
tenses and short•,.. the vocal cord, VOCAL CORO
Tention ,emain1 con,ta"t with

...,- . ' +-I_.

9reater intc,,.ity .

CRICO· ARYTENOIO ENO THYROID ENO

ARY'l'ENOID Tefttio" inc,co, .. TefttiOft ,eaoins
MUSCLES with ca,eater constant with
tense, thereby ;,.tensity. 9r.ater i11tenlity.
holcli119arytenoid
ca'rtila9e fir•ly to
cricoid cartila~.

CRICO•THYROIO MUSCLE
tc111H, thereby teMift9 and
len9thenin9 the vocal cords,

PITCH INTENSITY
B
Fig. 36-Laryngeal Tensions for Pitch Ad;ustment and Intensity
Augmentation (continued)
Finally the tensio:1 on the vocal cords decreases to the point where the vocal cords
become so loosely strung that there is no audible noise when they vibrate.
Intensity Augmentation-After the laryngeal muscles "set" for the pitch, the
vocal cor Js are at a definite length and tensed a definite amount. Since more tension
can produce greater intens:tics and since tension on the vocal cords increases as the
pitch asccn;s. intensity augments as the pitch ascends. Ir,v~rsely, intensity diminishes
as the p'trh descends.
After lhc vocal cords have been strung (set) for the pitch, it is necessary to make
laryngeal tension adjustments in order to augment the intensity at that pitch. That
is, as thr breath pressure increases, causing the vocal cords to vibrate at an aug-
mented amplitude. the arytenoid-end and thyroid-end pulls must increase if the vocal
cords are to retain their stringing . Therelore, intensity augmentation depends not
only upon increased breath pressure. but also upon the amount of tension the end
pulls can exert on the vocal cords. These en:! pulls keep the vocal cords strung by
holding at both ends as the breath pressure increases. Therefore. the end pulls must
acid tension or "hold" when intensity is augmented--otherwise both ends of the vocal
cords would "give" as the vocal-cord vibrations became greater .
B,- This shows the p,tch adjustment and intensity augmentat:on for one pitch in the
pu,:t lalsetto register .
Pitch Adjustment-The pitch in the falsetto register is adjusted by the same groups
of muscles described previously. However, for a definite pitch, the tension on these
muscles is lower than in the lower register. In other words, in the falsetto register,
the thyro-arytenoid and crico-thyroid muscles are al minimum tension for a particular
pitch.
Because the falsetto register uses less laryngeal tension than the lower register,
the highest pitches that can be produced are in the falsetto register.
As previously stated. when the pitch descends. the tension on the laryngeal muscles
decreases-the vocal cords becoming more loosely strung. Therefore, since the falsetto
register uses less tension for the pitch and since less tensed vocal cords produce the
low pitches. the falsetto register becomes inaudible before the lower register does:
that is, the lower register only can produce low pitches, since it is at higher tension
than the falsetto reg'ster .
Intensity Augmentatio11-As shown in B, for intensity augmentation, the posterior
and lateral crico-arytenoid muscles increase tension-holding the arytenoid carti·
lages firmly a11:ainstthe cricoid cartilage. This holding action at the arytenoid enj
is the clisting11ishin11:
action durln11:lalsetto-re11:isterintensity augmentation.
Of course, the crico-thyroid and thyro-arytenoid muscles are already tensed for
the pitch, and this tension is great enough also to support the thyroid cartilage

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 tHYRO·AAYTENOIO MUSCLE
tenMt oncl thotten, the wocol co,cl,
VOCAL CORO
Tention increase, with 9reate,

CRICO·
.:i.:::
\ ~,-
ARYTENOIO ENO THYROID ENO
ARYT£NOIO
MUSCLES Tention tN1ain1 Tension iftcreoMJ
con,tont (lioaiaua). with 9reote,
i11te11,ity.

CIIIICO•THYROIO MUSCLE
ten ... , therell)' tenti"'I and
len9the11i"9 the vocal co,dt.

PITCH INTENSITY
C
Fig. 36-Laryngeal Tensions for Pitch Adjustment and Intensity
Augmentation (continued)
through the falsetto-register intensity augmentation at that pitch . The tension at
the arytenoid end (holding action) continues to increase throughout the falsetto-
register range ol intensity-until it is necessary for the crico-thyroid and thyro-
arytenoid muscles to increase tension in order to "hold" and keep the thyroid cartilage
supported when the amplitude of the vibrations o( the vocal cords is augmented
beyond a certain point (this lower-register action is described in C). In other
words, the crico-arytenoid muscles must increase tension or else the arytenoid carti-
lages will "give," resulting in excessive thyro-arytenoid action-that is, shortened
vocal cords and, consequently, a mixed falsetto register.
C-This shows the pitch adjustment and intensity augmentation for one pitch
in the pure lower register.
Pitch Adjustment-The lower-register pitch is adjusted by the same groups of
muscles used for the falsetto-register pitch adjustment. However, the tension on the
crico-thyroid and thyro-arytenoid muscles is increased in this register. Consequently,
the vocal cords are more highly strung and are probably longer. (Because the thyro-
·arytenoid muscles tense to counteract the increased crico-thyroid tension, theoretically
the vocal cords must be longer-otherwise the pitch would ascend as the vocal cords
became more tense and highly strung).
For this reason and because low pitches fade due to the relatively relaxed string-
ing o( the vocal cords, the lower register can produce the lowest pitches.
This increase of laryngeal tension for the lower register also explains why the
lower-register pitch cannot be carried up as high as the falsetto register. In other
words, since more laryngeal tension is needed !or the lower register than for the
falsetto register at one pitch and since more laryngeal tension is needed as the pitch
ascends, one cannot sing as high pitches in the lower register as in the falsetto
register.
/nltmsity Augmc11tation-As described previously, the falsetto-register intensity
augmentation (arytcnoid-end pull) continues until it is necessary for the crico-
thyroid and thyro-arytenoid muscles to increase tension in order to maintain the
stringing ol the vocal cords at the thyroid end (thyroid cartilage). However, when
intensity in the lower register is augmented and the crico-thyroid and thyro-arytenoid
muscles increase tension, not only is the thyroid cartilage supported further, but
also the vocal cords are probably stretched longer.
01 course, the amount of lower-register intensity augmentation possible depends
on the stage o( development o( the laryngeal muscles.
Supporting the thyroid cartilage, and lengthening and increasing the tension on
the vocal cords are the distinguishing functions of the lower register during intensity
augmentation. Of course, the holding of the arytenoid cartilages to the cricoid carti-
lage ( arytenoid-end pull) must continue if the lower register is to be pure and a
mixed lower register is to be avoided.

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 THYRO·ARYTENOID MUSCLE
ten, .. and thorlent the vocal
eord ••ce11il,ely (i.e., 1ho,.ten1
vocal cord- at relatiYely low tention),
VOCAL CORD
Ten,iri,n increases eacenively
with 9reoter i11ten1ity ,

CRICO-
\
ARYTENOiD
MUSCLES ARYTENOID END THYROID END
•-. in1uffi
0
TMtiOfli11crea1n TenMon ineteaw1
ci-tly- ill,urrici-tly inturficiently
arytenoid with 9reater with 9reater
cortiloqe, inten,ity , ifttentily;
\ive."

CRICO-THYROID MUSCLE
l••e• intufficiently, tron1ferrin9
pitch reguloliOII pri-rily to
thyro-arytenoid _,clet.

PITCH INTENSITY
D
Fig. 86-Laryngeal Tensions for Pitch Ad;ustment and Intensity
Augmentation (concluded)
D-This shows the pitch adjustment and intensity augmentation during absolute
mixed registration.
Pitch Adjustment-The adjustment or pitch is made by the improperly co-ordinated
tensions on laryngeal muscles. The crico-thyroid and crico-arytenoid muscles are under-
tensed (and, therefore, never develop) and the thyro-arytenoid muscles are over-
tensed (soon becoming over-developed) : consequently, because or this under-tensing
(resulting in under-lengthened vocal cords) and over-tensing (resulting in bunched-up
vocal cords), the pitch is never accurately "set." If this practice is continued, the
vocal cords become progressively shortened and ultimately become so short and so
bunched up that the voice is destroyed.
Intensity Augmentation-For intensity augmentation in mixed registration, the
laryngeal muscles increase tension by the same incorrect co-ordination established
for pitch adjustment-too much tension increase in the vocal cords (thyro-arytenoid
muscles) and not enough tension increase at either the arytenoid or thyroid ends.
This unbalanced condition remains unbalanced at all intensities.
In order to keep the larynx healthy, the correct tensions for pitch and intensity,
as set forth in this book must be established and retained.

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 Effect of Lower-registerElimination
In accordance with this theory, let us consider what would occur
if the lower register were to be eliminated from a great, co-ordi-
nated, female voice. Such a voice would have pure registration,
balanced, laryngeal development and the muscular tensions in the
larynx would be in equilibrium. The first result of the elimination
of the lower register would be that the stretching action of the crico-
thyroid muscles would commence to lessen. This would necessitate
an increase in the degree of tension on the thyro-arytenoid muscles.
The vocal cords would then assume a shortened length, at lower
tension, for all pitches. The effect of this would be most pro-
nounced for the upper tones. As these conditions progressed the ten-
sion on the neck muscles would augment and the voice would
become increasingly throaty. At this stage, the singer would lose
the power and quality of all her lower and upper tones, the registers
would separate ( a register break would appear) and, at the same
time, the middle of the voice would mix, thicken and degenerate
into a throaty, mixed register. At the same time, a "shut off" falsetto
register ( squeak voice) would appear. She could probably now
sing very high tones, apparently easily, with this "shut off' falsetto
technic. Soon, however, the excessive "pull" on the thyro-arytenoid
muscles would overcome the "holding" action of the arytenoid mus-
cles and the arytenoid cartilages would "give." Because the "pull"
on the thyro-arytenoid muscles would have to be very great to
overcome the originally strong crico-thyroid and arytenoid muscles,
when the proper lower register action was eliminated, these muscles
would overcome the arytenoid "hold" in a relatively short time.
A stage would soon be reached when these constricted, high falsetto
tones would disappear. All that would ultimately be left would
be the mixed-register, throaty, middle tones. She would only be able
to sing a relatively few, thick, throaty, bad quality, mixed-register
tones in the middle of her voice.
There is the picture, and how cruelly familiar it isl Not one, but
every, great, woman's voice which has been heard in recent years
has gone through these stages and ended up in just this condition.
Every single one of them has eliminated her lower register! None of
them can sing a single, passably good quality tone any morel Not one
great voice is left!
When this elimination of the lower register is practised in the early
stages of training, the unfortunate pupil never really sings at all.
The better the voice, the more definite and prominent is the lower-
register action, and the more necessary does it become. This is the
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chief reason why no great voice has been heard for an entire genera-
tion.
Every contemporary great voice has been eliminated because of
this lack of understanding of the registration action, and specifically,
( more than from any other cause) because of the elimination of the
lower register, when it was naturally functioning properly.
Let us consider some examples of this process: There is the case
of a great lyric, coloratura soprano. Her voice was co-ordinated
beautifully, she used all the pure, lower-register tension that could
be desired. This register was eliminated. Her beautiful high and low
tones have disappeared. All that is left is the throaty, mixed "middle
voice." It is very sad! But she is now teaching technic-and that is
worse.
Then there is the case of the last, really great, dramatic soprano
who used to sing with Caruso, producing a flood of gorgeous tone
which was not put to shame by the greatest voice the world has
ever heard. She studied with a man who knew little or nothing of
the scientific theory of vocal technic, but she had, naturally, an
almost perfect technic, and this teacher did not interfere with it.
Then, unfortunately for her, she left him and started with another
teacher who eliminated her lower register. Then he tried to make
her sing the coloratura soprano roles. For a little while, she sang
Traoiatain a shut-off falsetto voic.e.By this time her voice had been
virtually destroyed. As it deteriorated she used less and less lower
register, and as the lower register degenerated, the falsetto became
more and more mixed, and the upper tones disappeared. The power
of her voice diminished rapidly and the quality became thick and
unpleasant. In the final stages of vocal degeneration she tried to
sing Carmen with a thick, throaty mixed-falsetto technic. She would
be in her prime today, had she been trained properly, or even if her
natural technic had not been tampered with.
There was a magnificent contralto who had a most remarkably
beautiful and powerful, co-ordinated lower register. The audience
often actually stood up and cheered when she held one of her
dramatic, "wide open," lower register, low tones. She went to a
teacher in Italy who eliminated her lower register. Each of her
records-she made only a few-shows less and less of this register
and more and more throatiness and mixture in the falsetto. In two
or three years she was virtually "out of the picture." She lost the
grandeur of her voice before she was thirty and never had time to
really "arrive."
The same thing happened with the voice of the second greatest
dramatic soprano of that generation ( Destinn was the greatest).
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She sang Norma-a great many times. Despite the fact that she was
a soprano, her lower register was far bigger and better than that
of any living contralto. She eliminated it-probably because some
ignorant teacher told her that it interfered with the high tones and
with the flexibility of her voice. That was the end of her real career.
She sang a little afterwards, but the voice was of no real moment,
and she passed out of the picture a few years later, just when she
might have been in her prime. She too is teaching voice!
This is certain: The elimination of the lower register always
destroys the voice. The better the voice, the more surely does this
destruction occur.
The muscular explanation given seems to cover the facts most
satisfactorily. The loss of the proper stretching action of the crico-
thyroid muscles transfers too much of the regulation of the pitch
to the thyro-arytenoid muscles. This mixes the registration and
destroys the voice. All these singers, and many others who have
lost their voices because of the elimination of the lower register,
end up with exactly the same sort of technic-a thick, throaty, mixed
register, wobbling voice with a very limited range-no high or low
tones.
Lengthof Vocal Cords and Quality
When the laryngeal muscles are ba1.ancedproperly and in equili-
brium, the arytenoid muscles perform their function in holding the
stringing of the vocal cords at the arytenoid end, and the crico-
thyroid muscles perform theirs in stretching the vocal cords, while
the thyro-arytenoid muscles function in balancing the entire struc-
ture and in shortening the vocal cords to the proper degree and
not too much. The relatively longer vocal cords would naturally tend
to produce a better quality of tone as well as a far fuller one. This
gives a further reason why the voice which is registered properly
sounds so much better, and is so much more powerful than the
improperly registered, or the unregistered, voice. If we add to this
the fact that the mixed-register voice must be throaty and that
throatiness interferes with the free vibration of the vocal cords and
eliminates pharyngeal resonance adjusbnent, it is not difficult to
understand why such incredible changes can be made in the power
and quality of the voice under proper training and, inversely, why
even the greatest voice loses its quality and most of its power when
it is incorrectly trained and the registration becomes mixed.

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 Volumeof Mixed-registerVoices
True, certain mixed-register voices can make a lot of noise. In
these cases the neck tension is very great and an extremely strong
breath blast is forced through the glottis which is closed by tension
on the constrictor muscles. When tension on the muscles of the neck
and jaw and the ,trength of the thyro-arytenoid muscles are suffi-
ciently developed, the singer may be able to force out a loud noise,
but this noise is not singing-it is most unpleasant to any ear which
can detect the diHerence between good and bad quality. The vocal
teacher who engenders mixed registration may actually like the
unpleasant noises which are emitted by his own pupils. He may
even prefer them to good quality tones, and deliberately strive to
teach his pupils to produce shrill, harsh, mixed-register sounds.

"Breaks"Are Not Necessarily Bad

To many individuals the elimination of the break between the
registers becomes a sort of "bugbear." They think that the singer
who has a break in her voice is just no good. True, a pedectly-
produced voice is co-ordinated. Nevertheless, this is only true of
a really perfect voice. Many very fine singers have had a definite,
and quite pronounced, break. Their registers were well matched
and the intensity line was satisfactory-but, they had a break. On
the other hand, some of the most unpleasant and throatiest voices
have no break! The absolute mixed-register voice has no break.
Thus, the singer whose voice is completely mixed can swell and
decrescendo the tone without a register transition, and in many
cases, can cover a relatively wide range and make a lot of noise.
Why, then, is this not the pedect condition? The answer is simple!
The mixed-register voice is not only altogether throaty and of most
unpleasant quality to the discriminating ear, but also, it is never
really in tune . Furthermore, this technic is physically harmful. In
actual fact it is not, in the true sense of the word, singing.

Intonationand Quality
Unfortunately there are a great many persons who cannot dis-
tinguish between a noise and a good quality tone. Furthermore, so
many of the singers of today base their interpretation upon slurred
effects, that the entire question of intonation has been consigned
to the background . Because intonation should be the first considera-
tion in the determination of pleasing quality, this is indeed a most
unfortunate state of affairs.
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 Similarityof Mixed and Co-ordinated Registration
Hence, it is to the undiscriminating ear that there seems to be
but little difference between a great voice and a mixed-register
voice. Both are without a break. Both can make a considerable
amount of sound. Both can swell and decrescendo the tone, without
a register change which is apparent to the listener. Both can cover a
considerable range. Nevertheless, one is unpleasant to listen to, off
key, throaty and harmful to the vocal apparatus-the other is great
singing. The teacher who cannot detect the difference is in a most
unfortunate position. He should not be teaching!
Some teachers boast that they have developed perfectly-trained,
co-ordinated voices when all they have actually succeeded in doing
was to establish complete mixed registration. Unfortunately, the
establishment of complete mixed registration is a very simple mat-
ter and by this method the break can be eliminated only too quickly
and easily. However, under such circumstances, the "voice" is also
eliminated. Complete co-ordination is the final stage of a long and
arduous process of properly conducted, vocal training.

CompleteCo-ordinationSeldomAttained
Complete co-ordination is never attained by the average vocal
student. Only the exceptionally talented pupil will ever reach this
stage of development and with such a student the problem is
relatively straightforward. The most important problem for the
teacher is the establishment and maintenance of pure registration
and the maintenance of a proper balance between the registers.
He must not be obsessed by the idea of eliminating the break in the
voice, or he will inevitably do irreparable harm.
When the training process is carried out properly, the break is
in no way objectionable. The registers soon match really well, and
the presence of a break does not interfere with the pupil's artistic
and musical performance of the compositions she sings.

PrematureEliminationof BreakEliminatesVoice
The elimination of the break, at too early a stage, is contingent
upon the elimination of the voice. The voice with a break can be a
nearly great voice. Only a few singers throughout the ages have
established a condition of complete co-ordination. Of the others, all
the finest voices have had a definite break. Thus, the fact remains
that it is extremely unlikely that the average pupil will establish
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complete co-ordination of the registers, because there are only a
very few singers who could ever, even under the best possible train-
ing, attain this ideal condition. The teacher who has several so-called
"co-ordinated" voices among his pupils has really succeeded only
in inducing mixed registration.

Pure "Open" RegistrationEstablishesGood Quality

The sound of a pure, "open" falsetto, or lower-register, tone is
always beautiful. The sound of a mixed-register tone is unpleasant •
and it is always more or less out of tune.
Actually, the use of two, properly defined registers is desirable,
because the judicious employment of the registers gives rise to many
interesting, and artistic, interpretive and color effects. Furthermore,
the fact that even the completely co-ordinated voice has pure,
defined registration must not be lost sight of. Pure registration is not
lost when co-ordination is attained and the interpretive effects
depending upon the register change are used by both the co-
ordinated voice and the properly registered voice which has a
break.
To sum up: The presence of a break is not a serious technical
fault. Complete co-ordination can occur only with a few phenome-
nally talented singers. Premature co-ordination merely means mixed
registration, which spells extreme throatiness, bad quality and vocal
destruction. The teacher must be able to distinguish between good
and bad quality, which are synonymous with pure and mixed regis-
tration. He must not worry about the presence of a break which
can be satisfactorily dealt with without the necessity of destroying
the voice by mixing the registers, and eliminating it in this manner.
Only the best and worst voices have no break. In all the intermediate
stages a break is present. There is no living singer who is nearly at
the stage at which pure, "open," co-ordinated registration would be
possible without a great deal of technical work. Therefore, a singer
with a break could, today, be the greatest singer in the world: _ _

Eliminationof EitherRegister Is Destructive

While the elimination of the lower register is absolutely destruc-
tive technically, the elimination of the falsetto is equally unfor-
tunate. Some teachers work on the lower register to the detriment
of the falsetto. If the lower register tension is too great for the fal-
setto tension ( thyroid development is not balanced with arytenoid
development), the arytenoid cartilages must inevitably "give," with
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the result that the cords shorten and the thyro-arytenoid action
becomes excessive. This action, in tum, automatically mixes the
lower register. Thus, the end result-mixed registration-is the same
as that brought about by the teacher who trains the falsetto, or
mixed register, only. It is, in fact, just as unfortunate, because the
lack of falsetto action produces a very unpleasant quality indeed,
and the complete lack of stabilization of tension on the vocal cords
causes the pitch to wander in a most distressing manner.

Relationshipof Hyoid Boneand ThyroidCartilage

This explanation of mixed registration indicates why, when one
register is mixed, the other must be mixed also. The "give" of the
arytenoid cartilages explains why the thyroid cartilage rotates and
closes the space between its upper, posterior edges and the hyoid
bone. ( See Fig. 21.) It also serves as a further explanation of the
helpful effect of pulling down the thyroid cartilage and of the manip-
ulation which opens up the space between the hyoid bone and
thyroid cartilage.
The registers must be completely separated and balanced, and
this balance must be maintained at all stages of training. No vocal
improvement is possible without this work on the laryngeal muscles.
One-register singing always leads to mixed registration-the worst
of all technical faults-which spells vocal degeneration and ultimate
vocal destruction.

MixedRegistrationand PitchAdjustment
The pitch change, in absolute mixed registration, is in all proba-
bility primarily a function of the thyro-arytenoid muscles. Under
such circumstances, changes in the balance of tension between the
thyroid and arytenoid groups of muscles, as the pitch changes, do
not occur. Thus, changes of pitch will, under these conditions,
depend more or less upon the shortening or lengthening of the
vocal cords through the action of the thyro-arytenoid muscles, while
the co-ordination of the crico-thyroid and the crico-arytenoid mus-
cles remains virtually constant. Therefore, it is not only possible for
the singer, whose registration is completely mixed, to slur as much
as he likes, but such slurring actually helps him to establish his
mixed-register control.
It is impossible for the singer, whose voice is registered properly,
to slur beyond a certain degree, because when he starts a slur, he
establishes the co-ordination of the laryngeal muscles for the first
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sound he emits. This sound is below, and often far below, the pitch
he intends ultimately to sing. Therefore, the balance of tension
between the crico-thyroid and crico-arytenoid muscles is entirely
out of adjustment. The amount of falsetto tension is then far less
than it should be. This maladjustment can be very great, because
some singers may slur at least an octave. Under such circumstances
the laryngeal adjustment is so far out of balance that a very great
strain is thrown on the vocal apparatus. For this reason the singer
who is registered and "opened up," but who slurs badly, may be
unable to sustain the effort necessary to sing through a song.
Slurring always throws the laryngeal balance out of adjustment .
When the falsetto register is in action this effect is most pronounced.
In fact, if the slur is too great, the production of a pure falsetto
tone is impossible to accomplish. Thus, in the early stages of train-
ing, some men, who slur badly, may fail to establish a pure falsetto
until they have learned to overcome, or at any rate modify, this
fault. The falsetto is so weak for the low tones that, if the slur starts
at about middle G, no pure falsetto establishment is possible. This
is another reason why the proper attack of the tone is so vital a
phase of the technic.
The persistent slurrer always tends to mix the registration be-
cause, if the falsetto action is very weak, the arytenoid cartilages
"give," and mixed registration results. Such mixture may be of the
temporary type, but if the slurring is persisted in too long, muscular,
permanent mixed registration will be established.
The slur is always accompanied by a completely wrong "set" of
the resonance cavities. If the throat is open, the resonance adjust-
ment is "out of tune" to the extent determined by the magnitude
of the slur. This is another reason why the "opened up," properly-
registered singer cannot go on singing if he slurs badly-the effort
required to actuate a badly "tuned" resonance cavity is too great.
The effort necessary to sing will then be determined by the degree
of maladjustment of the laryngeal muscles and by the degree to
which the resonance cavities are "out of tune." This effort can build
up, in bad cases, until the slurring pupil is forced to stop singing
in the middle of a song.

ProperTechnicMore DifficultThan Throaty Technic

It is not as simple a matter for the properly-trained singer to go
through a song as it is for the throaty one. True, if the former has
learned to control his voice and to center the pitch consistently, the
effort ( not energy) required is very slight, and he can go on singing
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for hours without strain or fatigue. His throat always feels comforta-
ble; he does not tire. But-he can never slur badly and he must be
absolutely sure of every phase of the composition he is singing.
Pitch, time spot, accent, rhythm, tempo, changes of tempo, phras-
ing, dynamics, the words, etc., must be "set," as must be the register
changes and the color and emotional effects. Uncertainty leads
to slurring. Therefore, the real singer must be a hard worker. The
structure of the composition, the musical figures and the phras-
ing must be worked out and the color effects made according to
this structure. If this is not done, he cannot perform with command
and freedom. The student who wants to be a great singer must
realize that hard work on all the phases of his art is demanded of
him. It is easy for anyone, who has the necessary nerve and lack
of sincere, artistic talent, to slur through a song and make cheap,
sentimental, "set" effects. These effects take the form of slurring,
"sobbing" and of constantly changing the intensity of a single tone,
etc. They constitute a bag of tricks and are artistically valueless.
Such a singer is, indeed, better off if his voice is throaty and his
registration mixed. He can then, and only then, make the cheap
effects which are his stock in trade.
The properly-trained singer must not only sing technically well
all the time, maintaining absolute precision of intonation, but he
must also be an artist and a musician.

Pure Falsetto and Mixed Registration (Male)

The chief cause of mixed registration in men's voices is lack of
falsetto development. When there is a lower register only, a man's
voice is inevitably mixed. Because he has not developed the aryte-
noid "hold," the arytenoid cartilages "give," and when they "give"
the registration becomes mixed. The man who apparently sings
falsetto, actually employs a mixed registration, because the lower
falsetto tones are far too "dead," soft and unestablished to be sing-
able in the pure falsetto. He must, therefore, "whiten" and go abso-
lutely throaty and this inevitably mixes the falsetto. In fact, the
typical falsetto singer of today is unable to produce a pure falsetto
tone. In extreme cases, the pure register is permanently lost.

Mixed-register Coloraturas
The parallel to this sort of technic with the man's voice is the
"squeak-voice" coloratura soprano. Her singing also is without any
legitimate message and she would be unable to perform her silly
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 tricks if she were to be trained properly. The very high tones sung
in the "squeak voice" are undoubtedly produced with a mixed
register. The vocal cords are extremely short and the control is
entirely on constriction. This technic depends primarily upon the
employment of the neck muscles.
A very successful radio coloratura soprano by shutting off her
falsetto completely for all of her upper tones, brought her voice
down as far as B-two spaces above the treble clef. She bad
formerly been able to squeak F, or even G, above high C. The con-
dition of her voice was very bad. Her head was so locked down for
the upper tones that, at first, it could not be moved. By establishing
her lower register the vocal condition was immediately relieved.
The remarkable thing, however, was that she was able to carry her
lower register up to F above high C when she could only sing the D,
below this F, in the falsetto, which register was at this stage too
constricted to go any higher because of her previous training. In
as extreme a case as this the octave reflection between the registers
does not hold, until such time as the constriction and the mixture
of the falsetto have been abated, and this register can be sung with
an opening of the throat which corresponds with the opening for
the lower register. This process of carrying up the lower register
very high should be employed only in extremely rare instances, and
practically never now that the laryngeal controls can be used. 0 In
this case, however, the voice was so balanced to falsetto that it
proved highly beneficial.
The very high, lower-register tones were extremely "white" and
somewhat mixed. They were used to develop the thyroid muscles.
All very high tones, which are not produced properly, are apt to be
excessively "white." When they are derived from the falsetto, they
are "white," thin and squeaky. They are, then, actually sung in the
mixed falsetto and controlled by means of the muscles of the neck
and jaw. ·
Taking this case into consideration, and also the fact that all
"squeak" tones are thin, "white" and shrill and are, therefore, asso-
ciated with mixed registration, which always has these characteris-
tics, and also bearing in mind the fact that pictures of the larynx
show that these tones are produced with very short vocal cords, we

0 The high, "white," lower-register tones are still used very occasionally,

and the very high, falsetto tones occasionally in certain special cases in order
to pull on the laryngeal muscles, despite the fact that this "pull" is at the
expense of the throat muscles. These tones should never be sustained. When
this device is employed the pupil is told to run rapid arpeggios without holding
the upper tone.
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seem to have an interesting corroboration of this theory of mixed
registration.

Balanced Development of Both Registers-Proper Stringing

To sum up: The development of the lower register strengthens the
thyroid muscles, especially the crico-thyroid muscles which stretch
the vocal cords, with the result that this development may be con-
sidered as a process which lengthens the vocal cords, for any given
pitch, and at the same time holds them in greater tension ..
The development of the falsetto strengthens the arytenoid muscles,
which hold the arytenoid cartilages firm, and thus allows the thyroid
muscles to exert an augmented tension.
Both arytenoid and thyroid muscles must be developed simul-
taneously, because the stringing of the vocal cords depends upon
the "hold" and "pull" at each end, and this "hold" and "pull" must
be in equilibrium. If one set of muscles is overdeveloped, equi-
librium is destroyed, with the result that the thyro-arytenoid muscles
must come into excessive tension ( mixed registration), thereby
shortening the cords and reducing their tension for the given pitch.
The more out of balance the system becomes, the greater becomes
the thyro-arytenoid tension necessary for the establishment of any
given pitch. Thus, overdevelopment of either the falsetto or lower
register throws the system out of balance, and the further this un-
balanced development is carried, the worse ( more mixed) the laryn-
geal adjustment becomes.

Unbalanced Registration Leads to Mixed Registration

Unbalance of the state of development of the two registers always
results in mixed registration. The further such unbalance is carried,
the worse this condition becomes.
This provides another reason why the radio crooner, who uses
falsetto only, may sound quite pleasant, provided that she always
sings very softly, because this extremely gentle form of phonation
develops the laryngeal muscles very slowly. Thus, she may be able
to sing in a relatively pure falsetto for several years and her voice
may continue to sound more or less pleasant when amplified. Of
course, as soon as the thyro-arytenoid muscles start to develop, even
slightly, mixed registration is initiated and this state of affairs is
often hastened because of the direct interference with the laryngeal
action which occurs because of the absolute constriction of the
throat, which is a necessary concomitant of radio technic. As soon
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as deterioration-mixed registration-commences, the voice degen-
erates rapidly.

Opening the Voice in Stages

The proper development of the voice proceeds in stages. As the
strength of the lower-register muscles increases, the length of the
vocal cords for the given pitch augments. The additional tension
necessary for the longer cords, if they are to vibrate at the same
frequency as the shorter cords, must be looked after by an equalized
development of the falsetto register which holds the stringing of
the vocal cords at the arytenoid end against this increased tension.
We have then, in effect, a larger vibrator. This larger vibrator must
then be acoustically coupled with a bigger resonator. Therefore, as
soon as an improvement in the registration action, i.e., a balanced
development of the laryngeal muscles, has been established, an
"opening" of the laryngeal pharynx, i.e., development of the tongue
muscles, must be engendered.
This "opening" process occurs in stages. Each stage of develop-
ment proceeds in these two phases:
1. The development of the laryngeal muscles
2. Further opening of the throat
Each time this two-phase opening occurs, the quality and power
of the voice improve.

Initial "Opening" Very Pronounced

When the lower register is first brought into play, the increased
stretching action of the crico-thyroid muscles immediately, greatly
augments the length of the vocal cords. This demands a definite,
rather sudden "opening" of the laryngeal pharynx. Later "openings"
are far less pronounced, because the change from virtually no lower-
register action to definite lower-register development is far more
pronounced than the mere increases hithe degree of crico-arytenoid
(balanced with crico-thyroid) tension. Thus, the initial "opening,"
which occurs when pure registration is first established, is extremely
radical. The increase in power and the improvement in quality are
very marked Later developments, while they improve the quality,
and in a decreasing degree, augment the power, are far less radical
than this first big change-over from constriction to opening tension.
The later "openings" become less pronounced as the limits to possible
muscular development are approached. In the final stages, at which
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complete co-ordination occurs, the improvements generally take the
form of a mellowing of the quality, with but little increase in the
power output.

Sound of a Mixed-register Tone

The reader, whether he be a singer, a vocal student or a teacher,
should be able to recognize the sound of a mixed register tone when
he hears it.
Absolute mixed-register singing is not quite the same for both
sexes. In the case of a man it is based upon soft rather than loud
singing. The type of mixture engendered can usually be designated
as "mixed falsetto." This means that there is an absolute lack of
lower-register balance. But, because the falsetto does not come into
action at full voice until the tone E flat above high C is reached, the
resultant effect will be that a mixed-falsetto technic is induced in
the area of the veice in which the lower register should be function-
ing. Thus, the intensity is relatively low, and for the lower pitches
it is very low. Hence, when the registration of a man's voice is
mixed, the lower tones are at all times extremely weak and the voice
fades out almost completely at the bottom of the range. Any definite
degree of mixed registration eliminates the lowest tones and renders
the lower tones which can be sung weak and inane.
As the pitch rises, the intensity augments rapidly and the highest
to'les which can be reached are relatively loud. The sound is always
thin, pinched, throaty and either "thick throaty" or "white throaty."
When the tone is sung loudly the throatiness is extremely pro-
nounced and it is always accompanied by a high degree of
"thin-white," or nasal, shrillness. At fortissimo it is distressingly shrill
-in fact, it is, actually, merely a blatant scream. At low intensity this
screaming, shrill quality is abated and an apparently "dark" quality
can be employed, despite the fact that the throaty characteristic is
present at all intensities. Thus, the quality is apparently far better
at low than at high intensity. For this reason the radio crooner ( the
singer who employs a radio technic) always sings very softly, under
which circumstances the sound, when reproduced, can be appar-
ently pleasing to the uninitiated ear. This crooning, soft, mixed-
falsetto singing may sound pleasant to the individual who likes that
sort of thing. Many hate it, however, because it is always charac-
terized by a pronouncedly effeminate quality, with the result that the
male, mixed-register singer always sounds just like a throaty, female
singer, especially when he sings softly. Effeminate singing does
not become a manl
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 Because all loud, mixed-register singing is very pushed and
strained, there is a pronounced tendency, on the part ?f the mixed-
register singer, to constantly swell slightly and then immediately
soften the tone. He practically never holds any tone at constant
intensity. The thin, shrill, nasal quality, which is characteristic of
this type of singing, accentuates the higher harmonics in the tone
and, for this reason, the pitch which is being sung sounds higher,
and usually much higher, than it really is. The apparently "dark"
quality, which can be employed at pianissimo, is not legitimately
"dark," because it is "darkened" primarily by means of constriction.
However, it is much "darker" than the screamed fortissimo. Because
the voice sounds nicer at low intensity, the mixed-register singer
is apt to sing pianissimo nearly all the time-even when the intensity
should not be soft. He is constantly choking off his voice, singing
pianissimo and fading into and out of every held tone. He is prone
to sing entire compositions in a pianissimo, mixed falsetto "mezza
voce" which sounds exactly like a throaty female voice.
All male, mixed-register voices sound more or less like tenors,
although a legitimate tenor produces an entirely different sound.
This is why singers and teachers of the mixed-falsetto school are
apt to say that Caruso had a baritone quality. He did not! His was
the normal sound of a properly-produced, "open," virile, dramatic
tenor voice. The singer whose registration is pure can always pro-
duce relatively full tones at the lower end of his range. The prop-
erly produced, light tenor voice has more power and virility at, say,
middle C ( actually an octave lower) than the mixed-register bari-
tone.
Thus, mixed registration in men's voices is characterized by
throatiness, "whiteness," shrillness, nasality, screamed high, loud
tones, lack of low tones and an effeminate quality. Practically every
tenor of today employs some degree of mixed registration, as do
many of the baritones--the basses are apt to be less mixed.
The female, mixed-register singer does not necessarily sing softly.
As a matter of fact she usually sings rather loudly. She has no break,
she may have a very wide range, she can swell and descrescendo
every tone in her voice without any register transition and she can
sing pianissimo very easily. This sounds like an ideal technical con-
dition. The catch, however, lies in the fact that every tone she
produces is of actively unpleasant quality to the ear which is tuned
properly to quality and intonation. The reason why the intensity
of such a voice may be relatively high is because the mixture is
due primarily to a lack of falsetto development and to an excessive
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lower-register component in the range where the falsetto should
be promine~t. This condition lends itself to the possibility of making
a lot of noise. The power of a really well-produced voice, which is
registered properly, is far greater than that of the mixed-register
voice and this type of power manifests itself as tone and vibrancy,
in combination with properly defined pitch, while the power of the
mixed-register singer is merely noise and the intonation is never
really true. The high tones, when sung loudly, are very often sharp
and at times very sharp indeed. This is a definite characteristic of
mixed-register singing. The lower tones are weak as with the male,
mixed-register singer and the higher tones are merely screams. The
quality of the absolutely mixed, female voice is always extremely
throaty and usually very "white," shrill and often nasal, although
there is a type of mixed-register singing which is "thick throaty."
This type of quality is characteristic of the mixed-register contralto.
The high tones are always "white" and shrill.
Constant changing of intensity on held tones is characteristic of
mixed-register singing with both sexes, as is an almost complete lack
of defined intonation. Intensity changes are virtually always asso-
ciated with pronounced scooping which seems to be deliberate.

One-registerSinging and Mixed Registration

All one-register singing is somewhat mixed, but when a woman
uses the falsetto only, and does not try to sing loudly, she may avoid
pronounced mixture, except for the very high tones, and even then
they may not be very mixed, if they are sung comparatively softly
and never pushed too much. Thus the female, falsetto radio crooner
may retain a relatively high degree of pure registration for a few
years provided she always sings very softly. After a few years,
however, mixture is bound to occur. All one-register singing is more
or less throaty and all mixed-register singing is absolutely throaty.

"Middle Register" and Blendingthe Registers

Mixed registration always occurs when the female singer tries to
develop her voice up and down from the so-called "middle register,"
especially if she endeavors to "build up" the power of her voice.
However, the chief cause of the establishment of absolute mixed
registration lies in the endeavor, on the part of an uninformed teacher,
to bridge over the gap, or blend, the registers; he is apt, therefore,
to dodge the issue altogether either by eliminating the lower register
and by only allowing his pupils to sing in the falsetto or by de-
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liberately mixing- "blending"-the registers in the middle of the
voice, and then carrying this mixed registration up and down
throughout the entire range. The "falsetto-only" teacher may retain
a more or less pure falsetto, provided that he never allows his
pupils to sing out loud, but under these circumstances, their voices
are apt to be so weak that they are virtually inaudible in an audi-
torium. Therefore, when these pupils try to sing loudly enough to
be audible in an auditorium, they unavoidably force, or push, the
falsetto and, for this reason, they inevitably start to engender mixed
registration. The result is that their voices deteriorate rapidly. This
explains why the "bugbear" of the break has been responsible for the
destruction of so many naturally fine voices.
Good quality depends, primarily, upon pure, properly-balanced
registration and pharyngeal resonance adjustment, but it depends
upon pure registration more than upon any other single factor.
Mixed-register singing is always very throaty and of most unpleasant
quality. Mixed registration is the most pernicious of all technical
faults!

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 Chapter 12

CONNECTING TONES (MELODIC LINE)

Discussions thus far have centered on exercises in which only

single tones, or more or less disconnected tones, are used. Never-
theless the basis of singing lies in the ability of the singer to encom-
pass a melodic line, i.e., to sing a melody. To teach the pupil how
to sing a melody properly it is essential for him to do most of his
work with a simple tune and not on single tones. For this reason a
melody, the major triad (ascending and descending) should be
employed, most of the time. Problems involved are just as well ,
worked out with the major triad, and exercises which are difficult
to learn introduce unnecessary problems for the pupil, who should
be fully occupied in concentrating on the technical directions which
the teacher gives him. Melodic and rhythmic forms, etc., can be
studied when the pupil is working on repertoire and musicianship.
In this phase of his studies he should transpose the music down an
octave and thus save his voice from over-taxation and abuse.
In the early stages single tones should be used a great · deal to
work on registration, pharyngeal resonance adjustment, etc., without
introducing any other problems. Single tones should also be used
from time to time throughout the entire training period, to make
certain new adjustments. But the major triad can be used as the
medium for most of the technical work.

Flexibilityand Legato Singing

Much has been said about flexibility in singing. Flexibility and
rapidity of muscular response are absolutely essential components
of a proper technic. However, the fact remains that both these
factors are just as important for the proper execution of a slow
legato passage as for the rapid runs of the coloratura. The reason
why this is so is not far to seek, in view of the fact that the actual
time required to move the voice from the center of one tone to the
center of the next is virtually a constant-one vibrato. If the slightest
lag occurs in a legato passage, the singer will either slur or jerk as -
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 he moves from one tone to the next and the melodic line and the
legato are destroyed.
' Hence, it will be found in practice that when the singer has
learned to connect his tones together properly in a legato passage,
it is easy for him to run scale passages and the constant practising of
scales and high speed runs is unnecessary. If he-or she-cannot
sing legato passages properly, it is impossible for him to run scale
passages and it is deleterious for him to endeavor to do so. When
he is technically equipped to move his voice properly with the neces-
sary speed of muscular response, constant practising of scales, etc., is
redundant.
If one triad were to be sung perfectly, the entire voice would be
perfect, because no one triad could be perfect unless all the technical
problems had been worked out completely. The ability to sing perfect
triads over a wide range does not mean that the pupil is an artist.
In actual practice, the learning of repertoire, and the attainment
of a high degree of artistry in the interpretation of the repertoire ,
is a long and arduous task which takes much more time, even with
the most talented pupil, than does the technical training of the voice.
Nevertheless, the ability to connect tones together with absolute
precision, in any given time-form and tempo, without slurrin~,
' ' l'rking, "giving," etc., is the basi~ of singinz.

Characteristics of a Tune
A tune consists of a series of tones, each tone having nQt only
a defined pitch, loudness and quality but also a definite duration.
The series of tones comprising a melody must be sung at a given
tempo, in a given time form, and each tone must be held at its
proper pitch for its entire duration.

Connecting Tones
The most difficult phase in teaching singing is to teach the pupil
how to connect tones together in their proper form. There are very
few, almost no, singers who can sing three connected tones properly
-this applies to professional singers just as much as to beginners.
The movement from tone to tone is accomplished by means of the
vibrato. Because the vibrato period is fixed, the period of transition
between the tones is also fixed at half a vibrato cycle-½ 2 th of a
second. The voice must move from one tone to another without
the production of any intermediate slurs or noises. This means that
all slurring must be absolutely eliminated. If the singer slurs up
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into a tone, or down from a tone, he is producing intermediate noises
which are not musical tones at all. At the same time he is subtracting
from the time spot of the tones the time involved in slurring up'
into them, plus the time involved in slurring down out of them.
Such slurring into and out of the tone is always associated with
intensity variation.

Portamento and the Vibrato Run

When a portamento ( portar la voce) is indicated on the printed
page, the singer should never make a progressive change of pitch-
i.e., a slur. To obviate the slur and, at the same time, obey the
requirements of the music, he should execute a run on the vibrato.
This vibratoed connection between two tones, which are connected
together by articulation marks, is musical and pleasant to listen to,
instead of being unpleasant-instead of entailing a slur which is
actually a noise.
The vibrato connection between two tones is made on the diatonic
scale when the interval is wide and, when it is narrow, the run is
made on the chromatic scale. The chromatic scale is not used for
intervals wider than a fifth. These runs on the vibrato should be
clearly defined. Nevertheless, the effect produced is that of a slow
connection between two tones and the portamento indication on
the music is adhered to.
Such vibrato connections between tones occur very often in the
interpretation of music-especially operatic music-and they must
be studied, practised and executed with precision and accuracy.

Intensity Rise with Ascending Pitch

The properly-produced voice has an evenly rising "intensity
scale." This applies to both registers. However, the rise in intensity
is far greater in the lower range of the falsetto register than it is
when both registers are used. Thus, when a female pupil sings the
triad Ab-C-Eb (above middle C) in the falsetto, she is going from
pianissimo to forte, even when each falsetto tone is sung at full
voice, because the lower register goes to D ( fourth line on the treble
clef) when the registration is worked 'JUt properly. Above this D
the intensity rise in the falsetto is normal. Similarly, when the lower
register is carried above this D, the intensity rise is more than
normal, because this register is used only above forte intensity
for tones higher than this D.
In all work on the triads this rise of intensity with pitch must be
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predetermined and completely defined. Having shuck the first
tone of the triad, the loudness of each subsequent tone is prede-
termined. Each tone of the triad must be held for its entire duration
at exactly this predetermined loudness.

Rhythmic Pattern
The rhythmic form of the major triad must be set with absolute
precision. The top tone should be sustained, and this "hold" has a
definite duration determined by a clearly defined rhythmic pattern.
In descending from the top tone of the triad, one must define the two
succeeding tones as deliberately as when the triad was ascended.
The "hold" for the upper tone must be determined by a perfectly
rhythmic, even, narrowed or broadened beat. The singer must never
slur, or "give down," into the last two tones. While the tension
required for the lower tones is less than that required for the top
tone, it must be borne in mind that the instrument-larynx-must
at all times be kept "strung." Many pupils are apt to relax too much
when descending from the top tone. If they do this, the vocal cords
lose their "stringing" and, at the same time, the tongue muscles
relax. As a result of this, the voice goes into constriction for these
last two tones of the triad and they finish it with a throaty technic,
thereby practising throatiness.

Moving from Tone to Tone

One of the most difficult problems of all lies in teaching the pupil
how to move the voice, up and down, without "giving," relaxing, or
jerking ( which is relaxing) as he changes the pitch. Anything in
the nature of a new impulse between the tones is destructive. In
moving from tone to tone the tension must be held throughout the
entire system of muscles used in phonation; it is the degree of ten-
sion which varies and must be gauged with accuracy, precision and
carefully controlled "timing."

"T·,ming
. II
This question of "timing" is most important. Much of the skill in
the use of_the voice lies in the ability of the singer to "time" his
muscular tensions accurately.
In all games of skill, as well as in instrumental technics, this ques-
tion of "timing" is of fundamental importance. When the tennis or
golf player executes his drive properly, the muscular tensions must
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be applied at the moment at which the racket or club meets the
ball. Thus, in tennis the weight of the body transfers from one foot
to the other at the moment at which the racket connects with the
ball. Of course, a condition of tension on the muscles of the wrist,
elbow and shoulder ( which should be dropped as in singing) must
occur at the moment of impact or the connection between the body
and the racket is lost. If the body weight is transferred a fraction
of a second too soon, or too late, the player will either miss the ball,
or else hit it very softly, and he will inevitably lose control. The
energy ( work done) must be applied at exactly the right moment.
This moment depends upon the position of the ball. Therefore the
player must keep his eye on the ball. If his concentration wanes and
he looks away from it, especially at the moment of impact, he will
probably miss it altogether, and he will certainly make a very bad
stroke. The stroke is made because he intends to hit the ball, and
his eye must focus on it. If he has a bad eye, he can never learn to
play the game well.
The tension in singing occurs because the singer intends to sing
a tone, and just as the athlete must keep his eye on the ball, so must
the singer keep his ear ( his inner or mental ear) on the tone, or
tune, to be sung, because the tensions are unavailing if disassociated
from the sound concepts. The singer's ear is, therefore, similar to
the athlete's eye. Unless the ear is trained properly he cannot sing,
just as the athlete cannot play the game if his eye is faulty.

"Timing"and Major Triad

This question of "timing" in reference to the attack of the tone
has already been discussed. In the singing of the triad the problem
is somewhat more complex, because the tensions change in degree
as the pitch rises and falls. Instantaneous changes of tension can
be made only when the pitches and loudnesses of the tones are
defined clearly in a sequence memory picture . In order to ascend
the triad the tension increases at the exact moment at which the
pitch changes, and this change in the degree of tension must be
gauged and "timed" properly to meet the next tone. The first tone
must be attacked properly and held for its exact time spot, which
has been predetermined by the rhythmic pattern of the triad. The
tension must then be augmented , at exactly the right moment, in
order to sing the next tone in the center of pitch and at exactly the
right loudness. The tension must again be augmented in precisely
the necessary degree and "timed" properly to sing the top tone.
This augmentation of the tension must actually be only an increase
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 in tension and must not be associated with a "give" or jerk, which
occurs when relaxation precedes the augmentation in tension. When
a slur occurs, without "giving," the increase in tension has been
badly "timed" and has been applied sluggishly instead of rapidly .
Equilibrium must be maintained at all times and tension changes
made with absolute definition at the exactly correct moment, which
is predetermined by the melodic and rhythmic pattern in the singer's
mind.
"Gives" and Jerks
When the pupil "gives" between tones and re-impulses, slurs or
jerks, in order to charigeffiel>itf«h, this "gi~ -is actually manifested
in a relaxation of ..all--themusc es used in phonation . However, in
practice, it is often found that the "give" centers around one par-
ticular group of muscles. The teacher must work very hard to
eliminate such "gives," or relaxations, which make the proper sing-
ing of the triad, or of any melodic line, impossible to accomplish.
Sometimes the "give" centers upon the breathing muscles. Under
these circumstances the pupil may move his chest, shoulders, or
both, up or down, he may "give" on the rib muscles and, therefore,
lean over backwards ( this is very prevalent), or he may "give" at
the diaphragm , letting it go in, or tum up or down. Any chest move-
ment in either direction is translated into a "give" of the rib
muscles, or diaphragm-usually the former. A "give" at the dia-
phragm is generally translated into a movement of the chest. When-
ever a "give" occurs, the chest, head, or both move, the neck muscles
become tense and the tongue muscles relax and go into reverse ten-
sion. This is because the moment the ''hold" on the muscles of the
thorax is lost, the glottis opens reftexly, and in order to go on
singing, the pupil is forced to close it with the neck muscles. It is
the throwing into action of these muscles that induces a movement
of the head, chest or both.
A fundamental phase of our problem lies, then, in the main-
mance of the equilibrium of the breathing muscles at all times
uring the phonation of the triad-especially at the moment at which
: ~itch change occurs.
Whenever a "give" occurs between the tones, the tongue relaxes,
irrespective of whether this "give" be the result of a jerk, a slur or
a new impulse. If the teacher is using the tongue instrument he can
feel this member relax and either shoot out or drop down as the
pupil pushes up into the next tone. As soon as the tongue has re-
laxed, all subsequent tones are throaty, the pupil is merely pushing
on his voice and forcing, irrespective of the intensity, and the pres-
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sure of the tongue instrument must be instantly released. If the
teacher goes on pressing, after the tongue has relaxed, he will suc-
ceed only in pushing it down the pupil's throat, or in bunching it up
against the posterior wall of the laryngeal pharynx, thereby vastly
increasing the tension on the muscles which pull it back, and thus
engendering a high degree of throatiness.

Value of TongueInstrumentfor Major Triad

One reason why the use of the tongue instrument in the singing
of a triad, especially in the falsetto register, is so valuable, is because
the teacher can feel the pupil's tongue "give." As soon as this "give"
occurs, he must tell him to stop singing. He may have to make the
pupil repeat hundreds, maybe thousands, of times before he learns
how to connect the tones together properly. Nevertheless, he must
work and work until he has accomplished this end. If he fails, the
pupil will never really learn to sing.

Opening Voice Slowly

When a pupil starts with a small, "shut-off' voice and "opens up"
suddenly, this problem of "giving" between the tones becomes very
pronounced. Therefore, the opening-up process must be slowed
down, as much as possible, until he has learned to connect the tones
without "giving." If the opening-up process proceeds too rapidly,
the pupil may never catch up with his voice.
While it is true that the teacher can speed up or slow down the
opening-up process, it is not possible for him to stop it altogether.
The voice is, at all times, either in the process of opening up or
shutting off.This is so because the muscles used in phonation must
tend to develop, merely as a result of the exercise they are subjected
to, when they are brought into tension . If the opening muscles are
in tension, these muscles develop and the voice is being "opened
up," rapidly or slowly, according to the degree of strenuousness with
which they are employed. If the constrictor muscles are in action,
they will develop, and this development, also, depends upon how
vigorously the singer employs them. Thus, the voice can be "opened
up" rapidly or slowly, but if any attempt is made to completely stop
the process of "opening," it goes into reverse, and the end result
will be that the constrictor system comes into action and the voice
starts to "shut off," i.e., the constrictor muscles begin to develop.

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 "Giving" and Slurring
The pupil who "gives" between tones always slurs. A straight
slur up is bad, because the upper tone is not in proper adjustment,
since the laryngeal and pharyngeal adjustments for the lower
tone are maintained. This means that the improperly adjusted
apparatus has to be forced, and that the effort required to produce
the upper tone is far greater than the effort normally required would
be, if the intonation were accurate. However, if he does not "give"
during this slur, he may not actually go throaty, under which cir-.
cumstances he will not hurt his voice, despite the extra effort
required. Of course, the tone lacks ring and quality because of the
inaccurate laryngeal and pharyngeal adjustments.
It is much worse when the :i;mpil who "gives" between tones
relaxes and slurs down before he slurs up into the succeeding tone.
In bad cases this may occur with each pitch transition. The slur
down can be anything from about a semitone to almost the lowest
sound he can produce. Under these circumstances the results are
most distressing. The singer is always pushing up into a tone which
is absolutely out of adjustment and, where the condition is very
pronounced, this effort is built up to such. a point that he is unable
to sing through a song. When this occurs any further "opening" of
the voice is most undesirable, until this "give" and slur are elimi-
. nated. Anything in the nature of a violent jerk between tones brings
about just such a state of affairs.

Accuracy of Intonation
When the pupil arrives at the point where he does not "give,"
slur completely or jerk, he may still lack accuracy of intonation
and fine "timing" ability so that, as he moves to the next tone in
ascending, he may land a little below it and then have to slide up
the rest of the way. The resulting tone may be of relatively good
quality and power, but the effort necessary to produce it is con-
siderably augmented.
When absolute accuracy and precision of intonation and pedect
"timing" have been attained, the effort required to produce magnifi-
cent, full, ringing tones is relatively slight and the pupil, whose
voice has progressed to this point, can go on singing for many hours
without tiring.
If the reader would like to hear what accurate intonation and
proper movement from tone to tone actually are, he should get a
number of Caruso records-especially his later recordings-and
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 observe, with great care, the manner in which Caruso moved from
the center of one tone to the center of the next with almost uncanny
precision. This precision of intonation and melodic line is virtually
a lost art today.

Lower-register Triads for Women's Voices

With a woman's voice, most lessons start with a few single, lower-
register tones, to establish the purest , freest possible tones, over the
. range which she can cover at the givep stage. Sometimes the major
triad is employed.
The vowel used is generally a rather "dark"-not thick-"ah" (as
in father), "oh" ( as in hot), or "or" ( as in four). Other vowels may
be advantageous when they happen to fit the pupil's personal tech-
nical peculiarities. Thus, the dark "e" and "oo" are sometimes used.
Most often, however, the dark "ah" or "oh" is best. For most voices
the starting triad will be about middle C-E-G. The triads are car-
ried up as far as the lower register will go, without closure or
excessive "whitening." When , however, the pure register can be
carried up, without "whitening," through C ( on the third space of
the treble def, C# and D ( i.e., the triads F-A-C, F#-A#-C# and
G-B-D), the tones higher than these may be slightly "whitened,"
provided that this "whitening" is not excessive and that "opening'"
is maintained . The degree of "whitening" allowable depends upon
the particular phase of "opening" which has been established at the
given stage.
The teacher's ear must be able to gauge the optimum degree of
"whiteness" or "darkness" to be used, as well as the best vowel
for the particular pupil at any given stage. This degree of "white-
ness" or "darkness," and of "whitening" for the higher, lower-register
tones, varies all the time and changes with each slight opening.
Blind-or deaf-directions to the pupil to sing either "dark" or
"white" are, at best, worthless. Excessively "white" or "dark" singing
always engenders throatiness.

Real Teaching Hard Work

The teacher's ear must be sensitive and delicately trained for
his work. There is no set process which applies to each and every
pupil. So-called pedagogical methods, which can be universally
applied in steps to each and every voice, are nonsensical and very
harmful indeed. The training of the voice is not like the teaching
of a scholastic subject, which can pursue a fixed course, and which
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takes the form of a series of carefully worked out progressive lessons.
In this work of tra~ing the voice, the untalented pupil actually in
effect may be still taking his first lesson after he has been studying
for quite a long time. Until the technical direction has really been
followed, nothing bas been accomplished.
For example, the pupil must be told that the jaw must be com-
pletely opened and released. This direction might be followed at
the first lesson, with the help of the manipulation. Three or four
lessons may be enough to establish the ability to ~ease the jaw
completely, when the pupil is extremely talented. [!!ie excessively
high-strung, tense, slow reacting, or stupid pupil may never be
able to establish this release. He will then never_lfally learn how to
sing. This applies to every phase of the trainin~
Only when the direction has been followed completely has the
improvement, dependent upon this direction, been established. The
pupil, therefore, must be forced to follow each and every direction,
or virtually nothing is accomplished. A teacher might be absolutely
correct in each direction he gives, and at the same time accomplish
nothing, if be fails to force the pupil to follow these directions.
Some teachers are afraid of losing their pupils if they drive them
too hard. Such teachers are just insincere. Unfortunately only too
many pupils, who like to be praised and complimented, do actually
quit the teacher who tries to do his job sincerely, honestly and
efficiently. Nevertheless, such a teacher will always win out in the
end. He may lose the foolish and the conceited, but he will hold
all the pupils who are worth holding-who are worth working with
and who may accomplish something.

FalsettoTriadsfor FemaleVoice
After working with the lower register, the falsetto triads must
be sung. The first falsetto triad to be sung is either middle Ab-C-Eb,
or sometimes, G-B-D. Any triad lower than this starts at so low an
intensity, that the pupil is liable to thicken, push and mix the
falsetto. The falsetto triads must be carried up until the falsetto
tone, one octave above the highest, lower-register tone, sung in
the lower-register triads, has been reached. This octave reflection
must be meticulously adhered to. ·

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 VowelsUsed
The same vowels may be used for the falsetto as for the lower
register. However, the dark "e" or "oo" are often used. The lower,
falsetto tones must always be sung dark. A "white" falsetto tone,
in the lower part of the range, is virtually always mixed and,
therefore, harmful. Slight "whitening" for the higher tones is some-
times advantageous. Tones above high A or Bb are generally "whit-
ened." The degree of "whitening" depends upon the technical
conditions, and must be gauged by the teacher's ear. When very
high, "open" tones can be reached, they are always sung with a
relatively "white" (not shrill) quality. This applies only to tones
above about high Bb,

MaiorTriad and Opening the Mouth

The opening of the mouth during the singing of the triad is of
fundamental importance. Unless the tongue instrument is being
used, the triad is generally started with the jaw nearly closed. The
lips should never be shaped for the vowel. They should be slightly
opened and neither spread nor over-pouted. No part of the lips
should be held, or pressed, against the teeth-upper or lower. The
!!<>mersof the lips should be slightly raised, but the nostrils should
not be involved in this gesture.
The first tone of the triad should be attacked with tnejaw almost
entirely closed and relaxed. It should neither be pulled back nor
stuck out. As soon as the pupil starts to move from the first tone
of the triad, the jaw should be opened. The opening gesture must
be made as a single movement. It should never be made in two
stages, because the .first stage of opening inevitably stops in the
middle-or lock-position, and the lock will, therefore, practically
always set, when its downward excursion is checked, or stopped,
at this position. The swing, or pull down, of the jaw shoula actually
be accelerated while it is passing through the middle position. The
opening gesture must be made very deliberately, de.finitely and
without any hurry or-most emphatically-jerking. Any jerky, sud-
den movement of the jaw will inevitably land it in the middle
position. As soon as this middle position has become established,
further opening ·practically never occurs in practice.
This, of course, is not true of the singer whose technic is so
advanced that his jaw never locks.. Under such circumstances it
does not matter what he may do with it, because it is not co-
ordinated with phonation. After passing through the middle posi-
tion the complete opening of the jaw must be established and main-
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tained throughout the entire period during which the upper tone
is held. When, as sometimes happens, a crack occurs at the middle
position, the jaw must be made to pass through this crack rapidly,
in a single gesture.
Under no circumstances should the head be allowed to move in
any direction during the singing of the triad. This is especially
important when the mouth is being opened. In going through the
middle position, or crack, when the crack occurs, the pupil must
exert great determination and at the same time relax the closing
muscles of his jaw as much as possible. If he sets it, he cannot go
through the lock position and, therefore, he cannot open it fully.
Because, in the early stages before the ligaments have become
sufficiently flexible, it may hurt him when he pulls his jaw through
the lock position, he is apt to hold back and become inhibited at
just the vital moment. At this moment-the moment when he must
pull, or force, his jaw through the lock position-he is very apt
to move his head. If he does so, in even the slightest degree, he
will fail to go through the lock position and, at the same time, he
will "give," the neck muscles will come into tension, and the tone
will become throaty.
Thus, the jaw must swing down in a single-not double-gesture
through the middle position, and complete opening must be estab-
lished as the pupil goes from the lowest to the highest tone of the
triad. There should be no association between the opening gesture
of the jaw and the individual tones of the triad. The jaw must
open, and it must be wide open for the top tone. It must not stop
moving for the middle tone, or while this tone is being sung, unless
it has already been fully opened. This sometimes occurs for the
higher triads. It is not absolutely essential for the full opening to
be established at the moment at which the top tone starts. The ges-
ture may sometimes be completed a moment later, provided that
the full opening, which finishes with the pulling back of the jaw,
is attained.
In descending, the jaw must be closed in a single gesture. It
must be held open for the entire duration of the upper tone, and
then, as soon as the pupil starts to descend, it must be closed, with
a single gesture, as in ascent. Of course the closure is not com-
plete. The lower tone is sung at both the beginning and the end of
the triad with the jaw opened slightly, but this opening must be
considerably less than the opening necessary to establish the middle
position. Practically all singing should be done with the jaw either
nearly closed or wide open. The middle position should not be
employed.
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 Opening the Mouth and Tongue Adjustment
It is important to remember that the resonance adjustment for
the tone-vowel and pitch-must be maintained while the jaw is
being moved. The resonance adjustment depends upon the relative
position of the base of the tongue and the posterior wall of the
laryngeal pharynx. If the tongue is allowed to move from its reso-
nance adjustment when the jaw is dropped, the entire system of
muscles used in phonatiqn is thr,ewn out of adjustment and the tone
becomes more or less throaty. Therefore, the tension on the muscles
of the tongue and the hyoid bone ( genio-glossus and genio-hyoid
muscles) must be maintained while the triad is being sung, but the
tongue itself must, at the same time, be moved back slightly with
regard to the jaw as it ( the jaw) moves, in order to maintain the
resonance adjustment for the tone. This movement of the tongue is
determined by the amount of readjustment necessary in order that
the vowel may be held constant while the triad is being sung, in
spite of the jaw movement. The movement of the jaw must be com-
pensated for by the necessary movement of the tongue.
This readjustment of the tongue, when the jaw is being opened,
is actually of rather small magnitude. Nevertheless, the singer
experiences a quite definite movement. The readjustment of the
tongue occurs, for the pitch changes, as the jaw moves. It seems to
take the form of moving the tongue back when the down movement
of the jaw is being made, because this gesture tends to move the
tongue forward and out with the jaw.
This sense of holding the resonance adjustment with the base of
the tongue, instead of with the jaw and lips, is one of the vital
phases of vocal technic. If the readjustment of the tongue is not
made as the jaw is moved, the pupil will inevitably try to "hold"
with his jaw and lips instead. He will then lock the jaw and fail
to open it completely. He will, therefore, tend to sing the succeed-
ing tones with a mouth resonance adjustment-a throaty technic.
If the vowel is pharyngeally resonated and then held absolutely
constant throughout the entire singing of the triad, the necessary
readjustment of the position of the tongue, as the jaw is moved,
becomes more or less automatic.

Major Triad and Jaw Manipulation

It is nearly always very helpful for the teacher to manipulate
the pupil's jaw when he is first learning to sing the triad. This
manipulation has been described. He should place his hands as
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indicated in Fig. 32 and then pull the pupil's jaw all the way down
and back, with a firm, determined gesture, as soon as be starts to
move the pitch. The jaw must be pulled through the middle position
firmly and rapidly. The effort may be quite great, and nothing is
accomplished if the teacher fails to pull the pupil's jaw through
the middle position, or the crack, if there is one. If the pupil becomes
tense and resists the manipulation, it may be impossible to accom-
plish. Under such circumstances the teacher must not try to force
it or he may hurt the pupil. Thus, if the initial attempt fails to open
the jaw, the teacher must stop the pupil and try again. He must
keep on trying until he succeeds in performing the manipulation
properly.
In bad cases a process of relaxing, freeing and opening the pupil's
jaw without singing, or for single tones, may have to be undergone
before the teacher is able to open it completely for the triad. He
can often open it when the pupil is silent before he can do so during
the singing of the triad. It is, indeed, imperative for the teacher
to completely work out this process of absolute jaw opening. If he
fails to do so, the pupil will never really learn to sing. Sometimes J
this jaw opening is easy to accomplish. Sometimes it is very difficult.
After the jaw manipulation has been made satisfactorily a certain
number of times, the pupil must be forced to open his own mouth
completely without manipulation. If he is inhibited and fails to do
so, he will nearly always make a gesture with his head, lips or both,
instead of making the final-down and back-phase of the jaw open-
ing. These gestures must be observed and stopped. All movements
of the ~nd lips, which should neither spread nor over-pout,
must be stopped. This is particularly important if the gesture is
made when the pupil is supposed to be opening his mouth, because
it occurs instead of the opening movement, and because the pupil
is only too often quite unconscious of having made either one of
these gestures.
Manipulations
All the manipulations may be used while the pupil is singing the
major triad. They must, however, be utilized properly and not indis-
criminately. The thyroid manipulation is only employed for the
lower register. The tongue instrument is used a great deal for the
falsetto, although it may often be profitably employed for the lower
register also, especially with men. The holding up of the hyoid bone
and the pulling down of the thyroid cartilage, are generally both
necessary. The hyoid bone manipulation must often precede the
pulling in of the thyroid tension for the lower register, because, in
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many cases, the down pressure on the thyroid cartilage may pull
the tongue down, thus depressing the hyoid bone. When this drop-
ping of the hyoid bone is excessive, the thyroid manipulation can-
not be used until it has been corrected. With the beginner, the
muscles of the tongue and larynx are often very undeveloped. Under
these circumstances the pulling in of the lower register, by means
of the thyroid manipulation, must be undertaken cautiously. The
pressure must not be excessive, because too strong a "pull" renders
the manipulation inoperative and even harmful. In such cases, it is
often best for the teacher first to correct the dropping of the hyoid
bone by manipulation while the pupil sings the triad. Later the
thyroid cartilage may be pressed down rather gently. The "pull"
must be sufficient for the register to become purer and, therefore,
for the tone to be louder and clearer, but it must not be excessive.
The optimum degree of pull down must be found by experiment and
judged by ear. The two manipulations should sometimes be made
alternately, and sometimes simultaneously.
When the pupil "gives" between the tones, the tongue relaxes
and, under these circumstances, both manipulations are apt to
become inoperative. As soon as a "give" occurs, the genio-hyoid and
the genio-glossus muscles relax. Thus, the hyoid bone and the tongue
may move up or down-generally down. Hence, the manipulation
of the hyoid bone, after the pupil has "given," may serve only to
raise it too much and thus produce a relatively "white," throaty
tone. On the other hand, if the thyroid manipulation is being used
when the "give" occurs, the relaxation of these muscles results in
the pulling down of the larynx and tongue itseH, with the result
that the tone becomes thick and throaty.
Thus, each time a "give" occurs, while the manipulations are
being used, the pupil must be stopped immediately and made to
try again. As soon as the "give" has occurred the teacher is quite
powerless to help the pupil by manipulation, because anything he
may do will tend only to make things worse-to render the tone more
throaty.
The manipulation for separating the thyroid cartilage and the
hyoid bone, in cases of mixed registration, is not destroyed when
the pupil "gives," in quite the same degree, although the tones
sung after the "give" has occurred will always be more or less
throaty.
The use of both the thyroid and hyoid manipulations tends to
make the tone somewhat "white." This is unavoidable, in the early
stages, although this "whiteness" should be considered as an unfor-
tunate, but necesslll")',concomitant of the establishment of pure
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registration. The tone should be as slightly "whitened" as possible.
The entire triad must be sung with a minimum of closure, and ~e
"whiteness" allowed must not be such as to engender closure. If
it is excessive, progressive constriction as the pitch rises is apt to
occur. This is very harmful, because it leads to mixed registration
and extreme throatiness. The teacher must be content to go rather
slowly, in some cases, if he is to avoid engendering mixed registra-
tion and throatiness. When the pupil has an initial, mixed-register
condition, the lower register must not be carried up too far, and
the teacher's goal must be purity of registration-not range.
The hyoid bone control for the falsetto triads is often risky, be-
cause of the "whitening" tendency of this manipulation, and because
the falsetto is always mixed, in the early stages, when it is "white."
On the other hand, in the early stages, the use of the tongue
instrument for the falsetto triads is nearly always indicated and
is very valuable . The pupil must be stopped when he "gives." As
soon as the "give" occurs the teacher should release the pressure
on the tongue instrument. He must, therefore, stop exerting pres-
sure the instant he feels the pupil's tongue relax. This relaxation
most often occurs just before the top tone of the triad is sung. When
it is more or less habitual, the teacher must anticipate it and be
ready to stop the pupil, and release the pressure on the tongue
instrument, as soon as it takes place.

Jaw, Tongue Instrument and Major Triad

When the tongue instrument is being used, the pupil should
open his mouth all the way, and the jaw should not be moved during
the entire singing of the triad . The vowel is so much determined
by the instrument that it is somewhat indefinite. It is best for the
pupil to aim at a dark oh" ( as in hot) or, for the falsetto, at a
dark "oo" or "ee." He must aim to sing a "dark" tone. If he aims to
sing a "white" one or tries, unconsciously, to go "white," while
ascending the triad, he will inevitably make a sudden gesture with
his tongue, which will then go out of control, with the result that
the instrument will become inoperative and the tone will become
throaty .

Jaw and Manipulations for Major Triad

When using the thyroid control, the jaw should generally be
dropped all the way, although the nearly closed position is occa-
sionally used. For the hyoid control the jaw must almost always
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be wide open. For all three controls the jaw must not be moved
during the entire singing of the triad or the manipulation will be
so much interfered with as to become inoperative. The opening
gesture of the jaw should be undertaken only during the singing
of the triad, when no manipulation is being made.

Major Triads and Register Change (Female)

When the stage has been reached at which the female pupil is
able to sing in both registers, with pure registration, up to about the
C (above the middle C) in the lower register, and the high C, in
the falsetto, she should start working on triads in which both
registers are used.
The first such triad to be sung is generally F#-A#-C# ( above
middle C). The first two tones are sung in the lower register and
the top tone in the falsetto. This tone will not be quite in the
intensity line, because it is below Eb. However, the intensity drop
should be fairly insignificant. The drop in power, when the register
changes below Eb ( fourth space on the treble clef), must be just
right. If it is insufficient, the falsetto tone has been pushed and
mixed. If it is excessive, the falsetto tone is constricted, the break
between the registers is aggravated, and the co-ordinative effect
of the exercise is lost. This, however, is not a co-ordinating exercise.
Its purpose is rather to relate, or match , the registers and to enable
the pupil to change register skillfully without mixing or going
throaty. In making the register change she should not break off,
jerk or slur.
The mouth should generally be wide open and stationary at the
moment at which the register change between the second and the
third tone occurs in ascending and descending. This is important!
Any movement of the jaw is undesirable, but even the slightest
closing gesture destroys the beneficial effect of the exercise. If .this
closing gesture does occur, the falsetto tone will inevitably be throaty
and will often become mixed.
This exercise must not be attempted until such time as the ·
registers are really quite pure or it will serve merely to engender
worse mixed registration. The teacher who uses this exercise must
know the difference between the sound of a mixed-register tone
and of pure registration.
A dark "oh" ( as in hot) is generally used for this exercise. The
vowel should be kept constant for both registers. The pupil generally
tends to sing the lower register with a "whiter" quality than she
does the falsetto. The registers must be matched in quality-not
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in intensity. At the moment at which the register change is made,
the tongue must remain tense and in constant position. The attain-
ment of the ability to hold the resonance cavities constant during
the register change is one of the main purposes of the exercise. As
soon as the vowel can be kept constant through the register change
the transition can be made satisfactorily, and the break will be
almost undetectable. The slight drop in intensity matters less than
one would imagine. It seems to be much more pronounced to the
pupil herself than it is to the listener. Remember, she must not,
under any conditions, attempt to eliminate the slight mis-match
of the intensity line or the exercise will become harmful.
This exercise serves another very useful purpose. It tends to
reflect the "opening" of the lower register up into the falsetto.
In fact this is an important means of "opening up" the lower falsetto
tones. This exercise is not suited to male pupils. The reason for
this is that the technical faults in the female voice are generally
associated with the falsetto register, which most women use exclu-
sively, while the inverse is true of male voices. The procedure is,
then, to reflect the "opening" of the more "open" register into the
relatively throaty one. The highest triad in which the lower register
can be used, at this stage of development, is C-E-G. The lower
register is always carried to the same point at normal intensity.
Thus, there will be two lower-register tones up to and including
the triad Ab-C-Eb and only one above this triad. The change point
must be set, however, according to the stage of development reached
and it should also be employed in songs for all normal, full voice
singing.
Use of Lower Register in Performance
When an "open," pure lower register has been carried up through
the D, on the fourth line of the treble clef, it may be used in per-
formance up to this tone. It is never carried further than this except
for fortissimo effects, when it may be employed throughout the
entire singing range, provided that the voice is "opened up" and
developed fully. The very high, lower-register tones need hardly
ever be practised during the technical workout. When this stage
has been reached, there is no intensity drop when the singer changes
into the falsetto, because the Eb is in the intensity line.

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 Changing Register at Lower Pitch
The pupil must learn also to change register skillfully at the lower
pitches. Thus, the singing of triads in which the change is made at
B, Bb or even at A is often helpful. When the change is made
at these lower pitches, the drop in intensity, at the change point,
becomes more pronounced. The intensity line is then considerably
out· of kilter. This does not matter, however, provided that the
quality line is maintained. The change should be practised at all
the different pitches at which a reasonably well-established, pure,
falsetto tone can be produced. Provided that the falsetto is not
pushed and is kept pure and "open," practice of the register change
at these lower pitches is beneficial and necessary, because it helps
to "open" this register and build it up to its full strength. Remember
-it never develops beyond a certain intensity, at any given pitch,
however much it is built up, except to the extent to which the entire
voice is "opened up." Thus, at any given stage of "opening," a middle
falsetto tone can be so strong and no stronger. At a later stage it is
fuller, but at this stage the lower register is also fuller, provided
that the technic is being worked out properly. Thus, the relative
drop in intensity for all tones below Eb remains more or less the
same at all stages, when pure, "open," balanced registration has
been established.

Constant Throat Adjustment and Register Change

·-) When this exercise is first used there is nearly always a pro-
nounced tendency on the part of the pupil to break off as she
changes register. Because the throat adjustment should remain
more or less constant, i.e., the position of, and tension on, the tongue
and hyoid bone should not alter materially between the tones-
this "break off," which need not occur, can and must be eliminated.
This is not so difficult to accomplish as one might imagine. If the
pupil has not been subjected to harmful, one-register training, the
register change usually presents relatively little difficulty. Of course,
the victim of incorrect training may have quite a bad time when
she first attempts to change register.

Use of Broken Tonic Chord in Register Change

A broken tonic chord, in the major mode, is often useful for this
work because, in some cases, the wider jump between tlie fifth and
the octave· facilitates the register change. In certain cases, this
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chord is also useful for carrying up each register separately. When
used for this purpose the pupil should sing it in a strict rhythmic
form, sometimes at a very fast tempo, without holding the top tone.
She must not spread her lips for the upper tone, since, if she does so,
this tone will become very throaty and shrill and the exercise will
prove harmful. She may then often be able to sing tones somewhat
higher than those which she can produce when she has to sustain
the top tone of the chord at slow tempo. Furthermore, when she has
sung these higher tones, even for a moment, she has paved the way
for holding them. The psychological value of knowing that one can
make a given tone, if only for a very short time, is often beneficial.

Intensityof Middleand High FalsettoTones

Falsetto tones above the D, on the fourth line of the treble clef,
can be more or less in the intensity line long before the pupil can
actually sing an even scale with the register change at the proper
point. Therefore, she must be made to sing the higher falsetto
tones loudly, provided that they are kept pure and "open." When
the lower register has first been established and "opened up," the
sudden rise in intensity is very startling. For this reason the beginner
is apt to "hold back" and sing tones which are constricted and
mixed. This is especially true of the more powerful voices. It is
absolutely vital for the teacher to insist upon the pupil singing these
new, lower-register tones at full voice and as "open" as possible.
She must do so at once, or she will inevitably start to even up the
registers by shutting of/ and mixing these loud, pure lower-register
tones. If she does this, the falsetto tones derived from the throaty,
mixed, lower-register tones will be extremely throaty and the entire
process of training the voice will be destroyed. If "open," lower-
register tones are definitely established in the early stages, no real
difficulty in using the two registers should ever be experienced. If
she fails to do so she will never learn to sing. The early stages of
the training process are, then, extremely crucial. If pure, "open,"
lower-register tones are not immediately established, and employed
in songs as well as in technic, the entire training process is nullified.
Falsetto tones, derived from the "open" lower register, are imme-
diately augmented in intensity to an enormous degree. If these
intensified falsetto tones are not put into the voice at once, the
training process is destroyed. This applies in particular to the higher
falsetto tones-those above the D on the fourth line of the treble clef.
Work on the triads, in which the register change is made, is essen-
tial from this standpoint. Only full, "open," lower-register tones
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may be sung, and the falsetto tones, derived from these "open,"
lower-register tones, must be established-they too must be sung
at full voice. This is true even when the lower, falsetto tones are
weak. Quite often the pure, lower falsetto tones are far too weak
at a stage at which the falsetto tones above Eb, on the top space
of the treble clef, are powerful enough to be in the intensity scale.
Women with small voices are not so likely to experience this diffi-
culty. The "open" tones produced by such voices are not apt to be
so, shall we say, frightening. With really powerful voices, however,
the sudden increase in loudness may be so pronounced that the pupil
may tend to "hold back" and constrict. The teacher must, there-
fore, be severe with the pupil-especially in the early stages of the
training. He must force her to establish full, "open" tones in both
registers, however inhibited she may be, and however difficult it
may be for him to accomplish this end. If he fails to do so, he will
never make her really sing.

Importance of "Opening" at Register Transition Point

The lower-register tone, which is sung immediately before a fal-
setto tone, is crucial. The tendency on the part of the pupil to soften
and constrict, just before she changes register, is very pronounced.
The ensuing falsetto tone will then be sung in extreme constriction.
This constrictor action, reflecting backward and forward between
the two registers, leads to ever-increasing throatiness. The change
point-an "open," lower-register tone followed by an "open," full,
falsetto tone-is the crux of the problem. Inhibition and fear must
be overcome if the pupil is ever to learn to sing legitimately. The
early stages of the training are the hardest and the most crucial.
If a bad start is made the entire training process is held up, until
such time as the pupil can be taught to establish pure registration
and utilize full, free tones in both registers. When the pupil is very
talented, this can be done at once. In relatively untalented cases,
it may be difficult. It may be very difficult indeed when the pupil
has made a bad start-when she has been subjected to bad training.
In badly handled cases the constriction and mixture of the lower
register may even go so far as to eliminate the lower, falsetto tones
and, in extreme cases, the entire register. Under such circumstances,
a pure, "open" lower register must be established for a few low
tones. The falsetto tones, derived from these "open," lower-register
tones, must then be found. When found, they must be "opened up"
and sung in balance with the lower register. Neither register should
be carried up very far, until balance and establishment of both
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registers have been attained. This may be difficult to accomplish-
but it must be done. A shut-off falsetto tone may be derived from
very high- "shut off," or "squeak voice"-falsetto tones, but the pure
falsetto must be established from the "opening" which is derived
from the pure, "open" lower register. Thus, the first dozen lessons
are absolutely crucial. If they are not conducted properly, the harm
done may not be overcome for a long time. If the harm done is
sufficiently great, the time lost may be serious.

Fallacy of Special Quality Characteristics

We hear a great deal about the tenor, baritone, soprano and con-
tralto qualities. Here is a startling fact! There is no such thing. The
te!!Or quaUty, as understood today, occurs because the voice is
throa ixed with a lack of lower-register balance, and the
quality characteristic is "white," thin. throaty an o en nasal. The
baritone ualityis generall the result of "thickness »°ind often of a
lack of falsetto co-or ination. The same sort of thing is true of the
bass voice. With women's voices the contralto quality is the result
of mere "thickness" and, nearly always, of mixed registration. In
virtually every case today, including the cases in which some lower-
register tones are employed for a few low tones, the contralto voices
are "thick"~~~ throaty . The soprono q•wTityis characterized by
"whiteness," "shrillness" and, very often, "nasality." In cases where
the excessively dropped larynx has been insistecf"upon, i.e., the hyoid
bone, tongue and larynx have dropped, the voice is "thick" and
throaty in the middle of the range but it is inevitably "shrill" and
"white" for the high tones. In all such voices the pitch is raised,
above a certain point, by increasing the degree of "shrillness," or
"throaty-whiteness," and constriction.
The quality of the tone is actually determined by the vowel
sound, when the technic is good. Thus, any group of singers, irre-
spective of what their voices might be, producing exactly the same
vowel, at the same pitch, with the same vibrato characteristics,
would each produce a t~e of very nearly the same quality, except
for the differences in power. provided that therr technics were vir-
tually perfect. The characteristic which really determines the type •
of voice is one of the distribution of~intensi through the range of
the voice. The type of voice is determinea y the characteristics of
the "pitch intensity" curve, not by "quality." 0

0 See The Science of Voice, third edition, page 353.

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 TruePitchCharacteristicof Well-producedVoice
The outstanding characteristic of a well-produced tone is absolute
pitch definition. It is neither "white" nor "dark" and is neither
"thick," shrill nor nasal. The statement that a voice is characteris-
tically "dark" is just as much a criticism of a fault as is the statement
that it is "white" or shrill. "White" and "dark" colors are used legiti-
mately for emotional effects. They constitute deliberate variations
from the normal quality. The properly-produced tone is, then, clear,
has an absolutely defined pitch, is mellow and is neither "dark" nor
"white."
"PersonalQuality" and Technic
While there is some slight foundation for the idea that there is
a personal quality in a given voice, this characteristic is rather the
outcome of the psychological and emotional make-up of the indi-
vidual than of the structure of his or her vocal apparatus, although
this structure must, of course, have some effect. As it is generally
understood, however, the personal quality is, in actual fact, merely
the result of the particular, or personal, faults in technic. The tech-
nical equipment is so predominatingly the controlling influence in
the quality characteristics of a voice that the other factors sink
into insignificance.
Of course, personal charm has an enormous effect upon an audi-
ence and is often confused with "personal quality" -an entirely
erroneous idea. Inversely, an individual with an unpleasant person-
ality may fail to make a hit even if he or she possesses a fine voice.

Quality Cannot Be Divorcedfrom Accurate Intonation

In nearly all the teaching methods current today the stress is
laid rather upon "quality" than upon pitch (intonation) . Pupils
who are trained by some teachers never think in terms of pitch;
they never really define pitch. Not only do they slur habitually, but
they also attempt to "place" or "focus" the voice. While this idea
of "placing" or "focussing" is without any factual basis, it does
• indicate, to the pupil, a certain quality characteristic. He is generally
taught to "place" or "focus" the tone "in the masque" or to use
"nasal" or "head resonance." This endeavor is associated with a
definite form of throatiness-an unpleasant quality characteristic.
For this reason the pupil, trained under such methods, is always
aiming at a certain quality characteristic, and pitch ( accuracy of
intonation) becomes secondary to him.
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 This is factually absurd, in view of the fact that the "quality" is
actually merely "vowel," and the vowel is determined by the over-
tones of the fundamental, i.e., of a definite pitch. If the fundamental
.is not est,tblished and absolutely defined, the quality-or vowel-
is also ill-defined. Thus, the unfortunate pupils of present-day
methods are always, in effect, merely aiming at throatiness and
utterly disregarding pitch definition.

Establishmentof Pitch Consciousness

One of the first goals for the teacher is to make the pupil pitch
conscious-to force him to define the pitch absolutely and accurately
for each tone he sings. He must never be allowed to change the
pitch after he has once started to sing a tone. A badly-trained pupil,
however good his natural ear may be, has blurred these defined,
mental (memory), pitch pictures. He must be trained to establish
them singly and, for singing melodies, as sequence, memory pic-
tures. Thus, the pupil must learn the notes. He must be taught to
establish defined, mental, pitch pictures. This is a vital concomitant
of proper training. Without it there can be no real singing-the
sounds which emanate from the pupil who has not established
definite pitch consciousness are mere noises.

Rhythmand PitchDefinition
Io order that the pitch may be changed with precision and accu-
racy, when moving from one tone to another in the singing of a
triad or of any other musical figure, this transition must be accom-
plished at an absolutely defined, pre-determined instant. The defini-
tion of the exact mo~eot at which the pitch changes is primarily
a rhythmic problem:,,Cueing is extremely important. Unless the
pupil has been taught to obey the teacher's cues, he is quite out of
hand. The teacher is unable to control him and to make him start,
move at the proper instant, or stop. This contact between the teacher
and the pupil is most important. It must be engendered at the incep-
tion of the training process. The teacher must be severe in this
phase of his work.
When teaching the pupil to sing the triad, he should be given
certain necessary, physical directions, which are indicated by his
technical faults. Such directions may be: "Raise your head;" "open
your mouth;" "drop your chest;" "get your body into the proper
posture;" "show your teeth slightly;" "don't spread the lips;" "don't
over-pout the lips;" etc. Or maybe he should be told to hold his
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 jaw nearly closed, with the lips slightly raised off the teeth, in readi-
ness to open as he ascends the triad. There are so many such direc-
tions, and they are so entirely dependent upon the pupil's personal
faults, that it is difficult to do more than suggest a few of them here.
Whenever necessary, the biad should be played in its exact
rhythmic form and tempo several times. After a few triads have
been sung, the rhythmic pattern should be set. With a change in
tempo, or rhythmic pattern, of the triad, it should be played several
times in the new tempo, or pattern-although once should be enough.

f\ "'~ Importance of Cues

~- As soon as the triad he is to sing has been struck on the piano,
the pupil must obey the physical directions given him. When he
has completely obeyed them, the cue tone is struck-the first tone
of the triad. As soon as he hears this tone he must breathe, and
he must attack on the inspiratory gesture. He must not anticipate
the cue tone.
Even after he has started to sing, he must be conscious of the
piano and, if the playing stops, he must stop singing. Very often
the pupil should hold the top tone of the triad; sometimes, if he is
singing it too softly, the teacher should indicate a crescendo by
striking the chord several times loudly. Sometimes he should leave the
held, top tone quickly, either because he has sung it badly, or be-
cause he has started to do something wrong. 'At other times he
should sing in strict rhythm. In any event, he must hold up the top
tone, swelling it if a swell is indicated, and keeping it at constant
intensity, if no swell is called for, until he hears the first descending
tone played. He must then immediately move down the last two
tones of the triad in the rhythmic pattern. He must come off the top
tone the moment the next tone is played. This is very important be-
cause, if he has done something wrong, by coming down promptly,
he stops sustaining a tone which is hurting his voice.
Nevertheless, he must have the rhythmic flow of the triad in his
mind and he must not stop until so told. Of course, the playing is
always in an established rhythm and the pupil must move with it.
He must at all times be listening to the piano and not to his own
voice. If he listens to his own voice, the process is destroyed. The
self-Ustener is unable to follow the cue, or the piano. He is always
singing against the teacher's guidance. Inversely, "self-listening"
has been more or less broken down when the pupil has learned to
follow the cue. The pupil must be completely alert and his muscular
system "toned" to breathe and start singing as soon as he hears the
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cue tone. Before he starts to sing, all the muscles used in phonation
must be in optimum tonus or relatively relaxed. Thus, the breathing
muscles must not be pre-tensed and, while some slight tension of
the inspiratory muscles must occur when he inspires his breath, the
tension on these muscles for phonation must not occur until the
moment at which he attacks the first tone of the triad . If he takes
a breath and holds it, while waiting for the cue, he will always sing
on a forced expiration, slur up into the tone and push. The tension
on the breathing muscles must be of the right degree and occur
at the exact moment of attack-not too soon and not too late. Fur-
thermore, he must establish a sequence, memory picture of the
five timed, graded tensions for the five tones of the triad. before
he starts to sing. Most important is the fact that the muscles at the
seat of action, i.e., the muscles of the vibrator and the resonator
( tongue and larynx), must be relaxed until the moment at which
the first tone is attacked and the triad started . Thus, in preparation
for the singing of a triad, after the chord has been struck, the pupil
must relax his tongue . As soon as he hears the cue tone, he must
breathe and then attack it, bringing the tongue O and larynx into
tension and , a split fraction of a second later, taking hold of, or
tensing, the breathing muscles. He must then move over the triad
in unison with the piano. The sense of the rhythmic pattern enables
him to do this.
When the alert pupil follows the cue promptly, an exact interval
of time elapses before he is able to start singing. This interval of
time is determined by the length of time necessary to receive the
sound impression, breathe and bring the vocal apparatus into action.
If he sings with the cue tone, or too soon, he is not listening to it,
and is not, therefore, obeying it. If he waits too long between the
cue tone and the attack, he is not responding and really obeying the
cue. As soon as he attacks the first tone, the rhythm should be picked
up by the pianist and the pupil should move with this rhythm
and with the piano.
-NThe importance of the teacher's insistence upon the pupil's sub-
jection to the cue cannot be emphasized too strongly. It is his chief
means of controlling the pupil's voice-his main contact with the
pupil. Without it much of his ability to teach the pupil how to sing
is lost.
0 The tension on the muscles of the tongue should be mild-strong tongue

tension is always antagonistic to the genio-hyo-glossusmuscles-i.e ., it engenders

throatiness.

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 Male Voices, LessonsGenerally Start with Falsetto
With men's voices the lesson generally starts with the falsetto.
In the early stages, the tongue instrument is usually needed for the
falsetto tones. which are always sung with a vowel which approxi-
mates the dark "ee," although the vowel sound is primarily deter-
mined by the tongue instrument. The tone F or F# above middle
C is usually a good starting note. An octave higher should be played
on the piano for the men. Despite the fact that they are really
singing an octave lower. it is best for them to associate this octave-
lower tone with the tone an octave higher on the treble clef. The
triads for the men are played in the same position as those played
for the women ( an octave higher than they are actually sung). When
there is no falsetto, or when it is mixed, the lesson must be started
with lower-register tones. generally using the laryngeal controls
and. sometimes, the tongue instrument. If the voice is balanced to
the falsetto, the lesson can well be started with lower-register tones
sung very loudly and helped by means of the lower-register manipu-
lations. In most cases, however, starting with the falsetto is ad-
visable. When the falsetto is sufficiently pure, the "going through
the falsetto" exercise begins. With this exercise use two cues; once
for the attack of the falsetto and, the second time. for the pupil to
\k "go through" to the lower register. When using the tongue instru-
.
ment, or the laryngeal controls, cue him by saying: "Gol"-twice .

When to Use "Going Throughthe Falsetto"

When the pupil is singing this "going through the falsetto" exer-
cise, which has been discussed in Chapter 9, the falsetto must be
completely established and pure. because a mixed falsetto leads to
a mixed lower register and, as with the women, the mixture and
throatiness are reflected backward and forward between the two
registers with disastrous results. The pupil should seldom sing the
falsetto at a pitch higher than that of the highest tone he can pro-
duce with the lower register added. The only exception to this is
where the voice is balanced to the lower register, under which
circumstances he may sometimes sing two or three tones higher in
the falsetto.
Falsetto triads are never used with the male pupil, because they
are at too low tension, in his singing range, for this exercise to be
beneficial. The use of falsetto triads would tend only to induce
throatiness and mixture, just as the singing of very high, single.
falsetto tones would.
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 RegisterChange and PitchTransitionSimilar
A jerk, "give" or slur between the falsetto and the lower register,
in the "going through the falsetto" exercise, is a similar phenomenon
to the jerk, "give" or slur between the tones in the triad. Learning
to "go through the falsetto" without "giving" or jerking helps to
teach the pupil how to move the pitch, and vice versa.
The ability to hold the tension throughout the entire process of
singing a musical phrase, or tune, is of first importance . The singer
who has not been trained to do this all the time must inevitably
become throaty-he is utterly unable to produce his voice properly.
There are three phases of the technic in which the pupil can, and
must, be taught to "hold." All three are similar, and when one has
been mastered the other two soon fall into line. These three phases
of the technic are:
1. The attack
2. The change of register
3. Changing pitch
In all thrfe cases the muscles of the thorax ( diaphragm and lower
rib muscles) and the muscles of the tongue ( genio-hyo-glossus
muscles) must maintain their tension. The tension on these muscles
must be established at the moment of attack and must not be
released, as it will be if the pupil slurs or jerks. It must be ''held" in
the transition from one register to the other, whether the change is
made on one tone or over an interval. It must be ''held" when the
pitch is changed-up or down-irrespective of whether a consonant
intervenes or not. A major phase of teaching technic lies in instruct-
ing the pupil how to hold tension in these three phases of the technic.
Triads sung with a "give" between the tones are of little or no value
and, as long as the "give" persists, the tongue will drop every time
it occurs and the tone will become throaty. A relaxation of the
inspiratory muscles at any time during phonation always co-ordinates
with a relaxation of the genio-hyo-glossus muscles. Holding tension
is of paramount importance.
Triads for the male voices generally start at middle C, D or E
( actually an octave lower) and go up as far as the pupil can sing,
without shutting off, at the given stage. The degree of "darkness" or
"whiteness" to be employed is so dependent upon the stage of
development that it is difficult to give the reader any rules. Before
the falsetto has been brought into the voice, the lower register is
generally quite "white." This "whiteness," however, should be mini-
mized as much as possible, but an excessively "dark" tone will also
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lead to throatiness in the early stages. As soon as some "opening"
and the establishment of pure registration have been attained, the
voice can be "darkened" and the "opening" process is then carried
on with a "dark," and often an extremely "dark" quality. Each
ascending tone must be augmented in loudness. If the intensity
drops in ascent, the pupil has gone throaty and must be stopped
immediately. This is true whether he is using the "dark" or "white"
quality.

Falsetto-derived and Lower-register-derived Tones

In the early stages of training, the tones derived from the falsetto,
by means of the "going through the falsetto" exercise, are of a dif-
ferent quality and have a different muscular co-ordination from
those derived from below, by means of the lower-register triads .
The tones that are derived from the falsetto are generally consid-
erably "darker" than those which are brought up from below-
derived from the lower register. At this stage the lower tones have
a more or less throaty characteristic, which is distinguished, in most
cases, by "whiteness." On the other hand, the tones derived from
the falsetto have a more or less throaty characteristic which is dis-·
tinguished by excessive "darkness," or thickness.
These two types of tones must be "opened up" and matched, or
related, in progressive stages. The thickness of the falsetto-derived
tones should be modified by "opening," when they will become
somewhat less thick and "dark." The throatiness of the "white,"
lower-register derived tones should be modified by "darkening"
and by the introduction of certain phases of the falsetto characteris-
tic, when they will become far less "white." Note that the ultimate
quality of the voice is derived from the pure, "open," falsetto
characteristic rather than from the lower-register quality. Never-
theless, the power, "openness" and the virile characteristics are
derived from the lower register, or from below. If the voice were
to be worked out from the falsetto-derived tones alone, it would
fade out for the lower tones and become throaty. If it were to be
worked out from below, without the falsetto characteristic, the high
tones would never be sung, except in a throaty, mixed register, and
the quality throughout the entire range would always be throaty
and generally "white" and nasal or thick. Therefore, work from
above and from below is essential. Lower-register triads should be
started at about middle C ( really an octave below) for the basses
and baritones, and at about E ( four semitones higher) for the
tenors.
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 In working on the triads for the men's voices, the reader must
remember that everything said about women's voices holds good,
except for the fact that men should seldom sing triads in which the
register change occurs.

"White"Low Tones ShouldBe Avoided

The very low tones are sung at low tension and do not need to
be worked on very much. Their production depends primarily upon
purity of registration, resonance adjustment and accurate intona-
tion. They must be sung at full voice, but they must not be pushe.d
or forced. The loud, "white," low tones which men with heavy
voices are apt to produce are not resonated properly. Their loudness
characteristic is principally noise, which must be eliminated. The
problem of resonance adjustment, in working out the low tones,
depends upon the use of the cavities below the larynx, i.e., the
trachea and bronchi.
The employment of these cavities depends primarily upon pitch
definition. They come into action, more or less automatically, when
the pitch is defined properly. The tension for these tones must
always be sufficient to "string" the vocal apparatus and absolutely
define the pitch, but it is not high, and there is often a tendency for
the pupil to push or force these low tones. The real bass is some-
what of an exception to this statement, because his low tones should
boom out with considerable power and, therefore, they demand a
great deal more tension than the the low tones of the tenor or even
the baritone. The ability to produce these tones more or less prop-
erly, however, is very often quite natural with a talented bass. The
mere isolation and purification of the falsetto has an immediate,
beneficial influence on these pure, low, lower-register tones. In
every case the development of power at the bottom of the range,
within the power limits of the given voice, is an immediate con-
comitant of the isolation and purification of the registers.

Eliminationof "Noisy"MiddleTones
When the pupil is in the stage at which the lower-register derived
tones are not related properly to the falsetto derived tones, he is
able to produce very loud tones in the neighborhood of the tone D,
on the fourth line of the treble clef ( actually an octave lower) .
These tones, when they can be produced, have a shouty, or noisy,
characteristic. When the voice has been lined up, and the lower-
register derived tones have been matched in quality with the falsetto
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derived tones, there is very often a drop in loudness in this middle
part of the range. The reader must remember that we are aiming to
obtain an even scale of purely registered , "open," free, perfectly
intoned tones-not noise. It is very often possible for the pupil
to make much more noise with a badly produced than a well-
produced tone. The increase in loudness, which occurs as the voice
"opens up," is enormous and, one of the most difficult phases of the
teacher's work lies in forcing the pupil to sing at the intensity level
demanded by the stage of "opening" which he has attained. Never-
theless, at any given stage, the pupil, male or female, may be able
to make a far louder noise by shouting, screaming or forcing than
he or she can produce legitimately. Such noises must be eliminated.
One great singer, speaking of Caruso's voice, said: "He (Caruso)
has such a glorious voice; it is so wonderful, so beautiful, so soft!"
In this statement was a very significant observation : Of course,
Caruso had an enormously powerful voice, but this voice-the most
perfectly-produced the world has ever heard-was never noisy; he
never gave one the impression he was singing loudly. His tone was
characterized by an absolute definition of pitch, vowel quality and
a remarkably correct vibrato action. Virtually all noise elements
were absent .

Well-produced Voice Never Noisy

When a voice is really well-produced, it is full, resonant and
beautiful, wherever it may be heard . It may overload the ear drums
in a room, but it is never offensive and never sounds noisy. Even
a fairly powerful, loud, forced, badly-produced voice may sound
far noisier in a room than a voice which was produced properly and
which, when heard in an auditorium, completely drowned the noisy
voice. The drop in intensity of a great voice, when heard in an
auditorium, as against its power when heard in a room, is remark-
ably little as compared with that of a badly-produced, noisy voice,
which fades out to an incredible degree as soon as it is heard in an
auditorium. The carrying power of a well-produced voice is pri-
marily dependent upon pitch definition and the vibrato characteris-
tics. Tone and intonation are the goals at which the teacher is
aiming and not mere noise. Furthermore , there is sometimes a reduc-
tion of loudness, because of the elimination of the noise elements,
as the voice improves and develops. Of course, this reduction of
loudness is not the result of closure. It is merely an elimination
of the noise elements-elements dependent upon ill-defined in-
tonation, uneven vibrato movement, or tremolo, and probably, a
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badly-adjusted and fluctuating resonance adjustment which gives
rise to a fluctuating spectrum .

Carrying Quality and SustainingTone

The ability to sing a musical phrase in which each tone is held
at constant pitch and vowel, or quality, for its entire duration, and
with the consonants articulated as rapidly as possible, determines
to a large degree the apparent power of the voice. When a tone is
sung in an auditorium, a sound pattern is built up. The establish-
ment of this sound pattern takes a definite length of time, depending
upon the reverberation characteristics of the auditorium. This time
can be a matter of one to several seconds. If the tone stops before
the sound pattern has been built up completely and received by
the listener's ear, the apparent loudness of the tone is curtailed.
Most of the tones in a musical phrase stop before they have actually
been received at their full loudness, but it makes a tremendous
difference if the length of time they are held is of maximum dura-
tion or if it is curtailed by slurring, changing spectra ( vowel varia-
tions), wavering pitch, gaps or over-sustained consonants. Thus the
singer, whose technic allows him to hold each tone as long as pos-
sible with constant pitch and quality characteristics, is able to fill
an auditorium far better than one whose technic and musicianship
are faulty. The cut off of the voice of the singer whose technic is
really poor and who habitually slurs, wavers the pitch, jerks and
over-articulates the consonants, and who is thus continually breaking
the musical line, is so pronounced that he can hardly be heard, even
when he is singing loudly-he conveys no sense of power whatever.
Even a small voice, which is really well-produced, and which is
sustained properly, is always audible, even in the largest auditorium,
and actually gives the listener an impression of power. Pronounced
slurring and a musical line broken by slow, sustained consonants
and gaps engendered by badly-articulated consonants, jerks, etc.,
may actually cut down the time during which each short tone is
held by from half to nearly all of its duration. The cut off in the
carryingpower and apparent intensity is similarly curtailed.

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 Chapter 18

INTERPRETATION

What the SingerShouldKnow

Singing is glorified ( or magnified) speech combined with the language
of music. Music, which is itself a language, may be analyzed just as a
grammatical construction may be parsed. There is no reason for employing
the medium of song unless the interpreter is able to paint his picture
upon a larger canvas than the one which is called for in speech or recita-
tion. The singer who drops into or below the intensity range and dramatic
fervor of speech is merely stultifying his art . His medium, if he has any,
is in the field of recitation.
In absolute music, even when there is no suggestion of a title and no
program explanation, a complete emotional picture may be conveyed
to the audience. How great, then, is the effect which may be wrought
by a real artist who interprets, with true musicianship, the compositions
of the great masters, and who can give to the poem its full dramatic value!
A singer must never alter the musical facts which have been set down
by the composer. Hence, any translation of the words which demands
added notes or changes in the metrical figures should never be tolerated.
When the publisher has allowed such ill-wrought translations to appear
in print, the singer must so alter them that they fit the music exactly.
The artist must understand the idiom of the language of music as
thoroughly as he comprehends that of his mother tongue. Until the
musical facts are learned with mechanical precision, he is not free to
/ express sincere emotion. The rendition of a song or aria may be paralleled
to an actor's reading of a long speech. The talented actor does not "feel
for" the words in his speech-the singer must not "feel for" the notes or
the metrical figures in the music. The competent actor does not enunciate
each and every syllable with equal stress. Similarly, the singer should
encompass the musical phrase with absolute freedom and ease and, at
the same time, give to each beat its proper proportion of stress. Just as
the actor must not stumble over his lines, so the singer must cover the
musical phrase with definition. The wider the group of words or notes
the actor or the singer, respectively, can conceive as a single unit, the
more intelligible and poignant will be his performance. Carrying the
comparison still further : Just as the finished actor contrasts one phrase
· with another ( if a phrase has to be repeated he never interprets it twice
with exactly the same color), so the singer must contrast one musical
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 phrase with another, from the standpoints of color and dynamics, if he
is to round out his periods artistically. Finally, we may compare the
actor's rendition of a paragraph in a speech to the singer's rendition of a
section in a song. The entire song or aria must have all the diverse emo-
tions clearly-defined against a background of perfectly conceived and
balanced phrases and periods.
An actor who has only played Shakespearean roles is apt to become
unfitted for the portrayal of roles in the modem drama. Similarly, the
singer who has devoted himseH exclusively to one school of music is apt
to fail interpretively and vocally if he endeavors to sing the music of other
schools. The true artist should be familiar with all the various schools of
music-the Classical, Romantic, Modem and Ultra-modem Schools. He
must study the songs of the Classical Period, Lieder, French, Spanish,
Russian songs, etc., the Opera of the Bel Canto Period as well as Modem
Opera and the Wagnerian Music-Drama, etc. Nor should he omit the
study of Modem Art Songs, Ballads, and even the Opera Comique and
Operetta.
When taking up the study of a new song or aria, the pupil should
always note the school to which this composition belongs. U it is charac-
terized by any national idiom, he must become imbued with these national
peculiarities. It is important to note that the nationality of the composer
is not necessarily a key to the national idiom of the composition.
. All peoples have in their music a definite idiom which is an outgrowth
of their folk tunes. The national characteristics, or bases, of the composi-
tion which he is singing must be understood by the performer before he
attempts to interpret the song.
An obvious fact that strikes the eye, when one looks at a song or at the
score of an opera, is that it consists of two parts: One, the vocal, and the
other, the instrumental. A perfect ensemble should always be maintained
between the singer and the accompanist. The accompanist should never
be ahead of the singer (pulling him on), nor trail behind (following) him.
Thus, a perfect balance must exist between the singer and accompanist,
who are actually rendering a duet.
The singer must always be conscious of the principal melody, irre-
spective of whether it is in the vocal part, or in the accompaniment.
Sometimes the principal melody starts in an interlude and is continued in
the vocal part . Under these circumstances the singer must enter at pre-
cisely the correct moment. He must enter at exactly the right "time-spot,"
so that there is no break in the continuity of the melody. Similarly, when
the singer's part acts as a counter-melody, he must hear and feel the
principal melody which appears in the accompaniment, thus making a
perfect, conscious ensemble between the melody and the counter-melody.
The question of intensity is also very important. Sometimes, for the
sake of emotional effect, the accompaniment changes the intensity dur-
ing the course of an interlude. Under these circumstances, it is usually
essential for the singer to derive the appropriate intensity from the accom-
paniment. He should pick up his cue at precisely the correct new intensity.
Of course, there are exceptions to this rule: There are cases where the
accompaniment plays suddenly fortissimo in an interlude, and the singer
has to take up his cue softly. The inverse is also found. These intensity
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effects must be accomplished with absolute definition. They are paralleled
by the performance of two competent actors who take their tone from
each other, or, if they make a sudden variation of intensity, do so with a
very definite purpose.
Frequently a change in tempo or rhythm, which is announced in the
accompaniment, must be exactly carried on by the singer. Only when
the singer is able to pick up the new rhythm or tempo instantaneously
and with perfect precision can a proper ensemble be maintained.
It is interesting to note that, when an artist hums a song to himself,
he always sings through the entire composition including the interludes.
The unmusical singer, or the amateur, never really follows the interludes
and is even apt to become impatient and restless when the accompanist
is playing his solo part. The singer who does not hold the emotion and
feel all the varying moods during the rendition of the entire composition,
including the prelude, interludes and postlude, is not a true artist.
To sum up, the performance of a song constitutes a duet between the
singer and the accompanist, involving melody, counter-melody, intensity,
tempo, rhythm and emotional concept.
All music is based upon three phases:
I. Melodic progression-outline
2. Rhythmic form-time, meter, accent and rhythm
3. Harmonic structure
These three phases are interdependent, because the melodic progres-
sion is regulated by a rhythmic pattern which is, in tum, dependent
upon certain chord progressions in the harmonic structure.
I. Melodic outline: The smallest unit which can be conceived in music
is a motive-figure. This seed of an idea grows into the motive, the well-
rounded motive becomes the theme, and the theme is incorporated in the
melody and the counter-melody. There are diverse means of elaborating
the motive. A great composer generally employs ingeniously contrasted
elaborations of a few themes. He avoids the introduction of a great deal
of new material.
Among the various means of elaborating the motive are: Transposition,
sequence, interval expansion, interval contraction, rhythmic augmenta-
tion, rhythmic diminution, variation and exact repetition .
The melody, or melodic progression, lies along certain outlines. It
may be:
A. Scalewise---chromatic or diatonic
B. Arpeggio or harp-like-where it consists of broken triads or
broken chords
C. Horizontal-where it lies on a monotone
The counter-melody occurs in either the vocal part or the accompani-
ment. Sometimes the melody and the counter-melody are heard simul-
taneously.
2. Rhythmic form: All forms of time may be considered as either
duple or triple. These forms, in tum, may be simple or compound . Thus,
each time sign calls for its own characteristic accents . There is always
a princifal accent and, sometimes, one or two secondary accents. The
principa accent ( the first beat of the measure) is almost always the
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strongest, unless an oratorical accent, which shifts the stress, is used.
Certain other exceptions to this rule occur in operatic compositions ( this
will be discussed later) . In the final analysis, rhythm must be thought
of in its broader sense, i.e., the duration (length) of the phrase. The
singer must be conscious of whether the music is written in monometer,
dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter, heptameter, octa-
meter, etc.
3. Harmonic structure : The following table indicates, step by step,
the derivation of the harmonic structure of the composition:
1. SCALES
a. Diatonic
I. Major
II. Minor
b. Chromatic
2. INTERVALS
a. Major
b. Minor
c. Augmented
d. Diminished
3. TRIADS
a. Major
b. Minor
c. Augmented
d. Diminished
4. CHORDS
a. Sevenths
I . Secondary
II . Diminished
III . Dominant
b. Ninths, etc.
5. CADENCES
a. Semi-cadence
b. Full close
c. Authentic
d. Plagal
e. Deceptive
6. PHRASE AND PHRASE-LENGTH
a. Monometer
b. Dimeter
c. Trimeter
d. Tetrameter
e. Pentameter
f. Hexameter
g. Heptameter
h. Octameter, etc.
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7. PERIOD
a. Thesis
b. Antithesis

8. SECTION
a. Combination of periods

9. SONG FORM
a. Binary
b. Ternary

In teaching the principles of musicianship the most effective plan fs

to start with the scales. Students should have acquired a thorough knowl-
edge of all the scales before proceeding to the further stages indicated .
(This question of scales, and all other steps necessary for the under-
standing of a composition, may be found discussed in detail in "'The
Science of Voice.")
From the scales are derived the intervals; from the intervals, by taking
pairs of thirds, are derived the triads and chords in fundamental position;
from the chord progressions, the cadences may be ascertained; from the
cadences, the phrase lengths are found; from the phrase lengths, the
periods are derived; from the periods, the sections are determined; and,
ultimately, from the sections, the form of the composition as a whole
may be conceived.

How to Study and Interpreta Song

The first step to be taken in studying a song is to learn the words,
which should, when memorized, be recited with the appropriate color
and dramatic significance. The declamatory, interrogative and exclama-
tory passages, etc., should be carefully noted. In the works of the great
composers these effects are skillfully portrayed by the music. The im-
portant words or syllables are emphasized in the music by means of
accents-grammatical or oratorical.
It is important to note, in this connection, that the accent or stress
must be made at exactly the correct moment, and this can only be brou__ght
about through the medium of the vibrato. Thus, the note to be stressed
or accented is initiated by means of an especially vigorous vibrato . Where \
the vibrato is absent, the singer cannot accent properly, because if there
is no movement at all in the voice he can only swell gradually, and if a
tremolo is present, its amplitude, which does not vary with intensity, is
virtually constant. ·
Every beat in the music should be brought out, or indicated, at pre-
cisely the moment at which it falls . The primary and, where they occur,
the secondary accents, are deliberately stressed.
In reading the words, the student should, as stated in Chapter 14,
generally raise the pitch as the emotion rises, and vice versa. Practically
always, this rise in pitch must be accompanied by an augmentation of the
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intensity. The composer generally indicates an increasing intensity, or an
accentuation of the dramatic import, by means of a rising melodic line.
This point is of deep technical as well as interpretive significance, because
the singer who uses his voice improperly does not possess a properly
graded scale. Where the intensity mount and the other attributes of real
singing are absent, every emotional climax is ruined, and the melodic
line is destroyed.
The phrase is the unit in music. Unless a special indication over one
note is made by the composer, the intensity of every note in the phrase
is predetermined by the intensity of the first tone the singer produces. The
intensity rises as the melodic line of the musical figure rises, and falls as
it falls. If any one tone fails to lie in the rroper intensity balance of the
phrase, the melodic and rhythmic flow o the music is broken and the
musical and poetical import of the song is impaired.
In studying a composition the pupil should observe the time sign, and
note any changes which may appear in it during the progress of the
song. He should also note the emotional import of such changes. He
should mark the beats and the grammatical accents throughout the entire
composition. (See The Science of Voice.) The grammatical accent can
be brought out only by means of an especially vigorous vibrato. This
accenting by means of the vibrato allows the singer to indicate the exact
spot on a tied note at which the accent falls. For example: If an ac-
cented beat in the measure is tied to an unaccented beat in the previous
measure, the singer must make an especially vigorous vibrato in order
to indicate the exact time-spot on the tie at which the accent falls. Another
case of this occurs where, in 4/ 4 time, a quarter note is sung on the
first beat, a half note is sung on the second beat, which note is prolonged
through the duration of the third beat, and a quarter note is sung on
the fourth beat. Here the third beat, which is a secondary accent and
therefore requires a certain amount of stress, is entirely lost, unless
the singer imposes an especially vigorous vibrato at the exact moment
at which the third beat falls. This is a form of syncopation, which
rhythmic device can only be interpreted properly through a correct con-
trol of the vibrato.
Tempo, or the pace at which a song should be sung, is of very great
importance from both the musical and interpretive standpoints. The
tempo is indicated by a direction over the opening measure, and some-
times by a metronome mark. Changes of tempo very often occur during
the rendition of a song. Such changes should be carefully noted by the
singer, who must be able to make any sudden change of tempo or rhythm
with absolute precision. Many singers fail to make changes in tempo at
exactly the correct moment. They are wont, for example, to slowly increase
the speed in going from a slow to a fast passage, or vice versa. Unless
the new tempo is taken up with absolute definitioo at the moment the
phrase starts, its musical import is impaired.
The same sort of thing applies to the time sign. The singer must be
able to initiate a new rhythmic pattern instantly and with precision. He
must do this spontaneously, with the entire metric outline of the composi-
tion clearly defined in his mind. The singer who is "dragged along" by the
accompanist or the conductor is without merit artistically.
The amateurish performer is ineffective when singing both fast and
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 slow songs. In slow tempo his lack of breath destroys the legato effect,
and furthermore, he is apt to sing the composition too quickly. In rapid
tempo the extra breaths which he is forced to take destroy the rhythm
and, moreover, he inevitably breaks the phrases .
Where a phrase is so long that only a singer with a phenomenally well-
used voice can encompass it in one breath, an extra breath may be per-
mitted, provided that it is taken at a caesura. The metrical figure, like
the word, must never be broken .
The singing of rapid songs and arias demands a good music mind,
because the mentality which cannot conceive the phrase with great
velocity is unable to supply the mental patterns whicli send the quickly-
changing nerve impulses to the muscles actuating the vocal apparatus .
No one can sing faster than he can hear the melody mentally.
For high speed work, where words are used, clean-cut, rapid articula-
tion is essential. For this reason, only the one who uses the pharyngeal
cavities as the vocal resonators, and thereby leaves the mouth free for
consonant articulation, is able to sing rapid, and at the same time, intel-
ligible phrases at a proper intensity level.
In studying a song it is essential for the singer to determine its pace
and all changes of tempo indicated on the music. These changes must be
memorized and practised until they are made with absolute precision.
When practising a song for the purpose of learning the music, the singer
should transpose it down an octave. By so doing he will avoid over-taxing
his voice.
While most compositions have a certain key indicated in the signature,
an examination of the musical literature reveals the fact that composers
modulate freely. Such modulation may occur at any time during the .
progress of a composition-even at the very beginning . For this reason
the ability to sing at sight demands a thorough knowledge of the scales.
In the same way, it is important for the singer to know all the enhar-
monic scales, because the composer often modulates to keys which have
eight, nine or more flats or sharps, merely by the introduction of acci-
dentals. In other words, the singer's musical training should be so
thorough that he can recognize these key changes instantly. The inter-
pretation of a musical phrase depends, in a large measure, upon the
harmony which lies under the vocal part . The artistry of a singer who
fully comprehends the harmonic structure of a composition, is far more
profound than that of the one who merely knows the intervals indicated
in the vocal part.
Thus, the singer must observe the signature and note whether the
mode indicated be major or minor; he must also note all changes of key
which may occur during the progress of the composition, and determine
the emotional reasons for the major or minor mode and for all such modu-
lations.
The fact that the musical phrase is the unit in singing has been empha-
sized many times. The singer must, then, know where the phrase ends-
he must be able to determine the length of every phrase throughout a
composition. The end of a phrase is determined by a cadence, and it is,
therefore, important for the singer to know all the different forms of
cadences and their formulae.
DiHerent types of cadences indicate various emotional effects. For
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 example: Some cadences hold the emotion suspended or in abeyance
( i.e., the semiclose and the deceptive cadence); others give a sense
of emotional finality ( i.e., the perfect authentic cadence); still others
give a sense of awe or religious emotion (i.e., the plagal cadence), and
so forth. (See The Science of Voice.)
A very striking dramatic effect often found in operatic music is brought
about by a strong accent or break (an attack produced with the throat)
in a closing cadence, at the point where the voice takes the third degree
of the scale ( the middle tone of the tonic triad in fundamental position)
and at the moment when the accompanist plays the dominant seventh
chord. Here the tempo is always drawn out, and it is vital that the singer
should make the stress ( a vigorous vibrato, a break or a sob) at exactly
the correct moment and round out the tempo with perfect symmetry.
The singer should, when studying a song, mark all the cadences. He
should determine the number of measures comprising each phrase, be-
cause the length of the phrase has an important bearing upon its emotional
import. One of the characteristics of a great composition lies in the use
of appropriate phrase lengths, and of contrasting phrase lengths, in order
to convey varying emotions.
The singer should note all the musical motives in both the vocal part
and the accompaniment. He should also follow the devices employed by
the composer for the elaboration of these motives, and note the effect of
this elaboration upon the melodic outline. .
The next step is to observe the thematic outline and form of the com-
position as a whole. This subject is a complex one, and the reader who
wishes to pursue it further is referred to The Science of Voice.
Most songs rise to a climax at some point in their rendition. The inter-
pretation of this climax, with its full emotional value, is probably the
greatest test of the singer's mettle.
He should find the climax and note how it is brought about musically
and dramatically. He should also observe the material which precedes
and follows it. The singer who cannot climax effectively has no right to
call himseH an artist.
The first requirement for the rendition of an effective climax is a
proper intensity mount over the range of the voice as the scale is ascended.
The second requirement is a properly-controlled vibrato. The third re-
quirement. is the ability to hold a high tone for a very considerable period
without losing the quality or fading the intensity. In fact, a most striking
effect is often made when the highest tone in the climactic phrase is
ultimately swelled, which crescendo must be made on the final pulse,
after it has been held for a long time, and the phrase is then rounded
out firmly and with proper command. A fourth requirement is the ability
to broaden and narrow the beat in perfect rhythmic form.
When the intensity range over the entire pitch range of a singer's
voice is balanced incorrectly he is unable to climax properly. Consider,
for example, a woman who uses the falsetto register only: She may be
able to sing relatively loud, high tones, but her voice fades in the middle
of her range, with the result that the approach to the climax, and there-
fore the climax itseH, is spoiled. Even if the high tone is of reasonably
good quality, the impression conveyed to the audience will probably be
that she has suddenly emitted a loud scream.
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 In most cases, the climactic note of a song has to be held. If this note
is isolated and held without due consideration being given to the rhythmic
flow or pattern, the effect is inartistic, cheap and unmusical. When the
climax is rendered properly, the rhythm of the phrase is drawn out, so
that the tempo is gradually broadened-until the climactic note is reached
-and is then narrowed again. Because the drawing-out of the climactic
phrase must be according to a definite, predetermined pattern, the exact
length of time during which the climactic note should be held is pre-
determined, because it is dependent upon this "shaping" of the phrase.
Such "rhythmic-shaping" makes high demands upon the singer's sense of
rhythm, and is a mark of true artistry.
In determining the proper emotional interpretation of a song, the first
factor to be considered is the school of music to which the composition
belongs. The Classical Period should be approached impersonally, be-
cause an abstract, objective emotion is called for. For the interpretation
of compositions of the Romantic Period of music, and the Operatic School,
a much more subjective and personal feeling is demanded. Hence a defi-
nite, concrete, subjective emotion should be invoked. For the Modem
School of music the emotions to be conveyed are more atmospheric and
realistic-impersonal.
Certain effects may indeed be conveyed simply by means of dynamic
modifications. While it is essential, however, for the singer to be able
to encompass all the dynamic effects called for by the composer, the
deeper and more subtle rendition of a song rests rather with the control
of color. Color, in singing, is the chief means at the disposal of the artist
for conveying emotions, moods and atmosphere. Such color modifications
of the quality of the tone have riothing to do with intensity. Any tone-
color which the singer is able to produce can, if his technic is sufficiently
far advanced, be made at any intensity, within his intensity range. The
second-rate performer will generally sing merely softly when such a
direction as "dclce.. aprears on the music. This is not an intensity indica-
tion-it is rather one o mood which must be conveyed through the color
of the tone. A soft tone, when produced properly, may be so colored as
to convey any desired atmosphere or emotion. The mere act of singing
softly does not necessarily convey tenderness. The same sort of fallacy
sometimes occurs when the mood indicated by the music demands a
martial, emphatic virile effect, etc. These effects can be rendered either
loudly or softly. However, in view of the fact that so vast a majority of
the singers of today yearn to whisper and seldom attempt any broad
effects, we generally hear moods which should be conveyed by a tender
or sweet color sung merely pianissimo.
In studying a composition, the singer should determine the general
emotion to be conveyed-whether it be subjective or objective-and
also the emotions and colors appropriate to each phrase. He must pre-
determine, with definition, every transition of color or emotion throughout
the entire composition. These transitions must be made with absolute
precision, and start with the first note of the phrase. Where the color
changes are blurred into one another, the emotional import of the song
is marred or even ruined. These changes parallel the rhythmic changes
mentioned above . Their poignancy rests with the precision ud definition
with which they are encompassed.
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 The directions which indicate the articulation ( in the musical sense,
are the terms: Legato, staccato, portamento, leggiero and portar la ooce,
and the slur-marks. The contrasting of legato singing with staccato or
leggierois of great importance musically as well interpretively.
A slur mark on the music indicates that the composer desires a rela-
tively prolonged time interval between two successive notes. In this case
the singer must execute a vibrato run ( down or up )-on the diatonic
scale, if the interval is wide, and on the chromatic scale if it is narrow-
a fifth or less-over the interval. Under no circumstances should he
actually slur. In going from tone to tone the singer must either move
in the space of one vibrato, or by means of a series of vibratos, until the
second tone-the tone to which the slur is indicated in the music-is
reached. This vibrato run is a vital part of the singer's technical equip·
ment and produces a very beautiful pearly effect as contrasted with the
wailing of the singer who slurs with a uniform rate of pitch change.
In singing staccato, each tone is attacked separately and stopped, so
that definite intervals of silence occur between the tones. The execution
of the staccato depends upon the singer's ability to attack the tone
properly.
Leggiero calls for a bright, light, crisp effect, and lies between the
staccato and the legato. It is more similar to the legato than is the porta-
mento, which also lies between legato and staccato.
In order to sing a melodic passage with the proper "sweep," the singer
must have reached an advanced teclmical stage. There are three phases
of melody, and the artistic rendition of each depends, in a large measure,
for its effect, upon the proper intensity mount of the voice as the scale
is ascended. Melodic line is either scalewise, horizontal or arpeggio. No
ascending scalewise passage can be sung effectively unless thevoice
mounts in intensity in the proper balance as the passage ascends.
The horizontal outline is often employed as a lull before a storm-just
before a dramatic climax. It is also frequently used in recitatives. The
singer whose voice fades in the middle of his range becomes practically
inaudible during the rendition of these important passages. This applies
in particular to the woman singer whose lower register has never been
developed and carried up.
The harp-like or arpeggio· outline makes great demands on the singer's
teclmic. This outline often calls for a very wide range, because, since
the intervals between the notes are wide, relatively few notes cover an
extended pitch range. The singer whose range is less than three octaves
is apt to prove ineffective in the rendition of such passages.
To give a really artistic rendition of a song, the singer must know and
understand the musical content of both the vocal and instrumental parts.
A motive may be announced in the accompaniment and taken up by
the voice, or the voice may announce the motive, which is answered by
the accompaniment and then both may proceed together. Again, the voice
may act as an accompaniment to the principal motive which appears
in the piano or orchestral part. Sometimes the voice may be used as an
obbligato, and under these circumstances, the melody which appears in
the accompaniment must stand out above the voice. Sometimes a theme
is started by the voice and taken up and completed by the accompani-
ment and vice versa. Sometimes the voice is singing one melody while
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the accompaniment is playing a counter-melody. There may be one
principal melody and several counter-melodies occurring at one and the
same time. At all times the principal melody must predominate.
It will, then, be seen that, when the singer is performing with an
accompaniment, the performance should be considered as a sort of duet
or concerto. True, the singer generally carries the principal melody, when
he should definitely predominate over the accompaniment. However,
the accompaniment should predominate over the singer when it carries
the principal melody.
The singer should not only be able to hum through a song, including
the interludes, but he should also thoroughly understand the thematic
pattern of the entire composition, and follow every melody and counter-
melody appearing in the accompaniment. For further information regard-
ing melody and counter-melody, the reader is referred to The Science
of Voice .
A large book could be written on the subject of musical inter-
pretation as applied to vocal literature. However, the scope of this
book confines us to discussion of the salient points and the indica-
tion of the difference between the musical and artistic interpretation
of a properly-trained artist and the cheap, unmusical tricks of
interpretation ahnost universally employed by present-day singers.

The Music Is of First Importance

In starting, it is necessary to understand that it is the artistic
interpretation of the music that is of first importance. The singer
should interpret the music from the same standpoints as does the
violinist or the pianist, if he is to be considered seriously as an artist.
Performers in fields of music other than singing use no words
to convey their meaning, yet they are able to impress the import
of the music upon the audience. They treat the music as a language
in itself. In fact, music has been called the "universal language."
The singer may have been schooled in, and learned to understand,
the idiom of his own and, even perhaps, several foreign languages,
but if he has failed to study and understand the idiom of the lan-
guage of music he cannot be called a real singer.
This does not mean that the singer should not "put the words
over." Actually, when a competent composer writes for the voice,
the words and music are in such intimate harmony that a really
proper interpretation of the music helps the singer immeasurably
in conveying the inner meaning of the words. The words and music
should be wedded so perfectly that the rhythmic and melodic stress
points of the music correspond with the words or syllables which
should be stressed, and the emotional import of the music conveys
the emotional effects indicated by the words. Thus, an artistic ren-
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dition of the musical import of the composition serves to bring out
the inner meaning of the words in the highest possible degree. The
broadened musical line and the sustained tone increase and mag-
nify the performer's potency in the interpretation of the emotional
meaning of the words in a manner which can only be wrought when
the language of music is wedded to speech.

Complete Understandingof MusicalStructureVital

The musical content of each composition, which the singer per-
forms, must be worked out meticulously. It must be clear from
the musician's standpoint. The singer should not only mark and
follow the rhythmic structure and phrasing of the composition, but
he should. also understand its harmonic structure and thematic
outline. He should be aware of each musical figure, motive, phrase ,
cadence, etc., and mold his interpretation-color effects, emphasis,
and dynamics-upon this understanding.
The musical figure is the indivisible unit in music, just as the
word is the indivisible unit in speech. It is always wrong to break,
or breathe, in the middle of a word. It is equally wrong for the
singer to break , or breathe, in the middle of a musical figure. If this
is done, all sense of the musical import of the composition is lost, and
he is merely singing nonsense. There are no circumstances under
which a musical figure may be broken. Anyone who suggests any
such break, whatever his apparent standing may be, is merely a bad
musician who does not understand the fundamental principles of
musicianship. The places at which the singer should breathe are
generally clearly indicated by the composer. When it is impossible
for the singer to cover an entire musical phrase in one breath , he
may breathe at the end of a musical figure, but he must not breathe
anywhere else.
Melodies are based on chords, and those notes of the tune which
indicate the chordal structure should be stressed. All other notes
constitute either passing tones or ornaments of melody.

Recitatives Require Accuracy

All music must be sung accurately and according to the harmonic
and rhythmic scheme. This applies no less to the recitatives than
to the arias in an opera. Many singers are only too apt to disregard
what is written on the print.ed page when they are singing the
recitatives. This is especially true when they have to do any stage
business which is at all complicated . It is a fact that many recita-
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tives are unaccompanied or have only a very thin accompaniment.
Nevertheless, they should be sung accurately, just as the composer
has written them, despite the fact that they are often used to carry on
the action of the opera.

Free Passages
Of course, this does not apply to "free passages" which are always
so indicated by the composer. For example, in Verdi's Il Trovatore,
Act 2, the messenger gives Manrico a letter . He sings the text of
this letter and the composer has written notes of different values
which correspond with the words. Rests also are introduced. How-
ever, there is no time sign and the measures do not scan. This pas-
sage should, therefore, be sung "free," under which circumstances
the stress points depend only upon the words . In this, as in all other
instances, the composer indicates clearly when he intends the
recitative to be sung in form and when he wants it to be sung ad lib.
The recitative preceding this passage is in form and should be
sung with absolute accuracy.

Stressand Melodie Line

Where a note in the chord is repeated, the singer must understand
the musical structure and know which of these repeated notes should
be brought out. The thematic, or melodic, outline is generally indi-
cated by the rhythmic structure of the composition so that the
notes, which should be stressed according to the harmonic struc-
ture, are found at the rhythmically stressed points. Nevertheless,
these two phases are not always in complete consonance, and the
singer must understand the thematic and melodic, as well as the
rhythmic, outline of the composition if he is to interpret it intelli-
gently. This theme cannot be more fully developed here because
it is highly complicated and would demand a great many illustra-
tions that would be out of place in a work dealing primarily with
vocal technic.
Melodie Line Is Basie
Many dynamic effects are essential for the proper interpretation
of the music. Nevertheless, the backbone of singing lies in the
singer's ability to encompass a properly-defined melodic line. So
much of singing rests upon this ability that the other phases are of
relatively secondary importance. Furthermore, they are not diffi-
cult to accomplish when the voice is under proper control.
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 When the singer sings a melody the tones must be connected
without any break, jerk or slur between them. Each tone must be
absolutely centered in pitch and loudness and must also be held
for its exact and entire time spot. When he starts the first tone of a
musical phrase, at the loudness indicate~ by the composer, the
intensity of every tone in the phrase has been predetermined, be-
cause it must be sung at the relative loudness determined by his
evenly-rising, intensity scale.

Intensity
In practice, relatively few variations from the normal intensity
are demanded. The intensity rises considerably as the pitch rises.
Thus, a mount of an octave should increase the intensity about
thirty times and a mount of two octaves about a thousand times.
The competent composer is fully aware of this, even if he does
not understand it in terms of decibels. Therefore, when a soft
phrase is desired, he generally writes it in the lower part of the
singer's range, where the voice is relatively soft at normal intensity.
When he wants a rise in intensity, for dramatic effects, etc., he
writes a rising melodic line which lies at higher pitch and is, ibere-
fore, louder at normal intensity. Except for the writings of certain
composers of the modem French school ( as exemplified by De-
bussy) the really high tones are nearly always used for loud, dra-
matic effects, although an occasional high, pianissimo tone is
sometimes indicated for a very special, pianissimo effect. Also
dramatic, loud effects are sometimes made at the cadence in the
lower part of the range. These effects are most often found in Italian
and French operas. Composers of the modem French school very •
often employ an inverted ( or rather perverted) intensity scale, and
for this reason this school of music should seldom be used with
pupils because it is apt to lead to throaty singing.

Soft Effects
Where a soft effect is indicated on the music the singer should
generally reduce the amplitude of the vibrato. This gives a sense
of quietness, or repose, and of softness, without departing radically
from the line of the intensity scale. Soft passages are usually used
for a quiet mood which is best interpreted by tones in which the
amplitude of the vibrato is less than normal. For loud, excited, low
passages the amplitude of the vibrato may be augmented. This gives
the effect of dramatic feeling and emotional excitement. Such varia-
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tions of the amplitude of the vibrato, from the normal vibrato, are
a potent weapon in interpretation. They must be used with skill,
finesse and artistry, because if they are exaggerated, the effect be-
comes cheap and inartistic.

Color and the Text

Of course, to interpret the words effectively, it is vital for the
singer to be able to pronounce them properly in any language in
which he sings. Furthermore, they must be clean cut and clearly
understood. The meaning of the words indicates the color which
should be employed for the musical phrase. He must not use the
individual words themselves as the vehicle for expression. If he
attempts to make a special effect on a single word or syllable he is
only too apt to break the musical line and thus destroy it. This is
one of the most prevalent faults of singers of today. They interpret
the words rather than the music and thereby lose all sense of the
melodic line and musical content of the composition.

Vowelsand PharyngealResonanceAdjustment
When the pupil has established complete pharyngeal resonance
adjustment, it is relatively easy for him to form every vowel sound
in every language correctly. As a matter of fact, most of the vowel
sounds are common to all languages. However, it takes a certain
length of time for him to attain such complete control over the
pharyngeal cavities that he is able to form all the vowels without
mouthing. During the period in which he is learning to attain this
control, the coach should not insist upon exact vowel sounds, or the
student will perforce start to mouth them, thereby closing his
throat and producing throaty tones. When the pupil has reached
a certain stage of technical proficiency, all the vowels are resonated
entirely by the shaping of the throat, through the position of the
base of the tongue. Any vowel which cannot be pharyngeally formed
is actually somewhat distorted . Certain mouth vowels are very
prominent in average, incorrect speech. These vowels are incorrect
and they must be eliminated. It is never necessary for the singer
to "mouth" in order to form any vowel in any language.

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 Mouth Vowels
The "mouth" vowels of the dktion singer are very clearly under -
stood-more clearly, in fact, than those of many real singers whose
vowels are pharyngeally resonated. Nevertheless, scientific investi-
gation shows that "mouth" vowels are not really better defined
acoustically than those which are produced properly .

DefiningPitchand Vowels
The vowel is determined by the resonation of certain overtones
of the fundamental. When the pitch is perfectly defined, the proper
resonation of the vowel is easy. The singing of the melodic line
depends primarily upon the definition of the pitch with its asso-
ciated , defined spectrum .
Proper articulation of consonants is of vital importance in the
maintenance of the melodic line. Consonants are articulated with
the lips, the front of the tongue and, for gutturals, the back of
the tongue. All consonants must be articulated very rapidly. The
more rapidly they are articulated, the more clearly intelligible do
they become and the more definitely can the words be understood .
Where a consonant comes at the end of a syllable, it must be con-
nected , rapidly and neatly, with the succeeding sylJable. If this
succeeding syllable starts with a consonant, the two consonants
must be rapidly articulated together and associated with the sec~nd
syllable. This procedure eliminates the break off which would otlier-
wise occur between the two consonant sounds. Except for the gut-
tural consonants, rapid movements of the lips and front of the
tongue need not radically change the position of the base of the
tongue, which does not, therefore, have to be appreciably relaxed
between the tones. The gutturals must be articulated so rapidly
and neatly that the sense of continuity of the tone is not lost. The
singer should have the sensation of attacking the first tone of the
musical phrase and of going on singing, without stopping the tone,
until he takes the next breath. While the consonants do actually
break the line, this break should be virtualJy imperceptible to the
singer and to the listener. Unless this sense of continuity is main-
tained the melodic line is destroyed and the singer is not inter-
preting the music. As he sings a musical phrase he must move on
the rhythmic pulse and he must sense the movement from stressed
point to stressed point. These stressed points are indicated by the
rhythmic accents and the melodic outline. In other words, he should
move on a rhythmic flow and group the tones together , according
to the thematic conformation of the composition.

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 Accentsand Beats
Every accent and beat must be indicated, with precision, finesse
and artistry, at its proper degree of stress. The primary accent is
stronger than the secondary, but every beat must be indicated with
absolute precision, not by breaking the line, but by means of a
slight stress which is primarily vibrato controlled. The listener
should hear when the singer enters each bar and where every beat
and accent falls. He must also be able to hear the grouping of the
notes; whether they are grouped in ones, twos, threes, fours, etc.
The phrasing of the composition must be neatly and definitely
defined by the singer. If a tone is held through an accent, a stressed
vibrato will indicate its presence at this accent point. The singer
should never miss a stress point. To do so is just as bad as to sing
a wrong note, if not worse, because it destroys the contour of the
music and leaves it without meaning.

Diction
No consonant should ever be sustained deliberately. From the
singer's point of view ( or the speaker's), the vowel sound can be
phonated-sung or sustained-at a defined, variable pitch, while the
consonant sound is a fixed noise. The "m," "n," "ng" and "I" conso-
nants are associated with a hum vowel. This hum vowel must always
be as short as possible. Under no circumstances should it be sus-
tained . If the singer hums part of a tone, with his mouth shut, the
intensity line is broken and he cannot maintain the melodic line, at
the proper intensity level, unless he reduces it to so low a point that
his singing is as soft as humming. This would obviously be absurd for
anyone who can really sing.
The "ham" actor loves to roll his voice, hum his "m's," "n's," "ng's"
and "l's," over-articulate, change the pitch-slur-on one vowel and
speak by the word and not by the sentence. The "ham" singer-and
unfortunately he is almost universal today-does the same things to
an even more pronounced degree.

Color, Vibrato and Emotion

This in a few words, gives a general picture of musical interpre-
tation in singing. There is also the question of the many legitimate,
interpretive devices which may be used. The most important of
these is color. Color in singing depends primarily upon the degree
of darkness or whiteness which is employed to convey mood, and
upon vibrato regulation. Thus, a white, brilliant tone may convey
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anger, whether it is sung loudly or softly. A dark tone with very
little vibrato may convey sorrow, or despair, irrespective of intensity.
A mere change of loudness does not convey a change of mood. Of
course, certain moods are associated with quietness and other moods
with loudness, but the colo, is always far more important inter-
pretively than the mere .intensity. The composer indicates the in-
tensity relationships of the different phrases, etc., by means of the
dynamic marks on the music, and by the tessitura at which the
singer is performing, and, despite what has just been said, the singer
should not fail to observe the dynamic indications.

Tessitura
The singer should attempt to interpret only those compositions
which lie properly within the dynamic contour of his voice. An
attempt to sing a song which is at the wrong tessitura, for any given
voice, distorts the dynamic outline. A soprano who tries to sing
compositions written for a contralto becomes merely insipid, and
a contralto trying to sing a soprano aria-even if she can produce
all the tones-will be ineffective at the climaxes, because the intensity
mount is not as steep, at the top of her range, as that of a soprano,
and her performance will, therefore, lack dramatic fervor and
properly graded, climactic effects.
The most obvious, and probably the most important, interpretive
effect in singing is the full, sustained, climactic high tone. When the
musical line is more or less horizontal-when the melody covers
a narrow range-the singer should nearly always sing in strict
tempo. When the range ot the melody starts to spread into an
oblique line, he should generally tend to broaden the beat. Where
a wide mount occurs, the beat may be very much broadened.
In the approach. to a sustained high tone, the beat is generally
spread progressively, until it becomes very wide, or slow, for the
"held" tone itself. The "hold" should, however, always be regulated
by a beat and the broadened rhythmic Howmust, at all times, be felt,
or the musical phrase will be destroyed. Even for a so-called "freely
held" tone the beat must be felt, and it is very often effective for
the singer to swell on the final pulse of this tone before he comes
down.
ExpandingCadence
In grand opera, particularly, the cadence, which follows a held,
high tone, is usually broadened and a dramatic effect made at low
pitch. This effect, which gives a sense of symmetry, or balance,
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with the high tone, is important. After holding the high tone, the
singer generally moves in strict time, or with a stringendo effect,
to the held tone in the cadence. Despite these two expansions, the
beat must always be felt. This effect of holding up and making a
dramatic effect on the cadence, especi~y after holding a high tone,
was almost universally employed by the great singers of the past.
Unfortunately, many of the singers of today are unable to achieve
this effect. The men are so throaty that their low tones are too weak
to be effective. Those women, who have no lower register, are quite
unable to make any real effect whatever at low pitch-these low,
effect notes generally lie in the neighborhood of F ( on the bottom
space of the treble clef) where the falsetto, even when it is thickened
and forced, is very soft and "dead."

Musical Figures and Color Contrasts

Coming back to the question of color: Each musical figure must
be judiciously and artistically colored and contrasted with the other
musical figures, despite the fact that the general color over the
phrase is, more or less, uniform. No two similar musical figures
should be sung with exactly the same color, any more than two dis-
similar ones should. The detailed working out of the color effects,
from an understanding of the musical structure of the composition,
is of first importance in the artistic interpretation of the music. It
entails a great deal of work and study on the part of the artist. Every
color effect, every expansion or contraction of the rhythm, etc.,
should •be worked out, practised and "set." The great artist does
an enormous amount of work along these lines, and when he
actually pedorms he has every detail of interpretation completely
"set," with the result that he repeats himself, with remarkable pre-
cision, every time he sings a song.

Many Singers Lack Musicianship

The great singers of the past were seldom good musicians. How-
ever, they did have fine ears for music and, even if they did not
understand music, from the musician's standpoint, they heard it
and unconsciously sensed a great deal about the musical structure
of the composition. We, therefore, have this extraordinary state of
affairs. The great singers of the past did, from many points of view,
sing artistically and musically. The prominent singers of today,
who probably know a great deal more about music, from a theoreti-
cal standpoint, than the great singers of the past, completely fail
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to apply their musical knowledge to the interpretation of vocal
music. Furthermore, they have voices which are so throaty and so
badly produced that they are technically unable to do so. The result
of this is that most performers of today sing without any real sense
of musical values at all. This apparent paradox is due primarily
not only to the throaty technic, which eliminates all legitimate
control over the voice, but also to the fact that these singers think
in terms of vowel and quality ( the throaty quality which is deter-
mined by the technical tricks of "singing in the masque," "nasal
resonance," "head voice," "covered tones," etc.) instead of pitch
definition. This viewpoint has virtually eliminated their natural
ear, so that they do not hear, in their minds, either clearly-defined
pitch pictures or, still more emphatically, the melodic line of the
music.
Throaty Singer Cannot Color
The badly-trained singer cannot color. In place of color he can
only use loud and soft effects. Even then he does not possess any
real, legitimate control over intensity. He generally has a loud
voice and a mezza voce and nothing in between.
This mezza voce is sung in absolute constriction, generally in a
mixed register. This has gone so far that, when one listens to this
mezza-voce interpretation of a song, it may be hard to tell whether
the singer is a man or a woman-a bass, baritone, tenor, contralto
or soprano. It is always the same throaty, colorless, mixed-register
sound, irrespective of pitch.

~A Man's Voice ShouldNot Sound Like a Woman's

All voices, singing at the same pitch, with the same vowel and the
same vibrato, would sound the same if the technic were perfect.
However, a man sings an octave lower than a woman and, most
emphatically, he should not sound like a woman. There is nothing
more revolting than to hear a performance at the Metropolitan at
which a mixed-falsetto tenor sings a Caruso role ( such as Des Grieux
in "Manon") and s~mnds just like the soprano (Manon).

Tremolo Cannot Be Used for Interpretation

A throaty singer has a tremolo-not a vibrato. The tremolo, which
is automatic, is not under conscious control as is the vibrato. There-
fore, it can neither be used for interpretive effects, nor to indicate
accents, stress points, etc.
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 TricksAre Inartistic
We have, then, a group of singers who cannot color, have no
vibrato, cannot sing a good, free, loud tone, who fade out at the
bottom of the voice and are unable to center the pitch or connect
two tones together without slurring or jerking. Such singers are
utterly unable, really, to interpret the musical content of a com-
position. Therefore, they must use a series of silly, inartistic hicks,
or devices, to give the impression of interpreting the compositions
they are singing. These devices are many, but they fall under certain
general headings. The slur is used deliberately to express emotion
and the more emotion they desire to indicate the more horribly
they slur. This is similar to the "ham" actor who rolls his voice. When
they want to become very dramatic suddenly on one tone, they
break off, slur up into this tone and then slur down; this is supposed
to give a very dramatic effect indeed. Rather, it is just a nasty
noise. When they want to express a tender, or quiet, mood, they
J
reduce the intensity to a mere murmur, which can hardly be heard
across the footlights and which is completely drowned when the
orchestra plays. Many men make such effects, with a mixed-falsetto
technic, so that they then sound more like women than men. This
conveys nothing but ineptitude .

Substitutionof Speech for Singing

When some of these singers want to become very dramatic indeed
they actually break into speech. Most of the baritones or basses do
this repeatedly. In many of the cases their technic is so throaty that
their speaking voices are actually louder than their singing voices,
so that this device does give a rather grotesque semblance of a
dramatic effect. It is obvious that the singing voice, when it is pro-
duced properly, is very much louder and more dramatic than the
speaking voice, because it is at much higher pitch and is, therefore,
at a far higher intensity level in the intensity scale. When the
speaking voice is louder than the singing voice, the technic is
throaty and the higher tones are completely shut off.

Mere Decrescendoof Held Tones Conveys No Emotion

Another very favorite, and constantly used, trick is to decrescendo
nearly every held tone. What this is supposed to convey is a mys-
tery. Technically, the constriction increases and the voice shuts
off. Perhaps it is supposed to convey tenderness or sweetness. Nearly
all the tenors and sopranos employ this hick repeatedly.
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 Shiftingof Climactic Point DestroysEffect
A supposedly dramatic effect in constant use among the singers
of today consists of shifting the climactic point in a dramatic phrase
from the held, high tone to the succeeding tone or tones in the
descending scalewise, or arpeggio, passage. Thus, the high tone
is held, but the descending tones are swelled and actually sung
louder than the high, climactic tone. This shifting of the climactic
point in the musical figure destroys its contour and is, therefore ,
unmusical and inartistic. It is, indeed, an effect which is not to be
explained from the musical or interpretive standpoints .
When the voice is used properly, the highest tone in the figure
is the loudest. The climactic effect is naturally made on this tone,
which is, in such cases, actually sustained by the composer for this
reason. Why, then, is this obviously unmusical and meaningless
effect in such constant use today? The reason is not far to seek. The
singers of today shut off their high tones, and, therefore, it is pos-
sible for them to make only a relatively fomssimo effect on a middle
tone. They are, then, forced to shift the climactic tone down to a
pitch at which they can become more or less ~effective."This device
of shifting the climactic tone is more often employed by men than
by women. The reason for this is apparent when we remember that
they are generally taught to sing "open" ( shouty) tones up to
about Eb and then to "cover," or "use head tones." Such "covered
tones" are deliberately throaty ones and a drop in intensity, because
of the increase in throatiness, is unavoidable .
Therefore, when a badly trained baritone has to make a dramatic
climax on, say, a high G, he is technically unable to make the grade.
Hence, he dodges the issue by shifting the climax and making the
fortissimo effect on the way down. This device is most injurious if
the voice has been trained properly and is, for this reason, graded
correctly in the intensity scale. The highest tone in the phrase is
naturally the loudest and the intensity drops with the pitch in the
descending passage. If a singer endeavors to invert the intensity line
of his voice, he will inevitably push and force it. This will hurt his
voice and may even cause him to tie up altogether. Of course, the
really throaty singer does not actually tie up; he merely becomes
more throaty.

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 HummingConsonants and SlurringIs "Hamming"
It is essential for any professional singer to give the impression
of a musical line. He cannot break off between the tones, because
this would eliminate all pretense of singing. The throaty singer
who cannot center pitch and move from tone to toneTegitimately
accomplishes this end ( the impression of a musical line) by de-
liberately slurring the tones to ether and b sustainin and hum-
ming his co e connects the tones either wi slurs or
h~o tune is really sung and most of the time he is making
noises between the tones. When he has been taught to "sing in the
masque," "place his voice in the head" or "use nasal resonaiice;rhe
just loves to hum his consonants, because this gives him the £~ling
of the technical device-j~oatiness-for which he is
striving. Therefore, he always hums the "m," "n" and i" con-
sonants, making the hum associated with them as long as he possibly
can.
This has two effects: In the first place, he is mis-pronouncing the
words and exaggerating the worst faults of the "ham" actor of the
early Victorian era. In ~e second place, he is reducing the loudness
of his voice to the level of humming even when he does open his
mouth. If he did not do this, the intensity would keep fading in
and out. It is true that the slurring effects which he employs do
fade his voice in and out all the time, but this effect occurs gradually
and not suddenly. If he were to hum and then open his mouth and
sing a full tone, the sudden change in intensity would obviously be
ridiculous. For this reason, he hums and holds back, again and again,
so that the entire singing line is reduced to the level of intensity
established by the loudness of the hum. Of course, this can be done
only in constriction and he is, therefore, practising throatiness!

SlurringDestroys Music
From the musical standpoint slurring is altogether destructive.
A singer who slurs habitually never starts, or meets, a tone at any
given instant. Therefore, he is quite unable to indicate the time spot
of the tones, the beats or even the accent points. He eliminates the
rhythmic structure of the composition he is singing. This destroys
all sense of phrasing; the structural framework of the music is lost.
The rhythmic structure of the music is of first importance and the
singer who disregards it is not singing music at all. The vital factors
in the proper interpretation of a song are the rhythmic structure
of the composition, the time spot of the notes, the notes themselves
and the words. All these factors are of prime importance.
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 If the singer is unmusical, or if he lacks the dramatic ability
necessary to put over the words effectively, his performance is of
little artistic or entertainment value. He is, under such circum-
stances, a second-rate artist at best. A great opera singer is not only
a fine musician but also a really good actor. Unfortunately, most of
the singers of today think only of the words and the notes. Even
when the time is correct, in the sense that they don't tum a quarter-
note into a half-note or an eighth-note, the constant slurring into,
and out of, the tones actually cuts down the time spot for which
they are held and, therefore, they never really sing in time. Many
singers virtually lose all sense of rhythmic structure and musical
phrasing.
There is one more point to remember: If the first, accented tone
of a phrase is slurred, the rhythmic framework is destroyed. Thus,
if the phrase starts on the first beat, and this tone is slurred, the
secondary accent on the third beat ( in 4/ 4 time) cannot be made
either. The rhythmic framework must be intact, or inevitably it falls
apart altogether. The singer either indicates exactly what is written
on the printed page, including the rhythmic structure of the music,
the grouping of the notes, where the bar lines fall, etc., or he does
not do so; if he does not he is not singing the music.
At the start of his career, Caruso did make certain cheap effects.
The most obvious of these was abuse of the sob as a dramatic device.
Later, as he matured and became the great artist that he ultimately
turned out to be, he naturally eliminated this artistic weakness.
Today, operatic singers have re-introduced it. Their voices are so
pushed and throaty that they are very often forced to take extra
breaths and to break their phrases. To cover up this inability to
sustain, they introduce a sob nearly every time they take an extra
breath. They may think that this is dramatic, emotional and effective.
Many an audience will disagree. It is on almost the same artistic
level as the performance of the so-called torch singer who wails
popular music. Singers who blubber are hardly artists. 7f
Recital Singers
In the recital field, many singers go through practically an entire
program in a throaty murmur. There is no phrasing, no musical
understanding, no legitimate coloring and every tone sung is
throaty. If such performers do try to sing loudly, after singing entire
grnups of songs in a throaty soft "mezza voce," the sounds they
emit are definitely so unpleasant that they can only be classed as
shouts or screams. Few, if any, of such singers really "cover the
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ground,. and they think nothing of breaking the musical phrases.
Nevertheless, they are often encouraged by the critics who praise
the quality of their "mezza voce" and, in particular, have high words
of praise for their diction.
The works of such composers as Schubert, Schumann, Brahms,
Hugo Wolf, Strauss, should be sung with as perfect a melodic line,
and the musical import of the composition should be as meticulously
defined, as it would be if it were a composition for the piano or the
violin, which was being played by a great pianist or violinist. Fur-
thermore, most of the singing should be performed at the normal
intensity level, in the normal intensity scale for the given voice, and
very soft and very loud effects should be made as special interpretive
devices, each of these effects being in itself a tour de force of a
climactic nature. Great music was not written to be sung intimately.
'.fhese composers wrote for concert ~.rtis!5 and not for parlo~ s~_g~~s.

Traditionand MusicalDistortion
Many of the silly devices used today have been employed by
singers of standing for several years, with the result that they have
been handed down and taught by coaches as "traditional ." Anything
which impairs or destroys the musical content of the composition
is incorrect, inartistic and cannot be excused on the basis of tradi-
tion. One particuiar phase of this use of the idea of tradition, as an
excuse for distorting the music, lies in the breaking of phrases-·
often with the introduction of a sob-because the singers' voices are
so throaty and pushed that they are forced to take extra breaths .
The breathing should be determined by the phrasing and musical
figures and not by trad;tion.
Coaches who teach by ear merely play the tune over and over
again to show their pupils how it goes. This method of procedure
is elementary, childish, inartistic, unintelligent and insecure. They
claim that the interpretive effects which they indicate are secrets
of tradition-secrets which they, and they alone, possess.
When teaching consists merely of playing a tune over and over
to show how it goes the pupil is forced to study every new composi-
tion with his coach and never develops the ability to work out the
interpretation of a song for himself. He must always learn the "secret
tradition " in order to perform it.
This sort of thing is just nonsense. Actually, the composer has
indicated on the printed page virtually everything he wants the
singer to do. If everything the composer has written is understood
completely and if, at the same time, the singer has a sincere feeling
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for the dramatic import of the words, and of the role he is charac-
terizing-if he is singing in opera-he should be able to work out
a really fine interpretation for himself, provided that he has been
properly trained musically. The coach should teach musicianship
and ultimately enable the pupil to work out the interpretation of
the compositions he is studying for himself. Real tradUion rests
primarily upon a proper understanding of the music. The pupil
of the tradition coach is dependent upon him for life.
Only too often these tradition coaches don't really understand
the music themselves, and when the interpretation has been handed
down to them by ear, they generally make flagrant musical errors.
Such errors include the breaking of musical phrases and even figures,
incorrect tempi and mistakes in time.
Certainly there are honest, competent coaches who really work
out all the musical and interpretive problems involved with their
pupils. Such coaches teach their pupils to apply all the musical
knowledge they possess to the interpretation of their songs and
give a basic musical training to those who are lacking in musical
knowledge. They carefully work out and analyze every detail of
musical structure of each composition which they teach. Unfor-
tunately, such coaches are few and far between.

TraditionalAspectsof Singing
There are two phases of interpretation in which tradition plays
an important part. The first is in knowing the "cuts" which are used
at the Metropolitan and at other leading opera houses. The second
is in the use of cadenzas in the old school of Italian Opera.

Artistic Interpretation RequiresProper Technic

The foregoing should make it clear that it is possible for the
singer to interpret a melody only when his voice is produced
properly. Only the well-produced voice is able to sustain a melodic
line in which the pitch of every tone is centered and definitely
defined, and the duration of which is never curtailed by slurs, or
changes of intensity accompanied by slurs. The singer can really
interpret only when the entire melodic and rhythmic pattern, and
all the legitimate interpretive devices, have been completely "set."
When the singer whose voice has been trained properly starts to
sing a musical phrase, it is imperative for him to establish a pre-
conceived, sequence memory picture, not only of the melodic and
color line, etc., but also of the tensions and changes of tension
demanded for the singing of the phrase.
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 The entire operation of singing a musical phrase must be mentally
planned ahead, or pre-conceived. If there is any uncertainty in the
singer's mind, he will almost inevitably start to slur and constrict.
Under such circumstances he is only too apt to become "tied up"
vocally. This is especially true when his technic is very advanced
and his voice "wide open." The reason for this is because each tone
demands its own muscular co-ordination and this co-ordination
depends upon pitch , loudness and color (spectrum). True, these
co-ordinations are reflex and they occur only because of clearly
defined, memory pictures in the singer's mind. Nevertheless, if these
memory pictures are even slightly blurred, the proper co-ordinations
cannot occur and the singer will inevitably start to force his voice
and "push," with the result that he will ultimately "tie up" vocally.

ThroatySinging RequiresNo Talent

These changes in the co-ordinations of the muscles of the larynx
and tongue for changes of pitch, loudness, and color, do not occur
with the throaty singer as he moves over the melodic line. He is,
therefore, able to slur as much as he likes without "tying up."
It will be clear, then, that the throaty singer is physically able to go
through a composition without any serious work on its interpreta-
tion, and with virtually no real technical skill, while the well-trained
voice must be handled with consummate skill and artistry. From
another angle, too, it is more exacting for the well-trained singer
to perform than ·for the throaty one, because the former must at
all times maintain the "drive" and emotional urge which are essen-
tial, if he is to keep his throat open and his voice free, while the
latter can go "dead" and still continue to sing. This energy must be
applied at the beginning of a phrase, maintained at all times, and
graded according to the demands of the phrase. Each time the singer
starts a phrase he must relax, create the emotion required and bring
himself into a state of optimum tonus, breathe, attack the first tone
properly ( on the inspiratory gesture) and encompass the phrase on
a predetermined pattern for the changes of tension demanded by
the exigencies of the phrase.

Sustaining of High Tones Should Be No Struggle

When the well-trained singer has to make a dramatic effect on a
high tone, it is true that the energy must be increased, but this
increase does not constitute a struggle; on the other hand, it conveys
a feeling of freedom and dramatic intensity. He, therefore, always
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sings with comfort and freedom and the high tones, as well as the
low ones, can be produced with apparent ease. In other words, he
does not have to struggle in order to make his high tones, but he
can never, at any time, go dead.
In this connection it is important for the reader to remember that
the singer must attain a high degree of skill in controlling the mus-
cular system used in phonation-thus, every time he takes a breath
he must relax all the tension on all the muscles used in phonation
and re-establish the proper tensions at the moment when he attacks
the first tone of the next phrase or figure. He must be able to main-
tain the proper state of muscle tone at all times, so that the muscular
response is always rapid and efficient. He must feel alive, alert and
expressive all the time he is singing. Far different is the viewpoint
of the throaty singer, who actually goes dead for the entire body
of the composition, and then makes a terrible effort to squeeze, or
force, out his high tones, especially if they are loud ones.
Hence, the well-trained singer maintains, at all times, the drive
and the dramatic intensity which is essential for effective interpreta-
tion and performance . The throaty singer is, most of the time, dead
and inane, except when he sings his high tones. He is then forced
to struggle most distressingly. Thus, in both phases of his singing,
he destroys, or eliminates, the dramatic and emotional feeling of
the music and words.

Changes of Adjustmentand Throatiness

One further point: When the voice is produced properly there is
no sudden change of adjustment over the entire range. There are
no "open" ( "shouty white") tones and "head," or "covered" ( de-
liberately throaty) tones. The singer who has been trained with the
idea of changing into the "head voice," or "covered tones," at a
certain pitch, is forced to continually break the melodic line to make
this change of adjustment, backward and forward. In addition to
this, each time he makes the change he is forced to relax his tongue,
and this renders the ensuing tone very throaty. Thus, every time
he changes from the "open tone" into the "head voice," and vice
versa, he becomes progressively throatier . As a result of this, abso-
lute throatiness is always very rapidly established. Hence, not only
does his voice become increasingly throaty while he is singing, but
he is also unable to maintain any semblance of a musical line. This
is especially true of the intensity line, because each time he changes
into the "head voice," or "covered tone," the intensity drops sud-
denly.

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 Lower Register (Female} and the Musical Line
When a woman's voice has arrived at the stage of development
at which she can carry up her lower register legitimately to the
proper point-D on the fourth line of the treble clef-the register
change does not break the melodic line, because the intensity rises
evenly and the common resonance adjustment for both registers
eliminates any sudden change in the position of the tongue (throat).
It is the woman who does not use the lower register who is forced
to break and destroy the melodic line. Even when she can employ
the lower register properly up to middle Bb, the intensity line is not
seriously impaired at intensities below F.F.

Recordings
Unfortunately there is n~eally veat singer living today. There-
fore the reader's only recourse, if he wants to get some faint idea
of what artistic singing actually sounds like, is to listen to the
records of the great singers of the past. The great operatic com-
posers such as Verdi, Puccini, Mascagni, Leoncavallo, Bizet, Mas-
senet, etc., wrote with the great voices in mind. The proper
interpretation of their music demands the technical equipment
possessed by these singers. They were able to fulfill the demands
made upon their voices by such composers. The singers of today
are quite unable to do so.
When we hear these operas sung at the Metropolitan by present
day singers, the impression received is pitifully different from the
one which the composers intended to convey. For this reason
the student should pay far more attention to the orchestra than to the
singers, when he is studying an opera from recent recordings. The
orchestras of today are probably just as good as those of yore. Thus,
much may be gained from the modem recordings of the operas if
the student will observe the sweep, color and emotional effects,
and the structural and rhythmic outline of the music as wrought
by the orchestra. The orchestra does not break the phrases or the
melodic line. It does not slur into and out of tones, or wail, sob, talk
or hum consonants, etc. It gives an artistic and musical performance.
Furthermore, the student should know what the orchestra is play-
ing and follow it at all times. He should know the entire opera,
including the orchestral part, as well as his own. Therefore, he can
learn a great deal from recent recordings by listening to the
orchestra, even if he cannot learn anything of value from the per-
formances of the present day singers, to which he should pay but
scant attention.
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 With the recordings of the great singers of the past we have a far
more diflicult problem to surmount. The method of recording was
bad-very bad indeed! The reproduction of the orchestra was so
distorted that it hardly gives the impression of an orchestra at all.
Remember: The reproduction of the voices was just as bad, so
that, when listening to these records, it is quite futile for the student
even to attempt to guess at what they really sounded like. For
example, when listening to Caruso's records ( these records are the
best of the old acoustical recordings) one receives the impression
that he is singing as loudly as possible all the time. This, of course,
is because of the curtailment of the intensity range and the cur-
tailment and distortion of the frequency range ( this question is
discussed ·in The Voice-Its Production and Reproduction).
Actually, one left the opera house, after a Caruso performance,
wondering what the full power of his voice really would be, if he
were to sing absolutely forUssimo. Perhaps, once or twice during
an opera, he would sing a more or less forlissimo tone, but most of
the time he was singing with almost incredible ease and freedom,
at the normal intensity of his voice. He never, at any time, pushed,
or forced, his voice. His normal intensity was always loud enough to
top the orchestra and 611the opera house. Furthermore, he sang every
phrase with "drive," energy and dramatic poignancy and, especially
at the end of his career, his dramatic fervor was beautifully gauged
and controlled, according to the demands of the music and the text.
It will be seen, then, that while he was actually singing at normal
intensity ( not fortissimo) most of the time, the records give an
entirely erroneous impression. In addition to this, the lack of fre-
quency range in the recording gives the impression of "whitenes~"
or "edge" in his voice, despite the fact that the actual quality was
always mellow and "smooth." Caruso records are misleading, but
recordings of the women singers are far worse, because they are
singing an octave higher, with the result that the lack of the high
frequency components distorts their voices far more than the men's.
It actually changes the quality completely and makes it sound thin,
"white" and rather unpleasant. Destinn's voice was comparable
with Caruso's. Her high tones, in particular, were unbelievably
beautiful. The use of a great deal of lower register gives the im-
pression of "whiteness" in the middle of the range, but this effect
is largely the result of bad quality recording. The cruel distortion
of Melba's voice on the records is even more unfortunate. Every
tone she sang was of exquisite quality and her voice rang out as
clear as a bell. Despite all this distortion there is much to be learned
from listening to these records of the great singers.

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 Chapter 14

THE SPEAKING VOICE

Singing is merely a glorification or magnification of speech, which is

wedded to the language of music. The laws which govern the proper
functioning of the voice for both singing and speaking are, in most
respects, the same. There are, however, certain differences, because sing-
ing is magnified speech. These differences can be stated under five
headings:
I. In view of the fact that the tone is much less sustained in speaking,
the vibrato should not occur in the speaking voice.
2. Because of its lower intensity, the normal pitch of the speaking
voice should be far lower than that of the singing voice.
3. For the same reason the consonants in speech are correspondingly
less vigorous. The less intense vowel-phonated sound-does not demand
such vigorous articulation. This does not mean that the articulation should
be slovenly-it must be very vigorous in the speech range of intensity.
4. In singing, several tones may be phonated on one vowel. This
should practically never be done in speech. An exception to this rule
occurs when one calls from a distance with a rising inflection on one vowel.
The same process of training applies to both the singing and the speak-
ing voice.
Requirements for a properly used speaking voice are as follows:
a. Good quality-This implies proper resonance adjustment and pure
registration.
b. Range-An extensive range (three octaves or more) depends upon
the same factors as in singing, i.e., resonance adjustment and registration .
c. Carrying Power-This, of course, depends upon pitch definition,
properly sustained vowels and the sound spectrum whlch in tum de-
pend upon resonance adjustment and registration.
d. Control of intensity-This also depends upon resonance adjust-
ment and registration. The speaking voice, however, which may drop to
the "stage whisper" and even to an absolute whisper, can be used at far
lower intensities than the singing voice. The actor does not have to top
an orchestra.
e. Proper intensity balance over the range-This is the same as in
singing. As the intensity rises the pitch should rise, and vice versa. How-
ever, very low pitches-those lying toward the very bottom of the singing
range or even several tones lower-are employed in speech most effectively.
f. Intelligibility-This implies rapid, vigorous, clean-cut, clear articula-
tion and a proper adjustment of the pharyngeal resonance cavities for
the resonating of the vowel.
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 g. Legato-This is most pronounced in English ~h.
h. Speed, with clear enunciation-This presupposes pharyngeal vowel
resonation and agility of the articulating members.
i. Wide range of color-True color is only possible '" hen the technical
training is well advanced, because it is controlled b~ minute changes
in the adjustments of the pharyngeal resonance ca<'_ties. Such color
modifications are, of course, actuated primarily thrQ! 1h psychological,
or expressive, faculties.
;. The ability to use the voice vigorously and audibly in a large audi-
torium for a long time without fatiguing it and becoming hoarse-This
demands a good vocal technic.
k. The establishment of the natural voice-Normal pitch, quality and
power, from which all modifications of pitch, color and intensity are
made, for the portrayal of the emotional and expressive import of the
words.
l. The ability to express, while speaking, the passing emotion with
the eyes and facial expression-This ability demands the elimination
of all muscular interference which, in turn, is largely dependent upon
pharyngeal resonance adjustment ( the elimination of the mouth as a
resonator). Of course, no one who is untalented dramatically is able to
force the proper facial expressions.
The speaking voice is more easily trained than the singing voice, be
cause the "ear" requirements are less stringent. Unless a singer has a
veiy fine "ear" he cannot become a great artist.: He must be able to con-
ceive, as single units, complex musical phrases in their proper time,
rhythm, intensity and color with absolute definition and clarity. This
somewhat rare talent is not demanded of actors.
The speaking voice cannot be trained when the subject is really tone
deaf, because under these circumstances, there is no medium of contact
between the teacher and the pupil.
Since the normal pitch in speech is lower than in singing, because the
intensity is lower, the purification of the lower register becomes outstand-
ingly important in the training of the speaking voice. This applies to
both sexes, but particularly to women, who are wont to speak in the
falsetto or the mixed-falsetto register.
Mixed registration is the most deadly of all faults in speech . It induces
an unpleasant quality, low intensity and poor cariying power . The per-
petrator of this bad form of technic is impairing his vocal apparatus
with eveiy word he speaks, even in normal conversation.
A woman who uses the falsetto register only is bound to force it and,
at times, employ mixed falsetto. This applies, in particular, to actresses.
The ingenue may use more or less pure falsetto, and if she keeps the
pitch veiy high and the intensity rather low, her voice may survive for
a few years. Later in life, however, at just about the age when she should
be portraying more dramatic characters (because she is too old to play
ingenue roles any longer), her voice is apt to go ba~k on her, thus putting
an abrupt termination to her stage career.
The use of the unco-ordinated lower register, especially with women,
produces a hard, coarse quality, which may be effective in the portrayal
of "tough" roles, but is entirely unsuited to any other type of characteri-
zation.
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 With men's voi~~ we very often find mixed lower registration. Only
the extremely effe~inate man uses mixed falsetto. In both cases the
normal pitch may /)e raised over an octave. The quality is throaty, nasal,
or both, and the~ · is little or. no possibility of coloring the voice. This
teclmic subjects fi.e vocal apparatus to serious strain.
The use of exti'emely low pitches in speech has alrf'ady been men-
tioned. There is a, . extraordinary effectiveness in these pitches, and they
carry very well in an auditorium. This carrying effect is surprising, even
to the performer himself. Very deep emotions should often be expressed
by means of the .lowest pitches in the voice. For example: A pitch of
about an octave below low D should be used to express extremely deep,
heartfelt emotions, despite the fact that the singing range may extend to D
above high C. The use of high pitches, spoken quietly, in order to convey
deep emotions such as love, despair, etc., produces an unnatural effect
which dotlS not ring true.
Generally speaking, however, as the emotion grows the pitch should
se. Under the stress of extreme excitement the pitch may rise two
octaves or more above its lowest point. When these high pitches are used
e intensity also must rise to fortissimo.
Despite the fact that the speaking voice should not be so over-
sustained as to sound like singing, it should carry over the sentence in a
ciefinitelypredetermined "tune," i.e., pitch, time and rhythm. This "tune"
in speech is one of the most vital phases irrthe proper reading of lines.
The "singing" effect in speech, which is most heartily to be con-
demned, is the result of:
1. Changing pitch on one vowel.
2. Sustaining the added vowel for the consonants m, n, 1 and ng.
3. The over-accentuation of unimportant words.
4. The accentuation of each and every word and syllable.
In this connection it should be pointed out that the radio announcer
who articulates and pronounces each and every syllable equally and
pedantically, corresponds to the "ham" actor of old. This form of affecta-
tion is inexcusable, even from the viewpoint of diction.
The aim of the speaker or actor must be to make the meaning of what
he is saying poignant and at the same time clearly understandable . The
deliberate pronunciation of every syllable entirely defeats this end. VocaI
and musical expression rests upon CQntrast.Where there is no contrast,
there is neither expression nor meaning: Furthermore, naturalness is,
above all, the aim of the true artist. Misunderstanding of what constitutes
proper diction results in unnatural, affected and inartistic speech.
An interesting point with regard to the "tune" in speech lies in the
fact that the English and American "tunes" are widely different. These
national characteristics are of far greater import than the mere differences
in the pronunciation of certain words.
Fundamental faults in pronunciation are primarily teclmical. Thus, the
use ol the guttural "ur," which is a prevalent fault with inhabitantsof
the middle-west of the United States, is the result of a throaty technic,
as is the nasal "ah," or the mouthing "ee-oo" for "oo" in such words as
"you," "blue," etc. The word "can't," for example, may be pronounced
teclmically correctly, irrespective of whether the broad English ·ah" or
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the short American "a" is used. It is only when the short "a" is produced
nasally that an absolute fault in diction arises. Again, the Cockney and
the ultra-English (so-called "Piccadilly") accents are the results of a
white, mouth vowel formation, and are just as much technical faults
as the guttural and nasal sounds used by Americans whose voices are
produced badly. The point emphasized is that it is technic rather than
diction that is vital.
When the voice is correctly used technically, the quality is good. The
proper pronunciation of any given word is determined by the cultured
minority, and is apt to change as time elapses, but technical laws are
fundamental and therefore unchangeable .
There is a very curious belief, held in stage circles, to the effect that
a high-pitched speaking voice characterizes youth. This is absurd! Young
basses and contraltos have low speaking voices, while sopranos and tenors,
regardless of age, have relatively high-pitched voices. Freshness and
clarity indicate youth, and these characteristics are always the concomi-
tants of good technic. The reason why we can generally tell whether a
person is old or young, when we hear his voice, is because most people use
their voices badly, and abuse of the voice progressively impairs its quality
with each succeeding year. If the technic is good, a youthful quality
(not a childish one) persists until the.individual is really old, when the
vocal apparatus tends to "break up," as do all his other functions. The
voice of an individual over 50 should not sound materially older than i~-
did when he was 20, provided that his technic remains good. This
statement does not, of course, take into account the psychological effect
of added experience, knowledge and command which come with ma-
turity .
A throaty, high-pitched voice sounds worn and old even when its
possessor is really young.
There is another misunderstanding which has been encountered among
stage directors: When a voice is thick, they believe that the actor or
actress is speaking at too low a pitch. When it is shrill, they say that the
pitch is too high. In working out the technical problems of pupils who
started with thick voices, it has been found that, even when the pitch
has dropped many tones, they are seldom, if ever criticized by the
director for speaking at too low a pitch. The shrill voice, however, is
almost always pitched too high. In practice most people speak at too
high a pitch, and, in almost every case, technical improvement is accom-
panied by a drop in the normal pitch of the voice-especially in the early
stages, when the lower register is first revealed.
With reference to the singing voice, the best possible quality is dis-
closed when the technic is good-this is the natural quality of the voice.
It is perfectly spontaneous, and is not imposed upon the voice by any
conscious act of the singer or speaker. One of the worst failings of both
actors and singers is an attempt to '.'make quality." They listen to their
own voices and try to assume what they believe to be a beautiful, mellow
quality. The only result of any such endeavor is the production of a '
thick, throaty quality and distorted vowels. The emotions conveyed are,
generally speaking, mere mawkish conceit, affectation and insincerity.
The chief aim and object of the actor or singer who is a true artist is
to convey emotion, color and atmosphere. Despite the fact that the act
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 of expressing is, in the last analysis, psychological, it rests technically
upon vowel modification, which, in its turn, depends upon delicate, reflex
interadjustments of the resonance cavities. The control of color implies
very definite modifications from the natural, normal quality of the voice,
and is the spontaneous result of the emotional urge. Any attempt to
''make quality" entirely destroys this expressive function, because a fixed
quality characteristic has already been imposed upon the vowel by the
volitional act of the performer. Thus the "voice rolling," "ham" actor is
not expressing anything. He is merely destroying his art with a cheap
attempt at portraying what he never feels. While the actors of today
are not so apt to become ''hammy" as those of yore, we still find the
"quality maker" and the "voice roller." What might be termed the
"diction singer" or "diction speaker" is, psychologically and artistically,
in the same category as the "ham" actor.
To all intents and purposes, the process of training the speaking voice
should be the same as that of training the singing voice, because the
muscular system used in speech is exactly the same as that used in sing-
ing. Thus, the technic of speech depends upon the proper development
and co-ordination of the muscles of the thorax, larynx and tongue.
Vigorous work must be done by these muscles if they are to be developed
and trained. Because singing is a far more vigorous form of voice pro-
duction than speaking, proper training of the muscular system can be
accomplished only through the medium of singing.
.... . Thus, the process of training the speaking voice rests upon the isola-
tion, separate development and £ina1Iy the co-ordination of the two
groups of laryngeal muscles (registration) ; and also upon the attainment
of a proper resonance adjustment, or acoustic coupling, between the
vocal cords and the resonance cavities.
The isolation, development and training of the weaker group of laryn-
geal muscles, or, in other words, the unused register, is equally vital in
training both the speaking and the singing voice. Thus, when a man's
voice, which is too high-pitched, employs mixed lower registration, the
isolation and development of the falsetto is often the key to the finding
of the pure lower register. This register, in its pure state, will, at first,
be revealed for but a few very low pitches. The pupil must, at this stage,
be told to use only these pitches in speech. Under such circumstances
his ranj!;eis limited, but, as the technical development proceeds, it will
extend further and further, until finally a full range of about three octaves
is reached.
Except for a piercing scream of agony, or for comic effects, no man
should ever use the falsetto register in speech any more than he should
in singing.
The training of a woman's speaking voice is generally a problem of
first isolating the lower register for very low tones, applying these few
tones to the speaking voice and th~n proceeding along the general lines
of technical development employed in training the singing voice.
,. It is most important to note here that any technical improvement in
the singing voice should be immediately applied to the sreaking voice.
If this is not done, the singing and speaking technics wil not associate
mentally. This point is only too clearly demonstrated by many singers
who use their voices well when they sing and badly when they speak,
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 and the inverse-actors with fine speaking voices and good "ears" who
cannot sing. ( This latter case is generally the result of incorrect vocal
training).
It is by no means easy for the speaking voice pupil to adopt this pro-
. cedure because the enormous change in his speaking voice will probably
be commented upon by his friends and relations, who are apt to ·
that he is talking affectedly. They have grown used to his faulty metho
of voice production and associate this type of speech with his personali
so that any radical change may sound unnatural to them . A further d"
culty . lies in the fact that the range is, at first, very limited, and th
normal pitch may suddenly be lowered by an octave or more. This eff
will also seem strange to his own ear, until he has been practising it fo ·
some time, when the relief from vocal strain will bring with it a sens
of true naturalness which he has never before experienced.
When the pure lower register is first disclosed, the pitch at which the ,
pupil must speak will usually be very much lower than the one which
fie has been wont to use. As the technic develops this pitch will usually
rise somewhat and the range will extend to an enormous degree.
In singing, the artist must conceive the musical phrase as a single
unit. Except in rare cases, the intensity and color of every tone 10 the
phrase is determined by the first tone. As the pitch rises, the intensity
rises, and vice versa. Where the song is written properly, a rise in pitch
coincides with a rise in emotion. Quiet phrases are written low in the
range of the voice-for example: In the first act of Wagner's "Walkiire,"
the tenor never sings higher than G until the final climactic phrase is
reached, where high A is found. Even high G occurs but rarely. This
acts depicts a quiet, tender love scene between Siegmund and Sieglinde.
When the phrase is exciting and dramatic it should lie in the upper part
of the voice.
In speech the same rules apply. The unit of speech is the sentence,
not the single word. The actor, when reading lines, must conceive each
sentence as a single unit. The pitch must rise and fall, as the emotion
rises and falls, in a definite, predetermined "tune." The color should
practically always remain constant over the sentence. Any attempt to
pick out the particular word and give to it a special emotion or feeling
is, generally, cheap and inartistic. Thus, if a phrase is being read in which
the speaker is trying to soothe someone to sleep, the entire sentence should
have a dark, sootliing quality. The single word "sleep" should not be
isolated from the sentence and given a srecial color.
In singing we have also the factors o accent and rhythm to consider.
So in speech-the tempo is a vital factor in the proper interpretation of
lines, as is the stressing of the accented syllables of the key words. The
singer must never push his tones beyond a certain point of intensity.
Although the speaker or singer can vary the intensity at any given pitch,
within certain limits, each tone in his voice has a definite limit of loud-
ness which must not be exceeded. Any further rise in intensity should be
accomplished by a rise in pitch. As a general rule, however, it is far more
effective for him to raise the pitch for increased emphasis than to increase
the intensity on the same tone. The exception to this rule of rising pitch
for increased emotion is the use of very low tones for extremely deep
emotions.
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 The concept of the sentence as a single unit presupposes a virtually
unbroken flow of tone over the sentence. 0 Such a flow of tone is not
possible in the Latin languages. For this reason English, German, etc.,
are more effective dramatically than the Latin languages. It is rather
difficult for the pupil, who has never conceived this unbroken flow of
tone over the sentence, to learn how to encompass it. It is probable that
he will not learn to do so until he is able to sing passably well. This
"flow of tone" demands a proper technic, because the one who uses a
mouth vowel formation must inevitably break the flow as he goes from
consonant to vowel and vice versa.
The yibra!?_does not occur in normal speech, because the duration
of the vowel sound is generally only from I/20th to I/5th of a second.
Thus, in most cases, the time interval is less than the duration of one
vibrato. If the vibrato were to occur, it would be interpreted as part
of the transition from one syllable to another. Nevertheless, because the
training of the speaking voice can only be carried out through the develop-
ment of the singing voice, and because no tone in the singing voice which
is without vibrato can be produced properly, the vibrato factor does
enter, indirectly, into the problem of training the speaking voice.
There is a notion current among actors, actresses and public speakers
to the effect that they should "project" their voices to the back of the
theater or hall in which they are appearing. This concept is without any
basis in fact. To fill an auditorium, the intensity must be increased, and
this implies a definite augmentation in the amount of physical work done.
The speaker who tries to "project his voice" is only too apt to shout or
scream, and thereby destroy the resonance adjustment-that is to say the
quality of his voice.
The vowel sounds must be as sustained as possible, and the consonant
or consonants at the end of one word must be connected onto the con-
sonant or consonants at the beginning of the next word, or the vowel il
the next word starts with a vowel sound. If this is not done, the continuity
of sound is broken. Where two vowels follow one another, as, for instance,
with the words "to art" or "for evil" there must be no break between the
vowels, but merely a gradual modification in the shape of the resonance
cavities, so that the "oo-ah" or, in the latter example, the "aw-ee" are ·
elided. In the word "for" the letter "r" merely indicates the vowel sound
and should not be articulated. While there is no break between the
"aw" and "ee," there is a drop in intensity as the two vowel sounds are
elided; whereas, with the diphthong "oi" the intensity is continuously
maintained. Breaks between vowels, or between words which end or
start with consonants, are destructive to the flow of tone. With the com-
pound vowels only one part may be prolonged. Thus, in the word "new,"
which is pronounced "nee-oo," it is the "oo" which must be prolonged and
the "ee" should be as short as possible. Similarly, with the word "I,"
which consists of "ah-ee," it is the "ah" which is prolonged and the "ee"
which is short.
The various faults in pronunciation which are common on both sides
0 See "Some Physical Characteristics of Speech and Music," by Harvey

Fletcher. Published: Reviews of Modem Physics. Vol. 3, April 1931. Bell

System Technical Journal. Vol. 10, July 1931. (pages 104, 110)
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of the Atlantic Ocean will not be entered into discussion because the
process of correcting these faults lies so largely in mere imitation, and
also because American faults are diJlerent from those heard in England.
It is absolutely impossible for the singer or speaker to correct man~
of his more prevalent mispronunciations until his voice has been trained ·
properly and is under control. When this end has been accomplished,
the process of teaching him diction is a relatively easy one, because he
is then able to copy the pronunciation given to him by the teacher.
The prevalent practice of endeavoring to teach diction to persons
whose technic is faulty should be condemned. This practice merely leads
from one poor pronunciation to another. While anyone, who has the
patience, can do much to help himseH in correcting his more flagrant
errors, the use of a dictionary is, generally speaking, misleading and even
harmful. A ehonetic dictionary may be interesting as a reference book,
but as an aicno sell-study it is practicatty worthless. A phonetic symbol
may indicate the pronunciation of a given vowel, but it does not give a
mental picture of the quality which determines this vowel. It is this
mental picture, and not the mere symbol, which enables the speaker or
singer, whose technic is good, to enunciate properly. Furthermore, pho-
netic indications do not cover the very large number of vowel sounds-
over eighty-in the English language, and can give no indication what-
ever of color, which is an equally important phase of resonance adjustment
for the production of any particular vowel sound.
As a general rule, it has been found that the use of a phonetic dic-
tionary in teaching oneseH how to speak leads to affectation, stilted speech
and general confusion.
At the present time almost all teachers of phonetics show their pupils
mouth positions for the vowels. This practice is destructive technically.
It is, however, probably the only means which can be adopted by the
class teacher who wishes to train groups of individuals who enunciate
incorrectly. While this is the only method he can adopt to force a change
in the vowel sounds they are making, it is technically harmful and should
be avoided.
The same difficulty also applies to the teaching of foreign languages.
How is the teacher of French, for instance, to instruct his pupils in the
proper pronunciation of the French vowel sounds. which are not found
in English, other than by giving them mouth, and lip positions? Every
vowel sound in every language can be properly resonated pharyngeally;
but what is to be done with the pupil who uses a mouth vowel formation
in English? Of course, if his voice is trained properly and he has learned
how to shape his pharyngeal resonance cavities for all vowel phonation.

.-,
he will be able to reproduce any sound his French teacher may indicate. I
Before this condition has been attained, any attempt to form the French I
vowels with his mouth must inevitably harm his voice.
In singing, the consonants "d." '1," "n" and "t' should be articulated
oy hitting the hard palate with the .under side of the tongue. This elimi-
nates the "out" gesture which occurs when the tip is employed. Any
"out" gesture of the tongue reflexly relaxes the genio-glossus muscle and
th11sbreaks the melodic line. When the under side of the tongue is used

---
I
a down movement occurs. The tip may be used in normal speech.

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 Chapter 15

UNSCIENTIFIC TEACHING METHODS

An entire generation of singers has been annihilated. The purpose

of this chapter is to show why this has occurred.
There is no singer in the world today who could possibly be
classed as better than second-rate in comparison with the great
artists of the last generation . The best soprano of the day has seven
tones, middle D to A flat ( above the treble clef), of definitely pleas-
ing quality. Below this D her voice is weak and rather thick. This
area of her voice is generally almost inaudible when the orchestra
is playing. Above the A flat she starts to go shrill and her highest
tones ( high B and C) are little better than screams. They are sung
with the lips spread and are not only "white" and shrill but they
are quite often somewhat off-key. Her soft singing is definitely con-
stricted-throaty. Her five best tones are really good only when she
is singing full voice. At her best she can be clearly heard in the
Metropolitan Opera House, but she never, at any time, really fills
the auditorium, as the great singers of the past generation did when
they "opened up" on a high tone. Furthermore, she often slurs
badly. Her intonation is better than that of any other contemporary
singer, and serious deviations from the pitch are relatively rare. She
breathes correctly and does not involve her chest in phonation. Her
musicianship, acting ability and artistry are of a high order.
The best tenor of the day has a voice which, though true to pitch
most of the time, is quite thick, has a distinct vibrato-tremolo
movement, is definitely pushed-especially for the upper tones-and
does not mount properly in intensity above high A. His high tones
are not resonated properly. His registration is unco-ordinated but
. quite pure-far purer than that of any other male singer. Hence,
the quality of his voice is the best of all men singers of today. When
singing fortissimo, in a very dramatic passage, his performance is
often most effective. He never really fills the opera house, however,
as did such singers as Caruso. Despite the fact that the quality of
his voice is better than that of any other contemporary male singer,
it cannot be compared with that of Caruso, or of many of the other
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great singers of the past generation. When he sings softly he is apt
to employ an unco-ordinated falsetto register, which device is
illegitimate and sounds silly. While his voice is not throaty, it is not
held open; i.e., absolute "opening" has not been established.

Lack of Power Present-dayCharacteristic

With the exception of these two artists, who are audible much
of the time they are singing, there seems to be no one else who can
really be heard, except for the upper tones, when the orchestra is
playing, or whose quality is definitely pleasing. Faulty intonation
is almost universal. All the soft singing ("mezza voce") heard is de-
liberately throaty. All the high tones are forced thin, shrill, screamy
or nasal. The movement in all these other voices is primarily tremolo
or tremolo vibrato. Most of these singers are hardly as good vocally
as the operetta singers of the past generation.

Teachersof the Past ·

Teachers of the past were not scientists. They knew nothing of
acoustics, physiology or psychology and the more serious ones did
not pretend to do so, although, even in that generation, there were
mountebanks who talked a lot of nonsense and did a lot of harm .
The best teachers of that era, however, did know certain rather
obvious, fundamental facts about singing. In the first place, they
realized that the singer who was not audible above the orchestra,
in an opera house, could not be classed as an opera singer. They
designated him a "parlor singer" and did not claim to be able to
do anything about it. However, when they heard a full, free, ringing
tone they liked it, and they encouraged their pupils, whenever pos-
sible, to produce just such tones. Their method of procedure was
merely one of "trial and error."
This sort of training can slightly improve a great voice, and keep
it great, if the teacher has an ear which is adjusted to the difference
between a good and a bad tone. It cannot radically improve any
voice, and it cannot change the class of any singer. Nevertheless,
the pupil with a naturally great voice survived and, in many in-
stances, became a great artist.

Pseudo-scientificMethods
Then came the scientific era. Science became popular . The teacher
who could flavor his remarks with pseudo-scientific phrases made
a definite appeal to the vocal student. The teacher who merely
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plugged away at trying to teach his pupils to produce the best
possible sounds, by dint of hard work and "trial and error" methods,
was defeated by the smart salesman, who used wild and imaginative
phrases, quite devoid of meaning, to impress prospective pupils.
Many of the great voices got off the track and deteriorated, while
their possessors were still relatively young. Some of these ex-singers,
whose names carried a tremendous weight with the public, became
teachers. Because of their very high standing as artists, they were
able to demand enormous fees and pupils crowded to them from
every comer of the globe. They knew nothing whatever of the
science of voice. They knew nothing of acoustics or physiology
and the principles of psychology were a closed book to them. They
had to say something startling. Therefore, they developed a sales talk
to be up-to-date, interesting and scientific. What were they to do?
Knowing nothing of physics they could not even think in terms of
the phenomena with which they were dealing. They had only one
source of information to fall back upon-their own physical sensa-
tions. ·
Therefore, they set out to describe these sensations. They clothed
these explanations in the most preposterous language that has ever
been promulgated in any branch of learning. The only science which
they were able to pursue was anatomy, because this study demanded
merely a good memory for names and no scientific understanding
was necessary. In other words, many of them did learn the anatomi-
cal names of the muscles, cartilages, etc. used-or which they im-
agined to be used-in phonation. Because singing is primarily a
problem of physiology, psychology and acoustics, a superficial
knowledge of anatomy alone was quite futile. It did, however,
provide them with some long, scientific terms which they could
use to impress their pupils with their supposed scientific knowledge.
Their basic method, then, really depended upon the sensations
which they experienced when they sang. But-they had lost their
voices! That is why they were teaching, instead of singing. These
sensations were merely those which are experienced by the singer
who has lost his voice, or by the individual who has no "natural
voice." They were actually, in effect, the physical manifestations
of the technical faults which had eliminated their voices.
When the voice is produced perfectly it is so free that practically
no definite muscular sensations can be located. The more faulty the
technic, the more definite the muscular sensations which the singer
experiences become. Such sensations are merely the manifestations
of the interfering, and wrong, muscular tensions which occur be-
cause of technical faults.
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 We bad, then, a group of teachers, with famous names, who de-
liberately taught their pupils to reproduce the sensations which
were actually the physical manifestations of the technical faults

/
which ruined their own great voices.

Famous Names
Let us be specific: The three leading teachers of the time were
Marchesi, Lilli Lehmann and Jean De Reszke. There were many
others, but these fhree were the most prominent.
1 1
,~
fe
Marchesi marked the period of transition between the "trial
and error" and the "pseudo-scientific" teacher. She lost her voice
because of lack of lower register co-ordination and excessive "white-
ness." She did know a really good tone when she heard one. Her
pupil-Melba-sang beautifully, in spite of her teaching, because
she did not interfere with this great singer's natural technic. How-
ever, she tried to make all her other pupils sound exactly like
Melba, and she confused Melba's clarity of tone with "whiteness"
and her co-ordination of registration with lack of lower register.
( Melba's registers were co-ordinated and she had no break.) Mar-
chesi did not shut Melba's voice off. With her other pupils, however,
she was not so successful, because she "whitened" their voices and
eliminated the lower register, when a break was present. Therefore,
she did radical harm to virtually every other pupil who studied
with her and she developed an absolutely destructive school of
"white," throaty, falsetto-only singing. Despite this fact she allowed
her pupils to sing more or less out loud and she wanted them to be
able to fill an auditorium. .
LilliLe~ann was for many years the world's most successful
teacher-financially. She knew nothing of science and had almost
entirely lost her voice when she started to teach. In a book on singing
she propounded theories which can only be designated as pre-
posterous nonsense: statements to the effect that the tone was some-
thing which whirled around and shot out in different directions
according to the pitch. lier writings give the impression of some-
one who had pipe dreams. They are similar to the writings of an
individual who, knowing nothing of electricity or radio, tried to
write a textbook about radio, using his imagination, and his imagi-
nation alone, to propound his theories. Unfortunately, the nonsense
written about voice by this ex-great singer has had a profound
effect on vocal teaching all over the world. Serious scientists don't
read books about singing-so this teacher was never taken to task.
Fantastic theories, coming from so impressive a source, deeply
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 affected the vocal teachers and students who came under her sway
or who read her books, because these individuals knew nothing of
science themselves and had no means of gauging the actual merit
of her theories. Her success was overwhelming. Hundreds of voice
students flocked to her studio from all over the world. Everyone
who studied with her was more or less injured vocally by her work.
Every voice which she trained deteriorated. Every great artist
who fell into her hands was forced to retire from the stage while
he or she was still relatively young . Many victims of this teaching
are today living in retirement, and these artists would still be sing-
ing if they had been trained properly. Despite all this, Lilli Leh-
mann liked a big tone and she wanted her pupils to be heard
when they sang in an auditorium. For this reason several of her
artist pupils did succeed, despite the fact that their careers were so
pitifully curtailed.

Singing in the Masque

The two teachers just discussed did a great deal of harm, but it re-
mained for De .fieszke-the great French tenor-to strike the final
blow which has been the roaio cause of the virtual elimination of all
great voicesfrom the world today.
When Jean De Reszke lost his voice it became-as do those of prac-
tically all Frenchmen who lose their voices-'\~hite," throaty and very
nasal. He, therefore , experienced a definite sensation of nasality-of
something happening in the front of his face. He based his technical
theories upon this sensation, which was solely a manifestation of the tech-
nical faults (throatiness, jaw-lock and neck tension) which had de-
stroyed his voice. He did not call this sensation nasality; he coined a
fancy phrase for it: "singing in _~~ masque." For some obscure reason
this silly phrase took an overwhelming -Iiold upon the popular imagination.
It became a standard idea for voice training everywhere. To this day
the majority of teachers either definitely profess to teach the De Reszke
method, or employ a method which is similar to it and, therefore, the
outcome of his ideas.
Let us consider exactly what "singing in the masque" really means.
Il the jaw is relaxed, dropped into the middle position and then stuck
out a little and tensed, this state of tension may be reflected to the front
of the face, so that a definite sensation is experienced at the nose. If the
pupil establishes this condition of jaw tension and then sings, he will
actually: "Feel something happening in the front of his face." This is not
a phenomenon of resonance. There are no resonance cavities above, or
in front of, the pharynx-laryngeal, oral and nasal. A resonance cavity
1 ust be an air cavity, with relatively hard walls, which can be shaped,
"tuned," for the resonation of the tone-pitch and vowel. Such a cavity
ust, then, be capable of assuming a wide variety of changes in size
d shape, if it is to act as ll resonator of the voice. The pharyngeal
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cavities, which are employed when the technic is correct, are just such
cavities. The mouth cavity also can be shaped, and is employed when
the technic is throaty and the pharynx is constricted and, therefore,
eliminated as a resonance cavity. The nasal cavity cannot be tuned or
ad;usted. Furthermore, it is heavily lined with soft folds of mucous
membrane, folds of soft flesh which have so great a damping effect
that, even if this cavity could be shaped, it could never act as an efficient
resonator. The frontal sinus is a small, fixed cavity, and its use as a resona-
tor is so completely out of the question that one need hardly consider it
seriously. Reference to Fig. 37 will show that there is no cavity in front
of the line A-B, which could possibly be used as a resonator. The cavity
of the skull is filled with brains and is not, therefore, an air cavity. No!
There is definitely no resonance cavity in the front of the face, or "in
the masque."

Fig. 37-Resonance Cavities

This illustration clearly indicates the utter absurdity of the idea rl1at the
voice should be resonated, "focussed," "placed" or "felt" in the front of the
face, the nose or the "masque"-i.e., in front of the line AB.
It will be seen that the nasal cavitv is lined with thick folds of soft mucous
membrane which would act as a highly efficient damping material. The frontal
sinus is a small cavity-too small to act as an important resonator-and the top
of the head is filled with brains, a soft, highly absorbent material. Further-
more, neither the nasal cavity, the sinus nor the he;1q can change their size or
shape or, in other words, they cannot be "tuned.''~ there is no c~v·!)' in)
the front of the face which could possibly act as a resonator of the to 7
The bony structure of the nose or forehead might act as an efficien sound-
ing board if the vocal cords were attached there. However, the larynx is
actually suspended from .the hyoid bone and is in the throat.

The front of the face could be used as a sounding board, if the vocal
cords were rigidly attached to it. But to accomplish this the larynx
would have to be amputated and grafted on somewhere behind the nose
-"in the masque"!
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 The sensation of the voice being "in the masque," is then merely a
transmission effect brought about by an extreme jaw-lock and helped
by the neck tension which controls the technic of the "masque" singer.
This neck tension is deliberately engendered, by the teachers of this
school, both from above and from below. As a rule the pupils of this
school of teaching deliberately drop their heads to guide the voice "up
and over" into the "masque ." They often accompany this forward and
down movement of the head with a circular gesture of the hand which
goes in and out in a semi-circle. As they make these gestures, they auto-
matically throw the neck muscles into tension from above.
Singers of this school are often taught "breath control," which gen-
erally centers upon the raising of the chest. They may be told to breathe
with the diaphragm and then draw the breath up into the chest, which
must be raised and distended as much as possible. This raising of the
chest brings the neck muscles into tension from below. The depressing
of the chest, which ensues as they start to phonate, blows the breath out
through the constriction, which has been completely established by
means of the locking of the jaw and the tensing of the neck muscles,
before phonation. These singers will, then, very easily and completely,
experience the sensation of something happening in the front of the
face, and the sensation thus engendered is what "singing in the masque"
really means.
There is one further point which renders this procedure particularly
pernicious: The pronounced tension which occurs on the sterno-mastoid
muscles transmits the sound, with great efficiency, directly into the singer's
own inner ear. (See Figs. 26 & 27.) With each increase in throatiness
and tension on the neclc and jaw muscles, he hears what seems to him
to be an increase in the richness and mellowness of the tone. This, de-
S'(>itethe fact that what he is really hearing is merely augmented
throatiness.
We find; then , this most unfortunate state of affairs: A school of vocal
training which aims at a definite easily attained sensation which merely
determines the establishment of absolute throatiness plus an apparent
improvement in quality to the pupil's own ear. The victims of this school
of teaching can definitely feel and hear themselves reaching the goal.
They can, apparentll/, definitely hear their own voices improving in
quality. It is, indeed, difficult for anyone to convince the pupil of a
"singing in the masque" teacher that his voice is deteriorating and that
the theory upon which his teacher works is merely injurious nonsense.
These students often become so conceited, as they hear the apparently
increased richness in the tones they are producing , that they are utterly
unmoved by any statement of the scientific facts of the case. This conceit
is encouraged by the teacher, whose chief method of holding his pupils
is often through this very emotion.
It is difficult to tell "masque" singers that what they are convinced is
a glorious, mellow voice, is merely a nasal, throaty noise, and that a
great deal of hard work must be done to eliminate the very condition
which they have spent so much time and money to attain-that they
must start all over again and tear down the throatiness which has been
built up-that their voices are not great .
But-either science is wrong, their voices are glorious and their
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teachers are right; or science is right and they have to tear down their
entire technic and build it up again by patient hard work. Think of the
blow to their sense of vanity! Think of the world of hope which was
built up and which must inevitably come crashing to pieces under their
feet! Nol As a rule the victim of a "singing in the masque" teacher never
realizes what is happening to his voice until he is actually unable to
go on singing. This may occur very soon, or he may be able to make
some sort of sound for several years, before he realizes the trap into
which he has fallen. Then it may be too late!
This school of teaching is rendered even more virulent today than it
was a few years ago, before the radio and movies became so prominent.
In those days a singer had to be audible in a theater . If his voice was
too weak to carry in an auditorium, he could not be a professional singer.
Today an individual with a voice so constricted and "shut off" that it can
hardly be heard across a room, may be a big success over the radio and
in Hollywood, if he can put his words across nicely and has a pleasing
personality . Some of the highest paid singers of today are mere crooners.
The three outstanding baritones in America today speak at an
actually higher intensity level than the one they attain when they
sing. Before the era of reproduction they could not have been even
passably successful professional singers, with their voices as shut off
as they are today, although all three of them originally had quite
fine voices. The fact that certain , very throaty singers have been
engaged to sing leading roles at the Metropolitan does not help
matters! They are, of course, completely ineffective and almost
entirely inaudible, but they are actually appearing at the greatest
opera house in the world! Thirty years ago these singers would not
have been considered good enough to sing leads in operettas!
Thus, the struggle to eliminate this type of physically harmful
and decade~t teaching is becoming increasingly difficult to win.
Nevertheless, the moment the public hears the singer with an even
half-way free voice, they love it. If one of the great singers of the
past were to appear at the Metropolitan today he would create an
overwhelming sensation. The public does know a good voice when
it hears one. Actually the two biggest and best voices in the world
today are the two most successful. Furthermore, throaty singers
don't last very long, either physically or in the public fancy. Their
careers are, as a rule, extremely limited even when they are able
to go on singing.
There are many variations of this "singing in the masque" idea.
For instance, there is the notion of "focussing the voice" in the
front of the face, the nose or the forehead. This is much the same
thing couched in different terms. Then there is the idea of the
"covered tones," or "'head tones." The sensations which these figura-
tive phrases engender also occur as a result of tension on the
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 muscles of the neck and jaw, but in some cases, this tension is not
so deliberately directed into the "masque" or the nose.
Then there is the idea of the "open" and "covered" tones. The
pupil is told to sing "open" tones up to about D ( fourth line
of the treble clef) or E flat, and then to cover the higher tones.
Here the term "open tone" does not mean a tone sung with the
throat open and with the muscles of the tongue in proper tension
-but rather it indicates a "white," "shouty" tone which cannot be
carried up and which is actually definitely throaty . The "covered
tone" must then be employed at the pitch ( about Eb on the top
space of the treble clef) at which the so-called "open tone" is too
shouty to be singable. The "covered tone" sensation is brought about
by deliberately increasing the tension on the muscles of the jaw
and neck and, at the same time, by relaxing the tongue muscles.
This permits the tongue to drop and then come into constrictor
tension in the dropped position. This type of technic engenders ever-
increasing throatiness while the pupil is singing and, at the same
time, continually breaks the melodic line.
,- There is another similar school of thought which tells the pupil
to "feel the tone ascend higher in the head" as he ascends the
scale. The teachers of this school sometimes endeavor to engender
what they call an "even scale" in which all the tones have equal
loudness. Many pupils of this, and of the "singing in the masque"
schools, are told deliberately to soften the higher tones as they
ascend the scale. This direction results in a very pronounced
augmentation in the degree of constriction as they ascend the
scale, i.e., of jaw lock and neck tension. Most teachers tell their
pupils that their throats must be relaxed. Nearly all of them insist
upon a relaxed jaw. H this were to mean a relaxed neck-not throat
-the underlying idea would be correct. Unfortunately, however,
they do actually mean the throat ( or tongue), because these teachers
generally tell their pupils to shape their mouths for the vowels.
Some of them even go so far as to instruct them to make movements
of their heads to "relax the throat." Such movements do indeed
relax the muscles of the tongue which should be tensed, and, at
the same time, they bring the neck muscles into tension.
of a relaxed jaw !11~~t_!?~a good one if it meant puttigg the jaw
out of action. tr~atel)', -il generally means.Jianging _it like an
id!ot__in. the middle ;osition. ( See Fig. 29.) This type of relaxation
of the jaw___always aoifests itselL1s al!_ex_tremejaw lock.
- It is easy to learn how to "sing in the masque:' lHhe -reader-wants
to sing in complete constriction, with a small, shut off, throaty voice
which might be used over the radio or in the movies, and which
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sounds perfectly lovely to his own ear, it is quite unnecessary for
him to pay a teacher to learn this technic. He can teach himself,
without spending a penny, by following a few simple directions.
Anyone who pays to learn this technic is very foolish.

Remember, this technic is exactly the reverse from the one which
should be used. It is a form of whistling rather than of legitimate singing.
The problem is one of co-ordinating the constrictor muscles with pho-
nation and of developing them to the proper degree-not too much.
From this point of view the process is quite different from that of
legitimate vocal development because, when these muscles become
too strong, the voice disappears . Hence, all singing must be done at low
intensity. Anyhow, it is far better for the singer who employs this technic
never to attempt to sing loudly, because all tones sung above a certain
intensity become unpleasant to listen to and are nearly always off pitch .
There are two methods of establishing this technic: With the first,
which is generally employed by teachers of today, the registration action
is disregarded, with the result that the voice is of limited range. With
the second method, which employs the registration action, a far more
interesting result can be obtained, because an extremely wide range
can be developed.
The first method is very simple indeed. The chief goal is the attain-
ment of complete neck-muscle control. This may be accomplished with
or without the injection of deliberate nasality in the tone.
The first step is the attainment of an absolute jaw lock. If nasality
("masque singing"} is desired, the jaw is first relaxed and dropped into
the middle position ( see Fig. 29} and then stuck out a little and tensed.
This tension is then directed to the front of the face, or the nose. The
nostrils may be dilated to convey the idea of something happening in
the nose. If the "head voice" type of singing (which is throaty, but not
deliberately nasal} is desired, the jaw is merely dropped into the middle
(lock} position and tensed . If a thick ( so-called contralto or baritone
quality} is desired, the jaw is dropped into the "lock" position, pulled
in (or back} a little and tensed , and the tongue is swallowed (dropped}.
( See Fig. 12 B.}
The second step engenders the development and co-ordination of the
neck muscles with phonation . This is accomplished only too easily. The
neck must be shortened . The tension of the neck muscles can be induced
from above by dropping the head, and it is augmented when the head
is stuck out or pulled back excessively. It can be induced from below
by means of the chest and shoulders, which must be raised and tensed .
This raising of, and tension on, the chest serves a double purpose, because
it is also important in "breath control." The best method of bringing the
chest muscles into action is first to take a deep breath, filling the lungs
as far down as possible and expanding the lower ribs and the diaphragm,
and then, after the breath has been taken in this manner, to pull in
the diaphragm and raise the chest, thus forcing the breath up into it.
(See Fig. 24 C.} This completely releases the inspiratory tension and in-
sures the production of a tone sung on a forced expiration ("on the
breath"), Having inspired the breath and raised his chest and shoulders,
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the singer should pause a moment to establish tension on the muscles
of these members. He should then start to sing by blowing out the air
with the chest, which is slowly forced in and down as he sustains the
tone.
The tone should be started softly and swelled a little as it is held, by
deliberately blowing out more air with the chest. No attempt should be
made to sing a really loud tone-it should only be swelled a little . How-
ever, the swelling action is important, because it establishes the feeling
of the voice being driven by (or "on"} the breath, and also of the control
of intensity by means of constriction of the throat and of the rate of
expulsion of the breath. This is known as "breath control." Breathing
exercises, without singing, may help somewhat in the attainment of
"breath control."
It is undesirable for the "masque" singer to attempt to center pitch,
because slurring into the tone helps to engender the sensation of neck
control and breath control. :Most of the so-called emotional and interpre-
tive effects employed in this school of singing depend primarily upon
deliberate slurring .
Single tones, produced in this fashion, which are swelled into and
decrescendoed, may be practised with beneficial(?} results. The tones
should all be connected on a slide. No attempt need ever be made to move
from the center of one tone to the center of another; exact musical form
is quite unimportant .
The vowels used may also be varied. It is probably best to start with a
"white" "ee" vowel. For this vowel the jaw must be completely locked
in the middle position, and the lips deliberately spread. The "white"
"ah" may also be used, with the mouth carefully set in the "white" "ah"
position. A considerable amount of practice should be done with the
"oo" vowel, which must be sung with the lips pursed up and completely
covering the teeth-in the "oo" mouth position. Humming may also
be practised to establish the jaw lock with the jaw closed. All the mouth
positions for the different vowels can be carefully set and practised.
The intensity should not rise more than is absolutely unavoidable, with
the pitch. The higher tones should be sung softly-not loudly.
In the case of a baritone or a bass, and even a tenor, the so-called
"open" (shouty) tone may be sung occasionally up to about D (on the
fourth line of the treble clef}, but this relatively loud effect should not
be employed too often or the neck muscles will tend to overdevelop, with
the result that the voice will shut off altogether. This is true of all loud
singing. At all times the singer must have the feeling of being able to
hold his voice with his neck and squeeze the intensity in and out .
This entire process is so easily learned that complete control can soon
be developed if the pupil is willing to practise every day for a short time .
Prolonged periods of practice should not be indulged in, because the
entire procedure is injurious to the vocal apparatus . Periods of complete
silence, sometimes for several days or weeks, when the voice is beginning
to shut off altogether, are beneficial. Nevertheless, exercises for establish-
ing this unnatural, constricted condition must always be practised before
the singer attempts to perform .
The long scale of Lilli Lehmann is a good exercise for establishing the
necessary constrictor tensions to prepare the voice for throaty singing.
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 This exercise is sung without any particular attention to accurate intona-
tion. The tones may be slid together.
Relaxation of the genio-glossus muscle-the muscle at the base of the
tongue-and of the genio-hyoid muscle ( see Fig. 4) which accompanies
constriction of the throat, is essential, not only to establish the constriction,
but also because a tremolo is necessary if the tone is to sound pretty.
This tremolo action is actuated by means of a flutter of the base of the
tongue. Runs and other exercises may be practised on this flutter, or
tremolo, action. This type of movement is the stock-in-trade of the so-
called coloratura soprano of the day.
This throaty, tremolo tone must never be sung loudly, because when
it is swelled the narrow, rapid tremolo becomes a disagreeable wobble
and the registration becomes mixed. The mixed register, wobbling tone
is very much off key, while the little, fluttering tremolo tone sounds on
key-it is seldom really true to pitch. Many coloraturas pull their heads in
and sideways, as well as down, to establish the constriction-neck ten-
sion. The sideways pull is undesirable because the constrictor action on
the larynx is thereby rendered uneven and it is apt to bring about the
early development of nodules on the vocal cords. The staccato is accom-
plished by means of the establishment of a very complete constriction,
. which must be set beforehand. When the necessary pre-tension has been
·,~stablished, the tone must be deliberately "squeaked" in the falsetto
register, with the head pulled in and down.
Most of the salient points have been covered for the attainment of a
technic which is almost universally taught today; it is entirely inartistic,
unmusical and extremely injurious physically. It is least harmful when
the intensity is kept very low and when an amplifier is used to build
up the intensity artificially. The so-called "radio technic" rests upon this
type of singing, when the intensity is reduced to the lowest possible
level. It is the automatic, rapid flutter of the tongue, which is employed
to engender the tremolo, that makes this type of singing acceptable to
the listener.
The second method is, in many ways, far more efficient, although it is
more harmful physically. With this method the voice is registered and
the registers are then completely blended and mixed. If this technic is
mastered completely, the singer can virtually never learn to sing legiti-
mately.
The lower register is isolated and carried up by "whitening" it and
letting it become increasingly throaty, pinched and "white" as the pitch
rises. The intensity must not rise, but rather diminish, if possible, as
the pitch rises. It is often helpful for the singer to press his tongue against
his lower teeth, because this aids in the attainment of a "white," very
throaty tone and helps to establish intense constriction. The lips are
spread in a grin, with most of the upper teeth showing (see Fig. 30 A)
in order to set the mouth position for the necessary degree of throaty
"whiteness." This thin, "white," throaty, lower-register tone is established
and then carried up as far as possible with both sexes. Women are often
able to reach high C with this type of throaty, "white," mixed lower-
register technic . The falsetto register is then derived from this lower
register and made to match it in intensity . Because a falsetto tone may be
sung an octave higher than the highest lower-register tone. extremely
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high (absolutely mixed) falsetto squeaks may be reached . The falsetto
is carrieddown and pushed (swelled) a little in descent, to join it in with
the already established , "white," thin, throaty lower register . The two
registers may then be blended by squeezing the falsetto into the lower
register and by choking off the lower register into the falsetto. Of course,
all the constrictor actions must be completely established. Men should
practise very high falsetto tones (above high C) on a white "ee" vowel
with the jaw locked and the lips spread. These tones may be sung fairly
loudly, but they must not be pushed or "darkened ." "Going through the
falsetto" exercises should be practised by both sexes. The falsetto tone
should be sung on a "white" "ah," "ay" or "ee" vowel and squeezed into
the lower register on the same tone, and the lower register should be
"whitened" to mix it with the falsetto. It is a good plan to practise singing
the falsetto with a white "ee" vowel on the tones F ( on the top line of
the treble clef), F sharp and G rather loudly, with the limitations of
loudness determined by the constriction, and then to practise singing the
lower register at the same pitch, on the same vowels, at about the same
intensity.
A relatively short period of practice will soon enable the singer ~o
completely blend or mix the registers. He, or she, will then have attained
the ability to cover a range of three , or even four, octaves with a little
throaty, mixed-register "squeak voice." He has now learned how to sing
pianissimo as much and as often as he may desire to do so. This seems
to be the goal of so many teachers today .
The method just indicated is the best procedure to adopt if this is the
goal desired by the vocal student. Remember, the throatier the voice
becomes the better , or richer, it sounds to the singer himself, and the
more definitely can he feel it "in the masque ."

But-please don't do it! It is not singing! It is not art! It has no

interpretive or musical value! It expresses nothing! It is harmful
to the vocal apparatus! Every singer who indulges in this type of
technic, deteriorates vocally, and even a slight element of this sort
of thing in a singer's technic inevitably eliminates the voice by the
time he or she has attained middle age. Thus, a really talented
individual, whose voice has been only partially shut off by bad
training, loses it at just about the age when he should have become
a matured artist. It takes many years to attain this goal. No one
under forty could possibly have done the necessary work to be
classed as a "great artist."
Today's pitiful lack of great singers is due to the fact that, as a
result of wrong training methods, practically every singer starts to
lose his voice at just about the age when he should be at the peak
of his career-if he has not lost it before he has reached this age.
The younger voices are the best voices, because the constrictor
action has not yet developed far enough to destroy them. These,
however, are relatively immature artists. There are many great
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ex-singers still living who have passed right out of the picture and
who would still be singing if they had been trained properly. Of
the older singers, who are still reasonably good vocally, there are
only three and their voices are deteriorating .
Regarding the technic of the best living soprano: It would have
been easy for a competent teacher to have made this artiste into
a supremely great singer vocally. It is far easier for a competent
teacher to make a fine voice into a great one than it is for him to
turn a mediocre voice into a good one. A naturally talented beginner
is very easy to teach, if the proper procedure is adopted . This
soprano could have been made as good as Destinn vocally-if not
better. The main fault in her technic lies in a lack of lower-register
development and co-ordination, with the accompanying lack of
pure, properly resonated, high falsetto and pianissimo tones. If her
voice were to be registered, it would be found that she could, in
her present vocal condition, only sing the lower register, really open,
up to A Hat ( second space on the treble clef) and that above this
tone this register would start to shut off. This shut-off lower reg-
ister could not be carried above about C or D in her present
laryngeal condition. If the indicated procedure were to be adopted
with this singer, open lower-register tones could easily be carried
up through D and possibly up to F. Under these circumstances
pure, wide-open, falsetto tones could be carried up to high D,
or even F above high C, and the falsetto tones thus derived,
instead of being screamy and thin, would blossom out with a clear, ',
mellow, beautiful quality. They would really fill the Metropolitan
Opera House. Furthermore, the establishment of the pure, "open,"
falsetto register would soon make it possible for her to produce
legitimate, "open," pianissimo tones. Of course, the proper balancing
of the registers and the attainment of complete pharyngeal reso-
nance adjustment are essential concomitants of this development.
Her breathing is good. Just one other point would have to be
stressed, however, in order that her technic might be worked out
properly. She would have to stop slurring altogether and learn
how to attack in the center of the pitch and how to connect her
tones properly.
The tenor's voice would be somewhat harder to work out than
that of the soprano, because he pushes quite badly. The action of
the breathing muscles and the pushing action would have to be dealt
with very carefully. His registers are relatively pure but not co-
ordinated. Absolute pharyngeal resonance adjustment would have
to be attained. Nevertheless, it should be a relatively easy matter
to improve this voice very radically. Whether or not he could now
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be made into a second Caruso may be questioned. He could have
been, if he had been trained properly in the first place.
It is difficult to think of any other singer who would not have
to go through a prolonged course of training in order that they
might reach the heights. Practically every living woman now uses
the falsetto only, or the mixed falsetto and, when the lower register
is used, it is not carried up high enough to really influence the voice.
Of the other male singers there are few whose voices are not
already in a distressingly high degree of constriction. Some of them,
who are relatively young, might be completely opened up and
made into great artists. All of them could be immeasurably im-
proved. Nevertheless, the persistent use of the mixed falsetto for
pianissimo effects ( "mezza voce") has, in many cases, interfered so
seriously with the registration action that many of them would have
to go through a relatively prolonged process of isolation and purifi-
cation of the registers before very much could be done. The train-
ing they have undergone has served only to destroy the proper
registration action and engender constriction-throatiness.

Scholarships
The greatest voices in this country ( and the same is probably
true in Europe) have been sought out and taken over by the big
conservatories. These talented youngsters often start with really
fine, natural material. These are the very voices which are most
injured by bad training. Thus, it has come about that practically
all of the most talented youngsters, who receive scholarships from
the big conservatories, are, in nearly every case, entirely eliminated,
because of the injurious vocal training which they receive. None
of these institutions have ever turned out even a passably well-
produced voice. The singers who do survive the sort of training
which these institutions provide are apt to be those who start with
rather mediocre natural voices, because the voice which is already
somewhat constricted is not so apt to be entirely eliminated by
the "singing in the masque" type of training, as is the naturally free,
"open" voice.

ScientificallyUnsoundConcepts
The fact remains that the fundamental reason why singing is so
badly taught is because the vocal teachers have no knowledge of
the nature of the phenomena with which they are dealing. Many
of them conceive the voice as a "stream of something" which "Hows
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out" and must be "directed," "focussed" or "placed." Some of them
think of it as "vocalized breath." Some of them believe that the
air is blown from the lungs through the glottis, and that this air-
or breath-after passing through the larynx, becomes the tone. Of
course, if this were so, the breath would have to travel at the same
speed as sound-llOO feet a second (750 miles per hour). This
would indeed be a strong blast! It is obvious how idiotic this notion
is. Actually the entire idea of "voice placement" rests primarily
on this sort of concept.
Some imaginative individuals think of the sound as something
that is "whirling" or "spinning" like a sort of "cyclone." A descrip-
tion of the voice based on this type of premise makes amusing
reading, hut it is hardly in accordance with the laws of aaoustics.
Lilli Lehmann, Dr. Frank ?\·filler, etc., thought along these lines.
The results of their teachings were uniformly unfortunate.
Other teachers, who have no idea whatever of what resonance is,
tallc of "using a resonance cavity" or "placing the voice" in a cer-
tain cavity. Some of these individuals substitute a part of the body,
such as the "front of the face," "the head," the "hard palate," "the
back of the head," etc., as the place where the voice should be
"put." "Putting" the voice anywhere would, if taken literally, imply
amputating the larynx and grafting it there. Because they cannot
really mean this, they must actually believe that this imaginary
stream of something is directed into a certain place and then sticks
there. There are no sounding boards for the voice. It is indeed difB-
cult to explain what an individual, who doesn't know what he is
tallcing about, believes.

Facts Regarding Sound

Sound is transmitted from its source in all directions. It consists
of alternate compressions and expansions of the air particles and
it is absorbed and reflected according to the surfaces which it
meets. Thus, a soft surface will absorb far more sound than a hard
one, but alternate layers of hard and soft material constitute a highly
efficient medium for damping, or absorption, because the sound is
reflected backward and forward by the hard surfaces through the
soft ones. Thus, little sound could be transmitted through the head
because the pressure pulse would have to pass through the brain
cavity, and the brain is composed of soft, absorbent material. The
folds of mucous membrane lining the nose are also soft and
highly absorbent. The sensation of "singing forward," or "in the
masque," is brought about only by tension which connects through
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the jaw to the bones of the head and face. This transmission, by
means of jaw tension, is very much helped by tension on the neck
muscles, which, when highly tensed, become relatively efficient
transmitters of sound. Such a transmission effect, far from amplifying
the sound, tends to dampen it and cut down the loudness. It has
nothing whatever to do with resonance.

Loud Singing
Some teachers who use current methods of voice training make
their pupils sing loudly. This type of loud singing is brought about
by pushing, or forcing, the voice with a blast of breath. The resultant
tone q~ality is always unpleasant, and the results are even more
harmful physically than those engendered by the mezza-voce
teacher, because these teachers inevitably create a condition of
mixed registration and intense active constriction. It is far easier
to train a pupil who has just a little piping voice, than one who has
a loud, throaty, mixed-register voice, because the latter must learn
to eliminate the constrictor action and establish pure registration.
The former may often present merely a straightforward develop-
ment problem, which can generally be worked out simply. The
best material of all is the unharmed voice which has pure registra-
tion and can produce full tones in the lower register and falsetto-
even if these tones are somewhat crude.

Dropped Larynx Wrong

There is another very injurious school of teaching which has
been fairly prevalent in recent years. Teachers of this school do
not hold the belief that the voice should be "placed in the head,"
but they state that it should be "in the throat." However, they com-
bine this idea of "singing in the throat" with the notion that the
larynx should be dropped as far as possible. When the larynx is so
dropped, the hyoid bone and the tongue also must descend. This
engenders a condition of extreme throatiness-generally "thick-
throatiness." The pupils of these teachers believe that they ex-
perience the sensation of "singing in their throats"-all they really
feel is throatiness and neck tension. This school of teaching has
eliminated many fine voices.

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 Coaches Who Become Teachers
The vocal teacher who is properly equipped to carry on his pro-
fession must not only understand singing and music but must also
be trained in the sciences. The principles of vocal technic cannot
be dreamed or imagined-they must be understood.
Of course, those accompanists who teach vocal technic, when
they know nothing about it, do so purely for the sake of the money
they can make-the vocal teacher's fee is two to four times that of
the coach. Thus, they teach something they do not understand
instead of teaching something they do understand-coaching and
musicianship-merely for lucrative reasons. This is also true
of great singers, who know nothing of science; they too could coach
and make an honest living-but they want the money and they
don't mind injuring their pupils' voices to get it.

Relaxation Fallacy
Many teachers believe that the singer should experience complete
relaxation during phonation. They fail to realize the fact that the
muscles used in phonation must be tensed, and that it is the muscles
which should not be used in this action which should be as relaxed
as possible. These individuals are unaware of the truth of this very
obvious fact. As a result of such attempts at relaxationall drive and
energy are eliminated and their pupils smg m absolute con-
striction. This procedi.i~does -nof -actua1ly efigIDlderrelaxation, be-
cause the interfering muscles come into a high state of tension and
they, therefore, defeat their own end-the attainment of relaxation.
Whenever any act is performed, muscles come into tension. It
is the proper development and co-ordination of these muscles which
determine a proper technic. Failure to realize this obvious fact is
most unfortunate.
A gesture does not relax muscles-it tenses them. Thus, the pupil
who tenses his shoulders and chest should be told to let them drop
and relax. He should not be allowed to make gestures with them,
in order to relax them, because such gestures would have exactly
the opposite effect. The teacher who tells his pupils to move the
head up, down and sideways to relax the throat is only teaching
them to tense their neck muscles.
A baseball player will swing his arm to limber up. This swinging
exercise brings the muscles which he is going to use into tension and
does Umber them up. U he desired to relax these muscles he would
not limber them up. Thus, swinging the shoulders or arms to relax
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them would only serve to limber them up and prepare them for
co-ordination in phonation. This is, of course, entirely undesirable.
The pupil who tenses unduly before and during phonation must
be told to relax and stand still before he starts to sing. He must not
make active gestures to bring about this state of relaxation.
Remember: Visible, external signs of effort actually indicate re-
laxation of the muscles which should be in tension. Thus, tension
on the muscles of the jaw, neck, chest, shoulders, etc., occurs because
the muscles of the larynx, tongue, lower ribs, diaphragm, etc., have
relaxed. Lack of the necessary drive manifests itself in tension on
the interfering muscles. If the singer relaxes the tongue muscles,
which should be in tension for the resonation of the tone, he must
perforce tense other muscles-the muscles of the jaw and neck-
in order to resonate the vowel with the mouth. If he loses the
"hold" on the breathing muscles, he is forced to tense the chest and
shoulders to force, or blow out, a blast of air. This is just what the
teacher who has lost his voice does himself. He teaches his pupils
to do it, by instructing them to "relax the throat" and "raise the
chest." These directions automatically tend to force the pupil to
relax the muscles which should be in tension and to tense the inter-
fering muscles and the muscles which should not function in phona-
tion. Such a teacher does not engender relaxation, which is impos-
sible; he merely brings the wrong muscles into tension.
Directions regarding relaxation and breath control tend to relax
the muscles of the tongue and larynx ( so that pitch definition is
impossible) and, at the same time, force the pupil to blow out
the air. The voice is not something which is forced, blown out or
driven from below-it is an instrument in the throat, which must
be brought into action because of tension on the muscles of the
larynx and tongue, and which is actuated by the breath pressure
which occurs when the breathing muscles hold in equilibrium.

Faulty Methods Resultin Early Lossof Voice

One of the saddest phases of this whole situation lies in the fact
that singers of today actually expect to lose their voices between
the ages of forty and fifty. They do not blame their teachers when
this loss of voice occurs. Instead, they seek physical explanations.
There is still another rather horrifying aspect to this picture. In-
competent teachers adopt a certain "set" method or procedure with
all their pupils. Any such method does not eliminate any of the
pupil's technical faults. The result of this is that they never really
improve the voice of any pupil who may study with them. Actually,
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they ruin every fine natural voice which they endeavor to train.
The survivors all sound very much the same. So common is this
teaching that there is probably not one soprano at the Metropolitan
today who does not deliberately spread her lips and more or less
scream her high tones, and no living singer who can produce a
legitimate soft, high tone. Actually, all soft singing ( or "mezza
voce") is deliberately performed on absolute constriction. Now,
when teachers have been shutting off voices, after this fashion, for
a number of years, they actually come to like the sound of a throaty
tone better than that of a well-produced, free, "open" one. They
come to utterly disregard power, freedom and intonation. For ex·
ample, "Little Willie's" teacher O designated Caruso's voice as a
"freak voice" and quoted a mixed-falsetto tenor, who sounds much
more like a woman than a man, as the possessor of the ideal technic.
From his erroneous point of view a free, "open," virile voice is not
only a "freak voice" but a forced one. He fails to observe the fact
that his pupils lose their voices, while the singers who have full,
free voices, which have not been tampered with, survive. Thus, it is
that the majority of the vocal teachers of today have actually come
to like, and intentionally aim at, throaty singing. They eliminate
power and freedom, and intonation deliberately . A great singer
defines pitch absolutely. The instrument is "firmly strung." Prac-
tically every singer today not only slurs but actually flutters the tone
when he is supposed to be sustaining it-the instrument is not
"strung"-the pitch is never really defined. Incompetent teachers
like this fluttering noise and actually dislike a defined pitch as
exemplified by the singing of Caruso and Destinn.
There is a very sad paradox which springs from this state of
affairs. The great conservatories give scholarships to all the best
natural voices they can find. They award these scholarships fairly.
After these voices have undergone a four-year period of training
they are, in nearly every case, shut-off and throaty. Many of these
graduate students would then be ineligible for the scholarships to
which their unspoiled voices entitled them; they would not have
been chosen had they originally sung with the technic they used
after they had undergone the course of training. Thus, as an outcome
of the training methods employed, the talented beginners lose
their natural voices. Nevertheless, their teachers like the sound of
the throaty tones that they produce, after they have been trained,
despite the fact that they originally chose them because their voices
were relatively free-not throaty.
• The Science of Voice (third edition), Douglas Stanley, Carl Fisher, Inc.,
New York (p. 339).
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 Natural Voice vs. Technic
If six singers of different caliber were placed behind a screen
and made to sing a series of tones, and if their voices were to be
judged by a group of persons who were not vocal teachers or under
the influence of vocal teachers, they would undoubtedly be graded
correctly, according to their actual technical proficiency. Anyone,
with a reasonably good ear, can judge singing without having any
special knowledge of technic. li, however, these same singers were
to be judged by a group of vocal teachers, they might be classed
the same way on the basis of their natural voices, but on the basis of
their "technic," the order would probably be reversed, because
"technic" has actually come to mean the control of the voice on
constriction. Incompetent vocal teachers choose, but don't approve
of, big, crude, free, natural voices which they would deliberately
proceed to shut off. Such voices generally present very fine material
for the competent teacher. It is easy for such a teacher to make a
crude, free tone beautiful, and to bring it under control. It is not
easy, for even the most skillful teacher, to "open up" and "free"
a '{'fetty, throaty voice.

Vocal Teaching Is a Process Not a Method

The procedures which have been outlined do not constitute a
method. Rather, they should show how the particular vocal prob-
lems of each individual pupil may be diagnosed and handled . The
training process is hard work. The pupil must work and concentrate,
like the teacher, who must perforce really understand his subject.
A teacher with a superficial knowledge of the subject is even more
dangerous than the one who knows nothing about it. The working
out of the problems of registration, for example, is a most potent
weapon for developing the voice. If, however, these problems are
incorrectly handled, the destructive effect is terrible . Pharyngeal
resonance adjustment must be engendered, but if throatiness is mis-
taken for it, extreme throatiness results. All singing must be done
with the maximum possible amount of freedom and, as the voice
·opens up," the power increases to an enormous degree. Neverthe-
less, if the teacher aims at mere loudness, or noise, he is apt to make
the pupil force his voice and produce ugly, loud, throaty tones
which have no bearing whatever upon proper technic. The vibrato
is, of course, of vital importance, but if the teacher mistakes a
tremolo for a vibrato or, for that matter, a tremolo vibrato or a
vibrato tremolo, he will deliberately engender an unpleasant wobble,
which is utterly deleterious.
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 Again, a teacher who embraces some of these fundamentals and
not others, or, in other words, who combines these techniques with,
for example, those of the "voice placement" or the "singing in the
masque" schools, will arrive only at a state of ubnost confusion.
The results will be deplorable.
The procedures which have been indicated must be followed
meticulously and understood. The entire structure collapses if any
one fundamental phase of the subject is misunderstood or neglected.

Manipulationsand the SpeakingVoice

These newest procedures are equally effective in working out the
technic of the speaking voice. In such development the pure lower
register should be employed almost exclusively by both sexes for
speech. The use of the laryngeal controls speeds up the establish-
ment of this register to a remarkable degree. The use of the tongue
instrument speeds up the engendering of pharyngeal vowel forma-
tion-resonance adjusbnent-for the speaking voice, just as much as
it does for the singing voice.

Jaw, BreathingMuscles and Speaking Voice

The jaw should never set in the middle, or lock, position in speech
-it should be "detuned" and be kept in a more or less closed pos-
ture. The proper hold on the breathing muscles is of vital im-
portance in speech. For acting and public speaking this is so, not
only because of its technical importance, but also because it allows
relaxation of the chest, shoulders and arms. Thus, the actor or
public speaker who has attained a proper hold on his breathing
muscles can make all of his gestures with absolute freedom and
gracefulness. The proper, localized tensions, which are the con-
comitants of a good technic, allow complete physical freedom in
acting.
The speaking voice can be trained only through the proper
development of the singing technic. The advances made in im-
proving the procedures which can be employed for the develop-
ment of the singing voice apply, therefore, equally to the speaking
voice. Everything said with regard to the centering of the pitch, to
the musical line, to the "hold" between tones, to the elimination of
slurring, etc., applies to speech. The sentence should be spoken as
a single unit in a continuous line with each vowel sound centered
on a defined pitch. Hums and prolonged, slow consonants are most
offensive and must be eliminated. These phases of the training
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of the speaking voice are exactly the same as with the singing voice.
Everything which pertains to the singing voice applies to the
speaking voice also, except the use of the vibrato, because the
spoken vowel is not sustained long enough for the vibrato to come
into play sufficiently in order that it may be detected.
Every actor or public speaker should, indeed, have his voice
trained properly because a good technic provides him with the in-
strument which is the medium through which he expresses himself.

AmplificationHas Harmed Vocal Technic

The scientific findings which made it possible to deduce the
fundamental principles of vocal technic, have also been applied
to the reproduction of sound. This might have been a tremendous
boon to the human race if, as an offshoot, it had not become possible
for singers who had virtually no voices to make large sums of money
by singing over the radio and for the movies and records. In view
of the fact that the power factor is eliminated in reproduced
music; as a necessary concomitant of singing, performers with silly,
little, throaty voices have been able to build up big reputations
and have become popular favorites. So great have their reputations
become that some of these so-called artists are actually appearing
at the Metropolitan today.
This sort of thing has made it possible for the teacher to thrive
when all he succeeds in doing is to shut off voices. Today many
such teachers are able to boast of having produced highly success-
ful stars.
Before the advent of the microphone and the amplifier, every
singer had perforce to make himself audible in the auditorium in
which he sang. This made it incumbent upon him to produce his
voice with at least some degree of freedom, for which reason a
certain standard of vocal efficiency had, of necessity, to be main-
tained. Today no standard of vocal freedom is demanded. It is
true that "shut off," throaty voices usually last only for few years.
It is also true that this type of technic is physically injurious and
absolutely contrary to nature. Nevertheless, performers who, in the
past, would not have had enough voice to sing in operetta, are
today able to appear in leading operatic roles.
All this is very sad indeed and nothing can be done about it until
such time as a full realization of the fact that the voice is a normal,
natural, human function, subject to certain definite, scientific laws,
if it is to be produced efficiently and healthfully, has become uni-
versally recognized.
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 Well-produced Voice Reproduces Best
A really well-produced voice sounds better in reproduction than
one produced with a crooning or throaty technic. Not only is this
so, but it can convey a real musical message and it can express the
emotions and atmosphere of the composition legitimately and sin-
cerely. There is no comparison between the artistic virtue of the
performance of the outstanding throaty singers of today and that
of the great singers of the past.
We have on the one hand, then, the performer with a little,
throaty voice and cheap, fake tricks of interpretation, who, because
of his personality, may be able to make a considerable amount of
money for a few years. On the other hand, we should have the artist
with a free, full, expressive voice and a legitimate musical and
artistic interpretation, whose voice can last until he is an old man,
and who is able, therefore, after many years of singing, to arrive
at a pinnacle of artistry and musicianship as well as vocal efficiency.
It is infinitely harder to sing really well than to merely croon
through a musical composition.
The reader, whether he be a teacher or an aspiring singer,
must choose one of the two paths: The easy road, which may enable
a singer to make money for a few years, or, enable a teacher to
train voices without doing any real work at all, either on the vocal
or musical side of his subject-or the hard road, which demands
concentration and intensive work on the part of both the pupil and
the teacher; the road which demands many years of concentrated
work and study, but the road which can lead ultimately to the pro-
duction of great artists.

Great Artists Are Rare

Everyone cannot be a great singer. Probably, at any one time,
there are about a hundred individuals in the world who could,
under proper training, become supremely great artists. There are
a few thousand who could become very fine artists. There are
several thousand more who could become competent artists. Of the
rest, proper training improves the voice in every case, and many
can be made into relatively competent singers. Of course, some will
inevitably fall by the roadside, whichever path they may pursue.
Before studying singing, the reader must make up his mind which
goal he wishes to aim at. If he decides that he really wants to
learn how to sing legitimately and aim at the goal of true artistry,
he must make sure that his teacher understands his work, and that
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he is being properly trained, scientifically and musically. The aspir-
ing pupil should investigate his prospective teacher and find out
the basis of his teachings. For, while the pupil must have confidence
in his teacher, he should base this confidence upon the teacher's
knowledge of his subject and he must check this knowledge for
himself, because there is no official check today.

Choosing a Teacher
Suspect the teacher who tries to impress you with the names of
well-known singers who are studying with him, or who have studied
with him in the past. Remember-most of the well-known singers
have gone the rounds and are claimed by several teachers. The
fact that a successful singer has studied, or is studying. with any
particular teacher, means nothing, unless this singer obviously has
improved vocally under the teacher's tuition. If he has not improved,
but has remained much the same as before, the teacher will not
be able to improve your voice-in fact, he is more likely to impair
it. If he has deteriorated, even a little, the inference is obvious.
This teacher will undoubtedly hurt your voice-it will inevitably
deteriorate under his tuition. If he has not helped, but has hurt, a
singer who is so talented that he has made a name for himself, what
will he do to the average student? Furthermore-remember that the
talented performer is only too apt to be governed by emotion rather
than by reason. In proof of this assertion there are innumerable
singers whose voices have started to deteriorate radically who stay
0
th the teachers who are ruining them. Even if they do make a
ange, they are only too apt to go to another teacher of the same
hool and keep on "putting it in the nose" or "singing in the
asque," etc.
The aspiring vocal student must demand the properly trained
vocal teacher. He must not study vocal technic with the untrained
teacher-whether he may be an ex-singer, a composer, an accom-
panist or just an impressive or charming person. He must not study
voice with any one of these individuals, unless he has been educated
properly in the essential sciences and has had proper technical
training himself. When the demand for properly trained teachers
has become sufficiently insistent, he will be able to find such teach-
ers, and not before.
In the final analysis, it is up to the vocal student to bring about
the necessary revolution in vocal teaching, if legitimate singing
is not to become a lost art. Only when the vocal student refuses to
work with any teacher who has not been trained properly, will
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vocal teaching become a serious profession. This change will not
come from the vocal teachers themselves. It must come from the
vocal student. The demand can finally force the supply. The scien-
tifically uneducated and untrained vocal teacher can become a
thing of the past.

WorkIs the "RoyalRoad"to Good Singing

The student who finds himself deterred by the difficulty of learn-
ing how to sing correctly, and who is unwilling to do the necessary
work to become an artist, should face this fact honestly and sin-
cerely. Then, if he decides that he merely wants to sing nicely to
please his friends, and maybe get a job over the radio or in the
movies, he does not need to study vocal technic at all. He should
put himself in the hands of a competent coach, who is a good musi-
cian. Such a coach will not try to train his voice, but will endeavor
to teach him how to perfom as artistically and musically as possible
with his natural technical and vocal limitations. True, he will not
learn how to sing, but he will learn something which may have
commercial and some aesthetic value. Under no circumstances,
should he fall victim to an uninformed vocal teacher, because this
will only injure his voice and gain him absolutely nothing.

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 APPENDIXTO THE REVISEDEDITION

In the first edition of "The Science of Voice," published in 1929,

I made the following statement :
"The fundamental law of breathing is that the pupil must be
taught to inspire properly and then forget all about the breath."
While this statement is, indeed, true, as far as it goes, its in-
adequacy has been demonstrated, very strikingly, by the subse-
quent work which I have done on the breath and on the diverse
problems involved in this phase of the technic.
I made this statement because of the damage which I had ob-
served to have been wrought on the voices of all vocal students
who had studied "breath control." Actually, the harmful nature of
this procedure became even more app$.rent as my work progressed.

Importance of Proper Breathing

In 1929 I did not fully realize all that was involved in the attempt
to control the breath during the act of phonation . With a more
complete understanding of this phase of vocal technic, I came to
realize that a great deal of work must be done in dealing with the
diverse problems which arise in regard to the breath . Much of this
work is directed towards the elimination of all voluntary control of

I
the breath during the act of phonation.
The first fundamental and essential statement which must be
made is: Unless a very deep-abnormal-breath is inspired, it is
impossible for the singer to produce any tone which is' not com-
pletely throaty. A normal inspiration is absolutely inadequate. The
inverse is not true-i .e., proper breathing alone does not necessarily
make the pupil sing correctly.

New Pupils Never Breathe Properly

I now will make a startling statement : I have never yet encoun-
tered any individual who, at the inception of his studies, did not
fail altogether to breathe properly. I have worked on the voices
of hundreds-perhaps thousands-of pupils, many of whom had
studied breathing intensively with their former teachers. I have
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observed that, while the intake of breath by the absolute beginner
is most inadequate, those who have studied breathing and "'breath
control" virtually do not breathe at all. When the technic is throaty,
it is not only unnecessary but actually futile and uncomfortable for
the singer to take a deep breath. Therefore, he virtually does not
breathe.
How to Inspire
I have discussed, in some detail, the method by which the breath
should be inspired. I have stated that only the lower muscles-i.e.,
the muscles of the lower ribs and the diaphragm-should be tensed
for the act of respiration, and that the muscles of the chest, shoul-
ders and neck should be relaxed and in no way involved in this act.
As the breath is inspired, the abdomen must protrude. If it does not
do so, the incoming air will distend the chest and create tension on
the muscles of the chest, shoulders and neck, thereby engendering
a throaty technic.

BreathingMuscles and Inspiration

The main point to be observed is that the pupil must set out to
draw in the breath, and he must expand the diaphragm and lower
ribs because he is so doing. He must not, under any circumstances,
endeavor to draw in the breath by means of a deliberately con-
trolled, muscular action-not even when he is endeavoring to use
the proper muscles. If he attempts to do this, he will tense the
diaphragmatic or rib muscles, per se, and he will not tense these
muscles in co-ordination with the act of inspiration. Tension on the
diaphragm or rib muscles, unco-ordinated with the act of respiration,
not only fails to achieve its object, but actually makes it impossible
for the pupil to do more than snatch a small fraction of the breath
required for the legitimate act of phonation. At the same time it
builds up excessive tension on muscles used in the act of phonation
before this act is initiated. This condition renders it impossible for
the pupil to produce a tone which is not absolutely throaty, because
these muscles have come into tension unco-ordinated with the act
of phonation l¼ndcannot, therefore, be employed in this act-i.e.,
proper co-ordination is impossible.

Pre-tension and Breathing Muscles

I have discussed pre-tension in many phases of the technic
throughout the body of this book. Pre-tension on the breathing
muscles, unco-ordinated with the act of phonation, is one of the
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most pernicious forms of this fault that can occur. This condition
is even further aggravated when the pre-tension occurs before, and
unco-ordinated with, the act of inspiration.
The inspiration of the breath must be accomplished with the
minimum possible tension. The preparation for this act should, in
most cases, take the form of a general relaxation. Such relaxation
must apply most emphatically to the respiratory muscles. The dia-
phragm should neither be pushed out nor pulled in.

Inspirationand lnspiratoryTension
The air must be inspired through the mouth. It is impossible to
breathe adequately through the nose. As the breath is inspired, the
lower part of the body expands relatively slowly with the intake of
the breath. A pronounced expansion does not occur until towards
the end of the inspiration of a full breath. The breath must not be
snatched. Any sudden movement of the breathing muscles indi-
cates an unco-ordinated muscular gesture, as does excessive tension
on any of these muscles. As the breath is inspired, a mild tension is
built up, progressively, on the inspiratory muscles. At the inception
of the tone-i.e., the attack-this tension, as I have already explained,
is augmented. The augmentation of tension for the attack cannot
occur if excessive tension on the breathing muscles has been built
up beforehand. In other words, too much tension on the diaphragm,
the muscles of the lower, back ribs ( this is of less frequent occur-
rence) or both, before the attack, renders it impossible for the· pupil
to initiate the tone on inspiratory tension. If, under such conditions,1
he attempts so to do, he will inevitably jerk and "go into reverse"-
i.e., into forced expiration, with the accompanying relaxation of the ,
inspiratory muscles and of the arytenoideus muscle ( wl ich closes \
the glottis) . That is to say, the technic will be throaty. \
__...l

Sound of Air Being Inspired

When learning how to inspire, the pupil must relax and stand
properly poised, with his head up and his chest dropped, but not
forced down or crouched. He must draw in the breath freely, feel-
ing that he is breathing down his throat, which is wide open, into
the bottom of his lungs. Under these circumstances a rather faint
sound of the breath being inspired must, at first, be heard. It is
essential for this sound to be heard if the pupil is to learn to
breathe properly. Later on, it does not occur, but it must be insisted
upon for a considerable period-i.e ., until the pupil has really
learned to inspire properly.
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 There is, however, a wrong sound. This is the sound of the breath
being forced in against constriction-i.e., against a tensed, and
probably dropped, tongue. When the tongue tenses and drops, it
establishes constriction of the throat . When this constriction is pro-
nounced, it is impossible for the pupil to inspire even a fraction of
the necessary breath.

"Breath Control" and Constriction

No attempt of any kind should be made to control the rate of
inspiration of the breath, since this control is always accomplished
by means of the constrictor action-i.e., with the tongue. lo other
words, if the rate of inspiration or expiration of the breath is con-
trolled, this control is always a function of constrictor tension on
the tongue-i .e., voluntarily established constriction. When such
control is employed, the technic is always absolutely throaty. For
this reason "breath control" inevitably produces throaty singers.
Not only must the control of the rate of inspiration of the breath be
completely prohibited, but the expiration of the breath must also
be absolutely uncontrolled . Again, if a deep breath is inhaled, and
then held for a moment before it is exhaled, the pupil will probably
hold his breath by closing his throat with his tongue, thereby again
establishing the conditions for throaty singing. Therefore, the pupil
must never be allowed to take a breath and hold it.

Full Inspiration
The expansion of the body necessary for the inspiration of a
normal breath, required in order to live, is hardly noticeable,
whereas, when the amount of breath necessary for the legitimate
act of phonation is inspired, the lower part of the body is expanded
very pronouncedly, because the amount of breath required for legiti-
mate phonation is very much greater than that which is required for
normal breathing . In order to inspire completely, the time involved
is about two seconds, provided that the inspiration is accomplished
properly and without . tongue interference. The amount of bre::.th
inspired should, under correct conditions, depend upon the time
involved. If the singer attempts to force in the breath too rapidly,
he will only defeat his own purpose, since he will then inevitably
constrict and thus check the inspiration. He should never endeavor
to sing, or to go on singing, when he feels short of breath. If he
does so, his voice will become very throaty .

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 Incorrect Breathingand Vital Capacity
When I was working at New York University, I made measure-
ments of the vital capacity of each individual who took part in the
tests. I found vital capacities which varied from about two hundred
to five hundred cubic centimeters. It is interesting to note that the
Assistant Professor of Physiology, who had never sung a note in
his life, registered the highest vital capacity of anyone tested. This
is interesting because most vocal students study breathing and
"breath control." When breathing is incorrectly taught, and the
technic is throaty, the end result is that the pupil's capacity for
breathing correctly is destroyed.

Constrictionand Inabilityto InspireProperly

When the technic is pronouncedly throaty, the preparation for
the constricted act of phonation,-i.e., the pre-tensing of the tongue
against the back wall of the pharynx-generally occurs before the
breath is inspired. Under such circumstances, the singer is virtually
unable to breathe . A young vocal student, who had studied with an
incompetent teacher, had been taught to point the tip of his tongue
"up" and tense it when he sang. This gesture drops the base of the
tongue and engenders intense constriction and throatiness. The diffi-
culty of teaching this young man to breathe was tremendous. For
many months he could hardly draw in any breath at all. This case
brings up another point. While the pupil is learning to inspire his
breath, he should not think of singing, since the idea of phonation
generally associates, in his subconscious mind, with the constrictor
action of the tongue, making it impossible for him to inspire
adequately.
How to InspireCompletely
When learning to breathe, the pupil must be made to draw a deep
breath through his mouth, making an audible sound of rushing air
as he inspires. He must fill to capacity, with the minimum possible
amount of tension. There must be no tension on the neck, chest or
shoulders. He must then, in a complete cycle, without an instant's
hesitation, completely relax his inspiratory muscles and exhale the
breath perfectly freely and practically soundlessly. He must not hold
his breath. The sound of freely inspired breath must not be con-
fused with that of breath being forced in against constrictor tension
of the tongue. The expansion must only occur because he has in-
spired the breath and not because he has forced out his diaphragm
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or ribs. As I have already stated, the assumption of a proper posture
is important.
These procedures may sound rather simple. In practice, however,
this is by no means the case. A great deal of work must be done on
breathing if the pupil is ever to learn to sing properly. If the teacher
allows him to fake the breathing, to "pre-tense," or to drop his
tongue and tense it, during the act of respiration, every other phase
of the technic will be nullified and his voice will be completely
throaty.
The Tongue and Throaty Technic
The connection between the action of the tongue and inspiration
in throaty singing must be clearly comprehended. The voices of all
beginners are, in some degree, throaty . All singers who have been
badly trained have established a set habit of tongue control which
is manifested in a pronounced tongue action. This action may be
quite easy to correct in the case of a relatively talented beginner,
but it is difficult to cope with when he has studied for a long time
with an incompetent teacher. In most bad cases of constrictor-
controlled singing, the tongue drops and tenses before the act of
respiration is initiated . In some cases, the degree of tension on the
tongue, hyoid bone and neck muscles is incredibly strong. I have
disc~ssed the manipulation whereby the hyoid bone is lifted, but
where the pre-tension on the tongue is very strong, the "down"
pull is, at first, too great for even the strongest individual to be able
to overcome it by manipulation .

Compressed Air and Deep Breathing

It a pupil distends his breathing muscles without inspiring the
breath properly, the tension on the inspiratory muscles will in-
evitably collapse at the moment of attack, since the lungs are not
filled with breath and there is, therefore, nothing to keep them
distended. Compressed air is the activator of the voice. If insufficient
air is inspired, the compression cannot be built up. A great deal
of air is essential for every tone, if it is to be sung "open." However,
the compression required increases as the scale is ascended. There-
fore, it is obligatory for the singer to inspire a complete-very deep-
breath every time he is required to sing an upper tone. If insufficient
air is inspired, the compression cannot be built up and the singer is
absolutely forced to produce sound by blowing breath which has
not been compressed by reason of the maintenance of inspiratory
tension and glotteal closure. This means that he will inevitably
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"grab" with his tongue and sing in complete constriction. Otherwise,
he cannot produce sound. Thus, the pupil will always "grab" with
his tongue, unless he breathes properly. Inversely, if he does habitu-
ally "grab" with his tongue , he will constrict before be starts to
breathe, and the amount of breath he will be able to inspire will
be entirely inad~uate for the production of a free tone. All
throaty singers "grab" with their tongues so that-ipso facto-they
fail to draw in even a fraction of the necessary breath . Hence, no
beginner, or badly trained singer, ever inspires properly . All pupils
must be taught-forced-to breathe.

Constriction and Blowing Breath

Throaty singing does not require compressed breath-it is actuated
by blowing. Thus, the throaty singer does not feel the need of a
proper inspiration-so he does not even attempt to take it. The singer
whose voice is "open" must breathe properly, and deeply, or his
voice will "shut off."

Tongue Muscles in "Open" vs. Throaty Technic

The basic difference between correct phonation and throaty sing-
ing lies in the action of the tongue. When the technic is correct,
the base of the tongue is drawn forward, as has already been stated,
and the pharyngeal cavity is shaped for the vowel. This tension on
the genio-hyo-glossus muscles is of a relatively mild order, since it
merely shapes the cavity and holds it in position. It also occurs
during the act of inspiration. It must not be confused with con-
strictor tension which is intense-not mild. It does not, in any way,
control the voice, the loudness or the breath. That is to say, work-
the work for producing the sound-is not done by the tongue. It
merely "positions" or shapes the resonator. When the technic is
throaty, the muscles of the tongue, which are antagonistic to the
genio-hyo-glossus muscles, do the work. They control the voice.
They control the intensity. They control the breath. In other words,
the main effort in singing is not, as it should be, on the breathing
muscles, but on the muscles of the tongue, which close the throat
and hold the constriction. Hence, the throaty singer works, and
works hard , with the muscles of his tongue and those of his neck,
which are employed to bring about the closure of the glottis. He,
therefore, develops tremendous strength in these groups of con-
strictor muscles. The degree of throatiness depends upon the amount
of constrictor tension in the tongue and neck. As I have already
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said, this muscular development is often almost incredibly strong.
The tongue is pulled down and the hyoid bone and larynx generally
drop. In many cases, a "double chin" may be observed. The neck
muscles develop to an inordinate degree. Furthermore, this develop-
ment is progressive and continues until the voice has "shut off'
altogether-i.e., the singer loses his voice. Virh!ally every singer
today has been taught to employ a technic which is deliberately
throaty. Therefore, they have developed definite to ..5 ue control. It
is very interesting to sit in or near the front row of the orchestra
stalls at the Metropolitan Opera House and observe the distressing
neck distortions of the unfortunate singers. Young girls show
stringy, muscular necks which would make you think they were
old women. In some cases, they appear to be actually deformed.
Their larynges are pulled down and often back into a terribly con-
torted position.

Tongue and Neck Muscles in "Open" vs. Throaty Technic

When the technic is correct, the neck and the area under the
chin are soft and muscularly undeveloped. A really free, fine, power-
ful voice is characterized by exceptional softness of the tongue-
under the chin-and flexibility of the larynx which can be moved
about very easily, but which does not move when the singer per-
forms. When the voice is very throaty, these areas are extremely
hard, rigid and developed, and the larynx is usually dropped. In
bad cases it is forced back behind the neck muscles. This tension
and muscular development of the area under the chin and around
the larynx can be easily seen and felt. It is characteristic of a badly
mistrained, throaty voice.

Incorrect Muscular Actions and Inspiration

When the breath is inspired properly, the lower part of the body-
i.e., the diaphragm and lower ribs-expands because the air is being
drawn into the lungs. If pronounced expansion occurs too soon,
the pupil is making an unco-ordinated muscular gesture which
renders it impossible for him to perform the breathing act. If the
abdomen does not protrude, the air is being drawn into the upper
part of the lungs and he is able to inspire only a small fraction of a
full breath. If the diaphragm or abdomen starts to move up or to
tilt, breathing has ceased and the inspiratory tension is lost. If the
diaphragm moves without the ribs, or the ribs without the dia-
phragm, the pupil is not breathing-he is making only a fake, mus-
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cular gesture and he is not establishing inspiratory tension. Any
sudden movement of the torso or of the breathing muscles indicates
that the pupil is not really breathing .

. "Sensing" lnspiratory Tension

The imporfance of sensing inspiratory tension in order to sing
with it is fun<.iamental, since this tension is the principal source of
the work which must be done when the technic is correct. The pupil
cannot really sense this tension on the inspiratory muscles until
he has inspired correctly a sufficient volume of breath. Inspiratory
tension that the singer can definitely sense is experienced only in
conjunction with the pronounced expansion which occurs towards
the end of the inhalation of a full breath. It is this tension which
must be augmented in order to attack the tone. Thus a proper
attack, on inspiratory tension, cannot be made unless sufficient
breath has been inspired for the pupil to feel this tension come into
action when he inspires. If he has not taken sufficient breath to
sense this tension he cannot augment it. Therefore, he cannot attack
the tone prop1.,rly on inspiratory tension. Of course, as I have em-
phasized in this book, the attack should occur because of augmented
tension on the inspiratory muscles. It takes the form of a continua-
tion of the inspiratory (out) gesture-any hesitation between this
gesture and the attack is apt to eliminate inspiratory tension and
initiate a throaty tone.

Chest Gesture and Constriction

When the voice is "opened-up,"' the pupil senses and realizes the
importance of feeling this expansion on inspiratory tension, since he
has learned to use it to sing with. When the voice is throaty, he
does not feel the need for establishing this tension, and therefore
he will not take sufficient breath to feel it, unless he is forced to do
so. The teacher must be continually on the alert and must always
be prodding the pupil in order to make him inspire deeply enough
to enable him to produce an "open" tone. A fundamentally important
step in learning how to sing properly has been taken when the pupil
has made a habit of consistently inspiring a full, deep breath every
time he starts to sing. Most pupils stop inspiring the breath at just
the point at which the pronounced expansion, which establishes
the inspiratory tension, would occur. They then make a gesture-
generally an "up" gesture-which stops the inspiration and raises
and tenses the chest and shoulders. The stopping of the breathing
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act at this point, with a chest gesture, not only makes it impossible
for the pupil to produce a legitimate tone, but also serves to estab-
lish the neck tension employed in throaty singing. While it is true
that any movement of the chest during inspiration stops the intake
of breath and relaxes the inspiratory tension, it is also true that any
chest movement made at any time during the act of phonation has
the same result. This means that the voice will become throaty if
any definite chest gesture-up or down-occurs . Any tone sung
during or after a chest gesture is, therefore, throaty. The better the
technic, the more surely will the pupil's voice go throaty if he loses
the equilibrium on the breathing muscles. This loss of equilibrium
always occurs when a gesture of the chest is made, or if the ribs
collapse ( actually, the chest nearly always moves when the ribs
relax-move). Of course all that I have said applies equally to any
sudden movement of the diaphragm.

Inspiration and Tension

The beginning of the inspiration, when accomplished properly,
engenders a very small amount of tension. The tension increases
as the breath is inspired, but, as I have said, it is only with the final,
pronounced expansion, which occurs at the end of a full inspiration,
that sufficient inspiratory tension is built up for the singer to be able
to sense it and thus augment it and employ it for the act of phona-
tion. This tension is felt on the diaphragm and on the lower ribs
at the back and sides. Some tension is also felt when the abdomen
distends, but this is a lower grade of tension. Excessive tension on
the abdomen indicates that the singer has not inspired properly.

Extreme Tongue Tension and Forced Inspiration

When a pupil's voice is very throaty-i.e., the grade of tension on
the constrictor muscles is pronounced-his tongue, which is almost
sure to recede down his throat, tenses with enormous force. Under
such conditions, he is unable to inspire more than a mere trickle of
air, unless he forces it in. It may then be necessary for the teacher
to tell him actually to "force" in the breath in order to break down
the constriction and get a reasonable amount of air into his lungs.
To do this, the pupil may be forced to make a loud, unpleasant
noise. This is bad, but it is not as bad as not breathing at all. li
he does not get some breath-a reasonable amount-he cannot even
attempt to produce a tone which is not completely throaty. At first
he may have to struggle for air. If he persists, he will ultimately
start to release the constrictor tension and, little by little, he will
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take more and more breath, with less and less noise. The pupil must
be forced to breathe at all costs. If he fails to do so, training of the
voice cannot even begin. Let him realize that, when he has finally
released the constrictor tension on his tongue, which he establishes
before he starts to breathe, he will be able to inspire a very deep,
full breath easily and soundlessly. Remember: It is primarily con-
strictor tension on the tongue that impedes proper inspiration.
I have encountered one case of a pupil, who had studied with an
extremely pernicious teacher, who actually constricted his trachea
-below the larynx-with his neck muscles and thus stopped the
intake of the breath. This is a very rare case, but it can occur.
It can be helped by proper manipulation.

Physical Gesture vs. Proper Breathing

Despite the obvious importance of proper breathing, I have never
had a new pupil , whether he was a beginner or a professional
singer, who breathed correctly. Nevertheless, many pupils fail to
realize this fact. Only too frequently they become impatient when
the teacher starts to work on this phase of the technic. They will
often fail to take in even a moderate amount of breath and will then
tend to argue and claim that they have taken a full breath because
they have made a big gesture with the breathing muscles. They
may even become quite incensed when they are told that they are
actually not breathing at all, in the true sense of the word. They
really don't know what it means to breathe, so they don't know
when they have failed to do so. This state of affairs is even worse
when they have studied singing before with a teacher who taught
them incorrectly.
It is only after a considerable amount of hard work has been done
on the breathing that the pupil can himself know when he is really
inspiring the breath properly and when he is merely making spurious
muscular gestures. The use of a mirror may help, but in practice I
have found that the pupil only learns how to inspire properly under
rigid discipline and supervision. Even the most serious pupil cannot
help himself much, however hard he may try.

"Leading with the Throat" and Tension on Tongue

In this book I have discussed ieading with the throat ." This sen-
sation of ieading" with, or opening, the throat at the moment of
attack should occur, but this statement has been misunderstood and,
in several instances, has lead to the deliberate establishment of con-
strictor tension on the tongue. Actually, the singer should sense a
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 relatively relaxed sensatiof! :when the laryng~h~
_and s_h~pedf_o~ -tlie--vowel. U~no -circumstances should he sense
any pronounced° teiis1oiion, or movement of, the base of the tongue.
Tongue tension occurs in both correct and incorrect technic. It is
the direction which is reversed-i.e., forward in correct technic, and
back, and generally down, in throaty technic. However ( and this
is of vital importance) the degree of tension is entirely different. It
is extremely pronounced in throaty singing. It is mild when the
technic is good. Misunderstanding can occur only too readily. The
singer should actually feel a sense of release at the throat as he
starts, or attacks the tone. If he establishes any definite sensation
of tension on the tongue, or makes any gesture of a volitional nature
with it, at the moment of attack, he will produce an intensely
throaty tone.

Holding "Opening" Tongue Tension

While the base of the tongue must never be tensed in order to
control the voice, it should, of course, actually be tensed, to the
necessary degree, at all times, in the "open" position, for resonance
adjustment. In the performance of a song, or for that matter, of
any musical figure, the musical line must be maintained. This means
that the "opening" position of the tongue must be held. That is to
say, this "opening tension" must be maintained through changes of
pitch, through the changes of registration and during consonant
production. The base of the tongue and the hyoid bone must not
move. It is most important for the reader to realize that this main-
tenance of "opening" tension can be established only with an ad-
vanced pupil, whose voice has been definitely "opened up." If the
average individual makes any attempt to hold his throat "open,"
he will only establish the constrictor action and his voice will suffer
accordingly. This phase of the technic is vitally important, but it
is essential for the pupil, who is not sufficiently advanced tech-
nically, to realize that he is muscularly unable to accomplish this
end. The constrictor tension on the tongue has to be reduced in
stages, until such time as it can be released altogether and the re-
verse "opening" tension can come into function.

"Opening Hold" and Musical Line

It is possible, and often essential, for the singer to hold the
"opening" tension through a silence and even when taking a breath
-provided he is technically able to do so. The ability to do this
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enables him to sustain the iine" through all consonants, and even
through an extra breath, so that the musical phrase is, in very fact,
accomplished without any closing action of the throat ( movement
of the base of the tongue )-i.e., with a perfect musical '1ine." This
sense of singing through the phrase as a single unit, despite the
interruptions of the tone which occur because of consonants, etc.,
is essential for artistic, musicianly singing. This ability to hold the
throat "open" throughout the singing of a phrase was the basic pro-
cedure adopted by the great singers of the past which enabled them
to sing in the "grand manner."

Controlled "Opening," Pitch Definition, Register

Co-ordination and Technical Development
This consciously controlled "holding open of the throat" must
be associated with absolutely accurate intonation. If the pitch is
slurred, the opening "hold" will inevitably change over into con-
strictor tension, and the singer will develop so much interference
that he may not be able to continue singing. A highly trained singer
can, indeed, volitionally establish .and hold "opening tension"-but,
I emphasize once again, no one who is not at a very advanced stage
of technical development can attempt to accomplish this end with-
out incurring very harmful results. The volitional establishment of
"opening tension" by the singer is similar to the co-ordination of the
registers. When the proper stage has been reached, it can be ac-
complished relatively easily. Any premature attempt to do it is
fatal. There is no living singer appearing before the public today
who is nearly advanced enough, from the technical standpoint, to
even attempt to co-ordinate the registers or to volitionally hold
"opening tension." Both register co-ordination and consciously con-
trolled "opening tension" can be worked out only when the pupil
has attained complete opening in conjunction with highly devel-
oped, absolutely pure registration, plus correct breathing procedure.

Glotteal Closure and Attack

Of course, the tone must never be attacked with a slur, and this
implies that the tension on the laryngeal muscles must "set" for
the pitch to be sung, thereby stretching the vocal cords and closing
the glottis. This tension must occur a split fraction of a second
before the tension on the breathing muscles-for the attack-is con-
summated. If the glottis is not closed soon enough, the singer will
blow breath and his technic will be throaty. In this sense, he must
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always "lead with the throat." This procedure is intimately associated
with the concept of accurate intonation. It does not mean that he
should "grab" with his tongue as he starts to sing.

Changing Intensity and Tongue Control

All singers who habitually slur, and those who are constantly
swelling and softening the tone, accomplish their end entirely on
tongue-constrictor-control. For this reason, apart from all the
other reasons given through the body of this book, these practices
are injurious and must be eliminated. Of course, a crescendo or
decrescendo indicated by the composer should be made. An ob-
servance of what the composer has written is entirely different from
an habitual indulgence in these devices.

Loss of lnspiratory Tension and Tongue Constriction

ff, at any time, the inspiratory tension is lost, during the act of
phonation, the singer must have started the act of expiration. Under
these circumstances, the arytenoideus muscle relaxes and the glottis
opens. Therefore, he is forced to tense the base of his tongue, in
constriction, and to tense his neck muscles in order to continue
making sound. Thus even a momentary loss of inspiratory tension
inevitably results in the establishment of constrictor tension-i.e.,
throatiness. Any definite movement of the breathing muscles, which
occurs while the tone is being sustained, must result in the loss of
inspiratory tension and, therefore, in the establishment of constric-
tion. Any movement of the base of the tongue, during the act of
phonation, will relax the muscles which are holding it in position,
and it will then always tense in constriction, and engender throati-
ness. This is why those singers who make slurred, explosive, bark-
ing, whooping, sobbing effects, etc., or who fail to elide the
consonants, actually sing with a throaty technic at all times. Their
entire approach to singing and interpretation is based upon the
production of throaty tones and noises.
When a singer whose voice is "open" sings very vigorously, his
glottis closes extra firmly. This condition is brought about by in-
creased tension on the inspiratory muscles- "holding the breath"
at a higher tension level-in co-ordination with the laryngeal action.
Inversely, when the throaty singer swells the tone, or sings more
vigorously, he blows harder and, therefore, his tongue and neck
muscles must come into increased tension in order to resist the
forced, expiratory blast. This is why the louder and harder a throaty
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singer sings, the worse are the conditions which he establishes and
the greater is the injury suffered by his voice. On the other hand,
the more vigorously does the singer whose technic is correct pro-
duce the tone, the more does he develop the proper muscles, thereby
benefiting, and not hurting, his voice. Of course, even the most per-
fectly produced voice can tire if the singer indulges in fortissimo
singing for excessively protracted periods. It is a good plan for the
singer to limit himself to about an hour's work at one session when
working on his repertoire. Of course, he can work several times
during the course of the day, and he should not become fatigued
vocally if he limits himself to three or four hours' vigorous singing
spaced at suitable intervals during the day.
When the use of inspiratory tension in the act of phonation has
become completely established, the singer is, in a large measure,
able to consciously control and position the base of his tongue for
the resonance adjustment of the tone he desires to sing.

InhalingSmokeand Breathing
A suggestion which is helpful for certain pupils who cannot inspire
a free breath because of tongue intederence is to tell them to
breathe down their throats into their lungs as if they were inhaling
the smoke of a cigarette. The smoker who inhales must do so with
his tongue relatively relaxed and free, since otherwise he will prob-
ably choke and cough. Of course, this suggestion works only with
pupils who smoke and inhale. I do not mean to imply that heavy
smoking and inhaling are desirable practices-they are not, and
excessive smoking is generally bad for the voice.

Holdingthe Breathbefore Attack

Despite the fact that it is proper for the singer to attack the
tone on the inspiratory gesture, it is actually possible for him to
start a tone correctly ( i.e., on inspiratory tension) after he has held
his breath for a few moments, provided that he does not pre-tense
his tongue and also provided that he does not add tension to his
breathing muscles. H he holds his breath, as he is apt to do, by
means of tension on the tongue, the tone will be absolutely throaty.
If he tenses his breathing muscles while he is holding his breath,
this tension will be expiratory and the tone will be very throaty .
Any addition to the slight tension necessary for inspiration must,
pedorce, be expiratory-i.e., actively antagonistic.
Thus, the accepted procedure must be for the singer to attack the
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tone on the inspiratory gesture. However, there are certain condi-
tions under which it may help the pupil technically if he is told to
hold his breath a moment before singing. An instance of this oc-
curs when he habitually makes an expiratory gesture at the finish
of the inspiration, and tenses his expiratory muscles. He may then
be helped by being made to hold his breath without tensing and
then, if he has done so, to sing on a given cue.

Partial Inspirationand Holding lnspiratoryTension

I have said a great deal about the necessity for inspiring a full
breath in order that it may be possible for the singer to feel the in-
spiratory tension and thus be able to sing 'on inspiratory tension.'
It must be borne in mind, however, that the essential point is that
the singer must, at all times, sing 'on inspiratory tension·-that he
must never, under any circumstances , produce sound by means of
an expiratory blast, since he will then be producing actively throaty
tones. Now, the fact remains that , if he is able to establish and
hold inspiratory tension when his lungs are only partly full of air.
he can sing properly produced, open tones without taking a full
inspiration. A singer whose technic is so highly developed that he
habitually sings open tones on inspiratory tension can sing with
relatively little breath, if he desires to do so. Of course, he cannot
hold the tone for long, but he can sing it properly. I must, however,
warn the reader not to try to sing without having inspired a full
breath, since he will be ahnost certain to produce a throaty tone
if he does so. I merely want to state here that it is possible for the
very advanced pupil to do this if he so desires. This is not a pro-
cedure which can be used in performance-it is merely a 'stunt.'

Tongue Tensionand Inspiration

I have discussed the tongue action during the act of inspiration
in considerable detail. There are three conditions which may pertain.
1. The tongue may be tensed in constriction ( i.e., the base of the
tongue drawn back and the throat closed). Under these circum-
stances, no air can be inspired if the closure is complete. Even
when the closing tension is less pronounced, very little air can be
inspired. Under these conditions, a considerable amount of sound
caused by the entering breath will be heard .
2. The tongue may be relaxed. Then far more air may be inspired
and the sound of the incoming breath will be relatively faint.
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 3. The tongue may be in opening tension ( i.e., the base drawn
forward). In this case the singer consciously and actively opens his
throat before inspiring the breath. Under these conditions an enor-
mous amount of air can be inspired with consummate ease and
without the noise that occurs in the other two cases. This is of
course the correct way to breathe, but it can only be employed by
the singer whose technic is so advanced that he habitually sings
open tones and has attained conscious control of his tongue. Any
attempt on the part of a less advanced pupil to do this will always
result in constrictor tension, and it must not be attempted by anyone
who has not been properly and completely trained. _

In this connection, I want to point out that the singer who

breathes with his tongue in the constrictor position will inevitably
produce throaty tones. The singer whose tongue is relaxed during
the act of inspiration may sing with a more or less open technic
or he may have a throaty voice. At best he is inconsistent. The
singer who is able· to consciously open his throat with his tongue
before starting to inspire, is able to produce open tones all the time,
provided that he is also able to hold the tongue position constant
while he is phonating-i.e., hold the inspiratory tension.

Manipulations-Not Easy to Make Properly

In these first pages of the Appendix, I have endeavored to show,
with even greater emphasis than in the body of the book, the funda-
mental importance of the ;iction of the tongue in singing. The
regulation of this action can be very greatly helped by means of
the manipulations. Having worked for several years with these
manipulations, I want to add to what I have already said about
them. Firstly, and most emphatically, it is not easy to perform them
properly and, unless they are applied correctly, and with consid-
erable skill, they are harmful-not beneficial. I have seen the most
painful and grotesque results from unqualified teachers who have
attempted to use these manipulations without understanding how
to employ them properly. I have also seen the most lamentable
results from instruction given by several teachers who have not
studied with me for a sufficiently long period, or who have lacked
the teaching talent essential to learn how to guide the training of
a given voice. A great deal of study and work must be done, under
proper direction, if the aspiring teacher is to learn how to teach
and how to make the manipulations properly. If he is not talented
as a teacher, or if he is not able to undergo such a course of study,
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he should not teach, but he must not, under any circumstances,
attempt to use the manipulations. If he does so, he will materially
harm every voice with which he works. Incidentally, I am only too
happy to endorse those teachers whom I consider competent. But,
in view of the fact that many unqualified individuals have taken
a few lessons from me and have then set themselves up as "Stanley"
teachers, I suggest that any student who considers going to a teacher
who claims to teach according to the principles I have laid down,
should communicate with me and obtain my endorsement of this
teacher before he proceeds to study with him. My work is radical
and definite. It is also vigorous. If correctly conducted, it can make
great voices. If wrongly conducted, it can do serious damage. I am
writing down, to the best of my ability and as clearly as possible,
virtually everything I have discovered. I have no secrets. This is no
magic, patent "method," It is serious, scientific work, and an un-
qualified individual is no more able to teach according to these
principles than would a physician be competent to practice after
he had studied for a few weeks and read a textbook on medicine.
Please bear this in mind and remember that I desire to help aspir-
ing singers and teachers. I do not want to hurt them.

Register Break, High Tones and Incompetent Teachers

Probably the two most unfortunate phases of a misunderstanding
of my teachings lie in the fact that a teacher who does not under-
stand my findings can make his pupils sing very high tones at an
early stage and can eliminate the break in their voices after a few
weeks, or months, of work. It is, indeed, only too easy for him to
make the pupil cover an extraordinarily wide range and "co-
ordinate"' his voice in a very short time. Of course, he does this by
engendering completely mixed registration and by teaching his
pupils to produce constricted, screamed, shouted or squeaked high
tones which are not only of distressingly ugly quality, but are also
terribly harmful to the vocal organs. Any uninhibited child can
squeak or scream extremely high pitches-this does not mean that
he can sing. In this connection, it may be well to point out that
the beginner who can sing very high tones usually produces them
in constriction. He is, therefore, in a worse technical condition than
is the one whose range is limited, but who can sing over his cur-
tailed range with some degree of freedom. He must be prepared
to abandon these throaty, high tones which are quite worthless.

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Entire Voice Basedupon ProperlyDevelopedMiddle Voice
It is impossible for any singer to produce legitimate, good quality,
free, high tones until the middle and low tones have been com-
pletely established. The high tones are not legitimate and are not
really in the voice until they have been derived from a wide open
middle voice which has been carried up without transition-i.e.,
without change of ad;ustment throughout the entire range of the
voice. It is the middle voice which is so distressingly throaty with
all the singers of today. As I have said, the women employ a mixed
falsetto which is throaty and forced, or, if they do use the lower
register, it is pinched and very throaty. The men's voices tend to
fade out to nothing in the middle range or to thicken, shut off and
break up into a small, throaty sound with a pronounced tremolo.
A voice has little virtue if the entire middle range has not been
opened up and purely registered, and if the registers have not been
properly matched. If the voice is relatively loud in the early stages,
and the registers "go together" ( or blend), it has been ruined-the
registration is absolutely mixed! There are those teachers who
claim to have "improved" on the procedures I have indicated. They
tell their pupils that they can progress much faster than they would
do if they were following these procedures. They do obtain rather
loud voices with wide ranges, and they do eliminate the break. But
-they attain these ends by means of disastrous forcing on con-
striction and by the use of an injurious, throaty, mixed registration.
There can be no shortcut to a proper technic. The entire process
that I have indicated must be gone through by the pupil if he is
to sing properly. The short cut merely ends in disaster. When the
voice is properly produced, the quality is always beautiful in every
part of the range and the scale is even, inasmuch as there are no
sudden quality transitions. The pupil whose voice is not sufficiently
far advanced technically should not endeavor to sing very high
tones. The teacher who makes him do so is ruining his voice. It is
vital for both teacher and student to realize that the middle range
and the lower tones are practically always undeveloped and far
too soft, and that, when the voice is properly produced, these tones
become firm, resonant and powedul. The increase in the power of
the middle voice, under proper training, is so marked that even a
light tenor should have a firmer middle voice than that which we
hear today from most professional baritones. Actually, when I have
a tenor pupil whose voice is well-produced, most people think he
is a baritone, until they hear his high tones. Even in the past there
were many ignorant people who thought that Caruso sounded too
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much like a baritone in the middle voice. The greatest virtue of his
singing and the fact that his voice, and his voice alone, continued
to improve throughout his entire lifetime and reached its peak of
pedection the year he died, was largely due to the openness, firm-
ness and power of his middle voice. Remember, however, in this
connection, that a forced, throaty, loud, mixed-register tone is not
a powedul tone-it is merely a noisy one, and is quite worthless.
The middle tones should match the upper tones and vice versa. In
training pupils' voices, one generally obtains some measure of re-
lease on the higher tones long before the middle voice has been
worked out. Such tones are of value only in the process of training
the voice. They are unestablished and of little virtue until the
middle voice has been opened up and the entire voice has been
carried up from below. The establishment of falsetto-derived tones
is an essential phase in the training of a man's voice. These tones,
however, are not legitimate until the middle voice has been com-
pletely opened and carried up through the upper range of the
voice. Before this has been done, these falsetto-derived tones must,
pedorce, be somewhat throaty.

Faulty Low Tones and Throatiness

When the middle voice has been properly "opened up," the
singer can go quite low, and the low tones, too, have considerable •
power. The throaty singer fades out in the low part of his range.
A voice which fades out below about middle G is throaty through-
out the entire range. With the woman's voice, the lower register
must be completely "opened up," and these big, "open," free,
lower-register tones must be matched with the falsetto and must be
carried up as far as is necessary. She will generally tend to soften
the upper tones of the lower register and thicken the lower tones
of the falsetto in order to match the registers. This procedure is
destructive and leads to mixed registration. It is psychologically
difficult for her to make herself sing, for example, a really free,
"open" middle B flat in the lower register and then change to the
falsetto on C without thickening. Actually, if the B flat in the lower
register is really "open," and the laryngeal muscles are fully de-
veloped, the falsetto adjustment on the C will respond and the
tones will match, provided that she does not move the base of her
tongue-i.e., thicken. It is imperative that she should be made to
pursue this course consistently and not pussyfoot it in the slightest
degree. If this procedure is not absolute, the constriction, however
slight, from the lower register will be reflected into the falsetto
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and the thickening of the falsetto reflected into the lower register
with the result that all progress will cease and her voice will de-
teriorate.

Psychological Development and "Opening"

Under proper training the register problem of the woman's voice
disappears when the laryngeal muscles have been fully developed,
and she has learned to maintain complete opening and freedom in
both registers consistently. Of course, this end cannot be accom-
plished until she has learned to abandon inhibition and introversion.
When the voice has been properly established, the pupil must sing
in the "grand manner" with the freedom, power and command that
were characteristic of the great singers of the past-the singers
who employed an "open" technic "naturally." The process of train-
ing I have outlined can give the talented pupil a great voice. He
must build his own personality and ego to the point at which he
can perform on the same psychological plane, and with the same
abandon and freedom, as did the singer whose technic was natu-
rally "open." This is not easy, but it can be accomplished. Of course,
it is incumbent upon the teacher to do everything in his power to
force the pupil to sing in this manner. If he makes things easy for
the pupil and lets him "drop," all his work will go for nothing.
The pupil will merely have a fine voice which he is unable to use
in performance and which he will ultimately lose. The pupil who
cannot be driven cannot learn how to sing. The conceited fool
had better choke his voice off in his throat and sing with a little,
throaty, meaningless technic.

More about Use of Tongue Instrument

In the use of the tongue instrument, many problems are involved.
Each individual must be treated somewhat differently. Before in-
serting the instrument, th~ position of the head, jaw, lips, etc.,
must be properly adjusted. Sometimes it is easy to push the tongue
back; sometimes it is very difficult. Where excessive dropping of
the tongue and constrictor tension have occurred, the use of the
instrument may be futile or even harmful. The teacher must know
when, where, and how to proceed. The instrument must be held
lightly and freely by the teacher. If he becomes tense and awkward,
the pupil will inevitably tense too and constrict violently, so that
the use of the instrument will only serve to engender ever-increasing
constrictor tension. The tip of the tongue must be pointed up but
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not tensed. The movement back of the tongue with the instrument
must be accomplished in a single, rapid, firm, complete gesture
which pushes it back all the way. In a way, the pushing back of
the tongue is similar to the opening of the mouth. There is a "lock"
position. H the tongue is not pushed all the way back tprough this
"lock" position, with a single gesture, the only effect of the insbu-
ment is to engender increased constrictor tension. H pressure is
brought to bear on the tongue when it is part of the way back, the
constrictor tension will be rapidly augmented and the voice will
deteriorate correspondingly. It is generally best not to touch the
tongue with the instrument before the gesture to push it back is
initiated, since premature contact between the instrument and the
tongue may cause the pupil to tense the tongue and nullify the
manipulation. As I have said, the teacher must never become ex-
cited or tense.
Sometimes the tongue should be pushed back before the singer
breathes; sometimes while he is breathing; sometimes at the end
of the breath . The proper time varies with the peculiarities of the
individual, which must be studied and coped with properly. In order
that the instrument may be used at all, the pupil must be under
complete control. The moment he is told to put the tip of his tongue
up, he must do so without tensing it. He must not reach up with it,
since this gesture tenses the tongue in constriction. The moment
he is told to breathe, he must do so calmly, deeply, and properly.
He must not wait. Most emphatically of all, the moment he is told
to start the tone, he must sing. He must do this instantly, without
moving his tongue and without jerking. H he makes any movement
of his tongue, after he is told to sing, the whole procedure is nullified
and the tone will be throaty. Every time anything goes wrong, or
the pupil does not respond properly, he must be stopped instantly
ancl the teacher must try again. The use of this insbument enables
the teacher to engender a proper tongue position, develop the
genio-hyo-glossus muscles, and abate, or eliminate, the wrong-
constrictor-tension on the tongue. It i5 invaluable, and more or
less ;:idispensable in establishing a pure falsetto. But-it is not a
patent, magic method. It is very valuable when dealing with certain
faults and for engendering the proper development and co-ordina-
tion of the muscles of the tongue . It must be .employed with skill
and intelligence.

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 Use of Instrument on Own Tongue Harmful
Under no circumstances should anyone attempt to use the tongue
instrument on himself. It is impossible for anyone to adjust his own
tongue correctly with this instrument. Any attempt to do this is
always harmful and engenders the worst sort of constriction. I have
encountered several cases of vocal students whose voices have be-
come completely and permanently throaty because they have at-
tempted to use the instrument on themselves. One of the more
obvious reasons why this is so, is because the instrument is only
effective when the back movement is made at a moment which is
unanticipated by the singer. If he is using it himself, he will, of
course, know when he is going to push his tongue back and will,
therefore, automatically resist the manipulation and set his tongue
rigidly in the iock" position.

Another Use of Tongue Instrument

Another method of using the tongue instrument which I have
recently devised is sometimes beneficial, especially where the pupil
raises the tip of his tongue or presses it against his teeth during
the act of phonation. The pupil is told to drop the tip of his tongue
and the instrument is placed against the upper surface of the front
end of the tongue from above. The tongue is then pressed down and
back. This device does not position the tongue nearly as efficiently
as does the usual method, whereby the tongue is pushed back with
the instrument inserted under the tongue, but it is often found to
be helpful.
Tongue-tie and Tongue Instrument
The instrument must not be used where a pronounced tongue-tie
is present, since any attempt to employ it under these conditions
will engender constriction. Remember: There is a part-way back,
iock" position of the tongue. It must be propelled through this
position rapidly since, if it catches in this "middle position," the
instrument only serves to engender increased constriction. Where
the tongue-tie is present, it is physically impossible for the tongue
to be moved beyond the iock" position.

More about Laryngeal Manipulations

In performing the laryngeal manipulations understanding and
common sense must be employed. In most cases, where the "pull-in"
of the lower register is necessary, the pupil tends to drop his tongue
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and sing with a pronouncedly throaty technic. Therefore, when
making the separation manipulation, or when pressing down on
the thyroid cartilage, the teacher must be very sure that the hyoid
bone does not drop too far. When it does drop excessively, he must
stop and try again. He should then endeavor to hold it up, as well
as possible and, from the best position he can obtain, separate for
a mixed registration, pull in the lower register, or do both simul-
taneously. Again, he must consider the idiosyncrasies of the indi-
vidual pupil and use his fingers with skill in making the necessary
adjustment. As I have pointed out, when the voice is in good con-
dition, the whole area under the chin and at the top of the neck,
and in fact the entire neck, is in a relaxed condition, and, in
particular, the areas under and behind the chin are soft. Where
pronounced muscular development is apparent, the manipulations
are hard to make. Nevertheless, they must be made, since there is
no other effective method of relieving the condition. The worse the
condition of the voice, the more necessary become the manipulative
processes. Also, unfortunately, the harder does it become for the
teacher to pedorm these manipulations properly. Remember: The
larynx is suspended from the hyoid bone, and the dropping of this
bone, plus undue tension in this area, intederes mechanically with
the proper laryngeal action. It must, therefore, be dealt with. Very
often the lifting of the hyoid bone is of even greater importance
than is the separation adjustment. Such lifting will also help the
separation, without which the production of a pure register tone
is impossible. When the closure between the hyoid bone and the
thyroid cartilage is pronounced, the fingers must be inserted very
far back. The hyoid bone must then be forced up and the separation
of the hyoid bone and thyroid cartilage attempted from this raised
position. This may be very difficult of accomplishment and may
bring an intense load to bear on the two forefingers of the teacher's
hands, but it must be done if pure registration is to be established.
One encounters so many varying combinations in practice that I can
only make a few suggestions as to what should be done. Carefully
supervised study is essential if the aspiring teacher is to learn how
to pedorm the manipulations properly .

Uneven Closure of Hyoid Bone and Thyroid Cartilage

Sometimes the closure of the space between the hyoid bone and
the thyroid cartilage is uneven-i.e., the closure may be more pro-
nounced on one side than on the other. Under such circumstances,
the manipulations must be made accordingly. When this condition
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is pronounced, the teacher may have to manipulate one side-the
more-closed side-only . In extreme cases he may find that it will
help if he places the forefinger of one hand above the hyoid bone,
on the more-open side, and the forefinger of the other hand be-
tween the hyoid bone and the thyroid cartilage on the more-closed
side, in order to manipulate so as to equalize the uneven suspension
of the larynx. This manipulation is generally made only sparingly.
All the manipulations should be made only after due consideration
has been taken of the personal problems of the particular individual
being dealt with. Each larynx, etc., is somewhat different and must
be manipulated accordingly. These manipulations are not a fixed
procedure, or patent "method," applicable to all pupils alike.

Dropped Hyoid Bone and Breathing

When the hyoid bone is badly dropped and tensed much early
work must be done on the breathing, since the best chance of
alleviating the dropping gesture occurs before the pupil inspires his
breath. In most cases the dropping , tensing, constrictor action oc-
curs before the breath is inspired, or while it is being inspired.
Under these circumstances the pupil must endeavor to check it
before he starts to breathe. A down gesture, or a second down ges-
ture, may also occur at the moment of attack. The pupil must at-
tempt, to the best of his ability, to check this gesture. The teacher
must observe exactly what the individual pupil does and remember
that the hyoid bone should not drop and that the area around the
hyoid bone and larynx should feel relaxed. He must endeavor to
stop the pupil from doing whatever he may be doing wrong-from
tensing muscles which should be relaxed.

Triads and the Tongue

When the pupil is singing a triad, he is apt to break off between
the tones, especially between the second and third tones. Any check
on the voice, either a new impulse, a jerk, or a slur, will release the
tongue, which will relax and then tense in constrictor tension.
Hence, the connection of the tones, in a rhythmic pattern, with ac-
curate intonation and without any jerks, slurs, noises, break-offs or
re-impulses between them, is an essential concomitant of the proper
positioning of the tongue and the hyoid bone. Of course, the correct
working out of the problems of registration is also essential, and
must be carried on in conjunction with the work on the tongue and
hyoid bone.
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 The Permanently Locked Jaw
In many cases, it is by no means easy for the teacher to release
the pupil's jaw. I have encountered a few cases where it was actu-
ally impossible for the pupil to completely open his jaw even when
he was not singing. In such cases, I have suggested an osteopath,
but this has not yet brought results. Such pupils can never produce
free tones. Their voices must always, perforce, be throaty. How-
ever, with the low standard of singing today, several such pupils
have been quite successful professionally, since some degree of pure
registration was engendered. Their voices were quite pleasant-
except to the ear of the expert.

More about the Jaw Manipulation

Many problems arise in forcing the opening of the jaw. Some
jaws snap, or click, because they are badly articulated . As I have
already said, this click or snap can, in most cases, be worked out.
Some pupils drop or move their heads when the teacher is attempt- •
ing to open the jaw. The head must be still and should be held up
and neither pulled back nor pushed forward . The lips should be
slightly protruded away from the teeth . If they are pulled over the
teeth , it is impossible for the pupil to open his mouth properly, since
the complete opening depends in a large measure upon the flexi-
bility of his cheeks. This flexibility is impaired when the lips are
pulled together over the teeth and when they are spread sideways.
Generally, the middle finger of the right hand should be placed be-
hind the pupil's stemo-mastoid muscle, and the thumb , pointing
straight up, should be on his chin. When the teacher positions his
hand in this manner, in readiness to perform the opening manipula-
tion, he must be sure that his arm and hand are completely relaxed.
He must not tense until he makes the opening manipulation . If the
pupil feels the teacher's hand in tension on his chin and neck, be·
fore the manipulation is made, he will instinctively react, tense
his jaw, and defeat the manipulation . The opening gesture must be
made firmly and definitely, and the jaw must be forced very rapidly
right through the lock. The opening manipulation must be made
at a moment when the pupil does not expect it. If he can anticipate
it, he will automatically react to defeat it. The head must be held
up and not allowed to move and the jaw must be kept all the way
open all the time he is sustaining the held tone. This process may
be extremely difficult and the effort involved most distressing. How-
ever, it must be done. If the teacher fails to make the manipulation
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 properly, the student's jaw will go into the "lock" position and the
pressure of the thumb will only serve to engender augmented con-
strictor tension. Again, as with all the other manipul~tions, a pre-
tence of performing them can cause irreparable harm-faking is
dangerous!
Opening Jaw in Mild Tension
A suggestion about the opening of the jaw which often proves '-....;l
helpful is to tell the pupil to open it in moderate, controlled tension. I
When the jaw is relaxed and opened, it will generally drop into the '
'1ock" position and "set" there. The opening should be accomplished
under complete control. This demands a certain degree of tension
on the muscles of the jaw all the time the singer is opening it. This
suggestion must not be taken to mean that the singer should tense
his jaw pronouncedly when he opens it. It means that be should
prepare to open it by getting it into the optimum state of muscle
tone, and that be should perform the opening gesture under control.
- This procedure implies, and even demands, a certain degree of
tension. The reader should note that the effort necessary for opening
the jaw is negligible up to the "lock" point and ( especially at first)
very considerable from this point to fu)l opening. The singer should
start to open his jaw rather slowly and then accelerate the speed of
the opening gesture so that the jaw is moving at maximum velocity
as it passes through the "lock" into complete opening. The jaw can-
not be opened easily until it has been completely released during
the act of phonation.

Lock Position of Jaw and Teeth

As I have already said, the "lock" position of the jaw covers a
rather wide range. It may be thought of with reference to the teeth.
If the teeth are normal, the lower teeth are behind the upper teeth
when the jaw is closed and stay so for a short distance. As soon as
the jaw is dropped a certain, rather short, distance, it swings out
a little and the lower teeth are then in front of the upper teeth. At the
final stage of opening, the jaw is forced back and the lower teeth
are then, again, behind the upper teeth. Thus, the jaw is in the
"locked" position when the lower teeth are in front of the upper,
and it is not released until this condition is reversed, at which time
the jaw is forced all the way back. 0£ course, when the jaw is being
completely opened, it first swings out and then, in the final stage of
opening, back.

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 Manipulationfor Relaxing Neck Muscles
When occasion demands, I employ a manipulation which has not
been mentioned previously. In cases where the neck muscles, espe-
cially the sterno-mastoid muscles, come into great tension ( thereby
\

\ , shortening the neck), they may be relaxed by forcing the singer's

\

1 head up. This is done by holding under the cheek bones with the
left hand ( the thumb under one cheek bone and the middle finger
1 under the other) and by placing the palm of the right hand under
the base of the skull. The pupil's head is then lifted-forced-up so
hard as to break down, as far as possible, the shortening tension on
the neck muscles. Where this manipulation is indicated, it is of con-
/ siderable help and importance. It demands a great physical effort
L~ the part of the teacher.

Pupils' Resistance to Manipulations

In making all the manipulations, the teacher must sense what
the pupil is going to do. In view of the fact that the pupil has es-
tablished certain definite habits of constriction, he will inevitably
tend to fight the teacher and resist the manipulation. Such resistance
is often subconscious. The teacher must, therefore, be skilled in
sensing the moment at which the pupil tends to resist-e .g., when
manipulating the jaw, the teacher must sense the instant at which
the pupil will resist, and bring about the full opening of the jaw just
before he tenses in order to establish the '1ock." Similarly in the
performance of all the laryngeal manipulations, the teacher must
sense the moment at which the pupil is going to make the con-
strictor gesture with his tongue, hyoid bone, larynx, head, etc., and
must endeavor to anticipate and defeat this gesture. He must make
the manipulation firmly and definitely, and he must do it at a mo-
ment when the pupil does not expect it. The pupil must not be able
to anticipate the moment at which the manipulation is to be made,
or he will automatically defeat, or endeavor to defeat it. This re-
sistance is generally reflex, but it must be overcome or it will nullify
the manipulation.
The teacher must realize that the pupil has a set habit , or physio-
logical pattern, for phonation and that the purpose of the manipu-
lation is to break down the co-ordination established by this set
habit and start a new co-ordination which is nearer to the correct
one. Because the muscular co-ordination which has been established
for the throaty technic employed by the pupil is very firmly set in
his subconscious mind, he will unconsciously endeavor to defeat
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the readjustment brought about by means of the manipulation. His
natural reaction will be to try to defeat the teacher as he makes
the adjustment of the jaw, larynx, etc. The teacher must, therefore,
start making the manipulation in a very relaxed condition . When
he does make it, he must accomplish it with great definition, at an
instant when the pupil is not expecting him to make it. Thus, the
proper performance of the manipulations requires not only practice,
but also insight into the reactions of each particular pupil.

Use of Proper Degree of Tension in Singing

There is a great deal to be said about the employment of the
proper degrees of tension which must be used by the pupil when
learning how to sing. For example, as I have already said, the ten-
sion required to inspire even the deepest breath is relatively slight,
whereas the tension required to sing a full, free, high tone is con-
siderable . The pupil must be taught to conceive and aim for the
right order of tension or he will defeat his own end. As a general
rule, he tends to create more tension than is necessary for the act
of inspiration, but, on the other hand, he is almost certain to under-
estimate very greatly the tension-energy or drive-which is neces-
sary in order to sing legitimately. This applies to the entire range of
the voice. In the middle of the voice the pupil is apt to employ
so little tension that he hardly sings at all, and as he ascends the
scale, be is only too apt to relax and push rather than augment the
tension he is using. The actual amount of work which must be done
in order to sing a wide-open, full, free, high tone, which will fill
an opera house, is much greater than any vocal student can possibly
realize . He must be forced to supply the necessary amount of drive
or he will never learn to sing. This drive is, of course, energy and
not strain. The throaty singer strains and pushes. The singer whose
voice is open puts an enormous amount of energy into the act of
phonation, but never strains or pushes.

Illustration and Energy

Illustration is very valuable in indicating to the pupil the amount
of drive he must put into singing and bow this drive is applied. In
other words, it is most desirable for the teacher to be able to show
the pupil how to sing triads, phrases, etc., with a free, open technic.
It is hard for the singer to conceive the proper order of energy, or
drive, required unless he sees and hears a technically correct ex-
ample.
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 Illustration Harmful when Teacher's Voice Is Throaty
The teacher whose voice is not "open"-i.e ., is throaty-should
never, under any circumstances, illustrate to his pupils. In the first
place, the pupil will unavoidably imitate the throaty quality. In
the second place, such a teacher cannot demonstrate anything with
regard to procedure, because no throaty voice can intone, sustain,
or move from tone to tone without breaks, slurs or jerks. Remember:
It is the throaty characteristic in a voice that is the most apparent
phase of the technic-the pupils of a teacher whose voice is throaty
will inevitably imitate his characteristic faults if he persists in sing-
ing for them.

"Opening" vs. Constrictor Tension

When the voice is opened up, the breathing muscles start relaxed,
build up a low grade of tension for the inspiration of the breath,
and then assume a higher grade of tension for phonation which in-
i::reases as the scale is ascended. This process may be contrasted
with the procedure employed by the throaty singer who starts
tense; builds up tension on the breathing muscles and inspires a
very small amount of breath; releases the tension to attack the tone,
and then goes into reverse-i.e., expiratory and constrictor tension-
in order to produce sound. This constrictor tension may be ex-
tremely great, but it is actually the manifestation of a "give," or
relaxation, at the moment of attack, or of changing the pitch, etc.
The pupil whose voice is throaty has failed to make the necessary
effort, but he ends up by having to make a much greater effort than
he would have done if he had "held" and augmented the inspiratory
tension.
Excessive Tension and Breathing Muscles
Excessive tension on the breathing muscles for the act of inspira-
tion is subtracted from the tension the singer can employ for the
act of phonation . Thus, he can build up so much tension on the
respiratory muscles, during the act of inspiration, that he is quite
unable to sing legitimately. _OfcourP there must be tension on the
<liaphragm during the act of phonation, but if this tension becomes
excessive, the diaphragmatic movement for the vibrato cannot occur
and the singer will produce either a dead, steady tone, or his voice
will break up into a tremolo. Any pronounced pre-tension on the
muscles used in the act of phonation virtually puts them out of
action and makes it impossible for the singer to produce a tone
which is not completely throaty.
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 Breath Needed for "Open" vs. Throaty Singing
With regard to the inspiration of a full, deep breath, it is im-
portant to note that, when the voice is "open," it is impossible for
the singer to produce a tone, unless he has enough air in bis lungs
to establish and maintain the necessary breath pressure. That is to
say, when a certain amount of breath bas been expelled, be must
stop singing or his voice will go throaty. In other words, a singer
whose voice is "open" cannot use all of his breath. When he stops
singing, there must be a considerable amount of breath left in bis
lungs. On the other hand , the throaty singer merely blows out
breath against a constriction, and he is, therefore, able to continue
making sound until his breath is totally exhausted. Of course, when
the voice is well produced, the breath expulsion is very low and,
provided that a proper inspiration bas been taken, the singer is able
to encompass any phrase which he may encounter. Actually, a very
well-produced voice can sustain a wide-open tone for from 25 to
30 seconds. In view of the fact that the average phrase is seldom
of more than 6 seconds duration, this allows plenty of leeway. In
the case of a big climax, the high tone may sometimes be held for
as much as 10 seconds or even, for a very extreme effect, 20 seconds,
but this still allows considerable leeway.

Rapid Inspiration
This brings up a question of great importance in the proper inter-
pretation of songs and arias. It is often essential for the singer to in-
spire a rapid breath during the performance of a song. He must be
able to take the inspiration without delaying the beat-i.e., impairing
the rhythmic flow of the composition.
When the singer's voice is "open"-i.e., is on inspiratory tension-
this is easy of accomplishment for two reasons: Firstly, because be
takes the rapid breath when be still has a considerable amount of
breath left. Secondly, because he is holding inspiratory balanced
with expiratory tension-i .e., bis breathing muscles are in equilib-
rium. Hence, he can inspire merely by augmenting the inspiratory
tension which is already present. The breath expulsion is very low
when the technic is "open" and on inspiratory tension. A small
amount of breath, added to what is already in bis lungs, is enough
to enable him to continue singing for a considerable length of time.
He is, therefore, able to stop and, with virtually no effort at all,
take an additional breath with amazing rapidity. He is even able
to take this breath without losing the opening tension on bis tongue.
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Hence, a singer whose voice is "open" and on inspiratory tension
can take an extremely rapid breath at any moment he may desire
without impairing the rhythmic flow of the composition in the
slightest degree.

Rapid Inspirationand Throaty Technic

When a throaty singer who is trying to "open" up his voice at-
tempts to sing a song, he experiences a great deal of difficulty in
taking his breath. In the first place, he must completely relax the
expiratory tension which he has built up in order to sing. If he
retains any expiratory tension, this tension is antagonistic to the in-
spiratory tension necessary in order to draw in the breath. The
relaxation of the expiratory tension takes time-a considerable time.
In the second place, since he is singing on the expiratory blast, he
is able to continue singing until his breath is totally exhausted. He
has probably done so. Therefore, when he inspires, he must take
a full breath. This takes very much longer than does the inspiration
of the small additional amount of breath which the singer whose
voice is "open" takes in order to go on singing. Conditions are fur-
ther aggravated by the fact that the expiratory tension builds up
progressively as he continues to sing. It, therefore, becomes increas-
ingly difficult for him to inspire as the song progresses. Of course,
this condition is alleviated as soon as he starts to establish opening
tension and use inspiratory tension in the act of phonation.

Posture and Attack

The posture of the singer during the lesson is important. If he
stands in such a position that his spine is curved-swayed back-or
that his chest is raised, or crouched, so that he does not sense the
ability to expand his ribs, he cannot inspire or sing properly. I have
emphasized the harmful effect of raising the chest, but a crouched
posture is equally harmful. The body must be held erect and be in
a proper state of tone in order that the diaphragm may move out
and the lower ribs expand back and sideways through the attack
with freedom and control. I have not emphasized this expanding
movement of the lower ribs through the attack in this book because
it is less pronounced than is that of the diaphragm, but it is actually
equally important. Inspiratory tension cannot be established at
the moment of attack unless both diaphragm and lower ribs are
tensing through the attack-i.e., expanding in inspiratory tension.

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 Slow and Rapid Reactions
The teacher must consider whether the reactions of the pupil are
too fast or too slow. Some pupils are neurotic, highly tensed and,
at all times, in too high a state of muscle tone. They tend to react
too fast. This type of individual is apt to initiate the tension for the
attack, or for the transition from tone to tone, etc., prematurely-
i.e., ahead of time. They must be taught to relax-to slow down
their reactions-so that they can time the tensions they employ in
phase with the act of phonation. Another type of pupil is in too low
a state of tone-too relaxed and "dead." He must be taught to estab-
lish a certain degree of tension, or muscle tone, in his body at all
times. This must be done even before he breathes. He must be
made to initiate the tensions necessary for singing more rapidly. In
fact, it may even help to tell him to tense ahead of time. Of course,
he should not actually do so, but the attempt to speed up his re-
actions should improve his "timing." A good technic demands con-
siderable skill and adroitness-accurate timing is an essential phase
of this skill.
"Grabbing with the Tongue"
The singer must realize and sense the fact that his preparation to
sing is based upon the inspiration of a deep breath-the establish-
ment of inspiratory tension. He must feel the strength and control
that this gives him. This sensation is in contrast to that of the
throaty singer, whose preparation to sing is principally tension on
the constrictor muscles of the tongue and neck. As the pupil starts
to "open" his voice, one of his first sensations will be that he feels
that he is losing control. Since control, in this sense, is entirely a
function of the constrictor system of muscles, it should and must
be completely lost. It is difficult for the pupil to abandon this sense
of control, i.e., mistaken safety. There is a psychological factor in-
volved which makes him "grab with his tongue" in order to feel
that he has hold of his voice. As long as he does this, his technic
will be throaty. Only too often he must be driven very hard in
order to make him abandon this false sense of safety and control.
This gesture of "grabbing with the tongue" is of very frequent
occurrence. The throaty singer is always making it. He does it be-
fore he starts to inspire his breath, at the attack, at each transition
of pitch, etc., and he does it when he changes register. Each time
the throaty singer jerks, he "grabs with his tongue"-and he jerks
very frequently. As soon as the inspiratory tension is relaxed, the
singer has, perforce, to "grab with his tongue" in order to go on pro-
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ducing sound. Each successive "tongue-grab" augments the degree
of throatiness that he employs.

Combating ''Tongue-grab"
As I have already said, the first point of attack for the elimination
of this fundamental fault is to endeavor to stop the pupil from set-
ting his tongue, or "grabbing" with it, before he starts to breathe .
In order to accomplish this end, the pupil should be told to inspire
a deep, free breath right down into the bottom of his lungs and
feel that his throat is wide open, like a big, open tube . He should
also be told not to think about singing when he inspires. The pupil
whose voice is throaty associates the act of phonation with the
"tongue-grab." Therefore, he automatically proceeds to "grab" at
the earliest possible moment-i.e., before he inspires. The hyoid
bone may be held up while he is inspiring-this will probably only
help a little, but it may do some good. Sometimes the concept of
producing a dark tone while breathing may' help, since the hissing
noise which the throaty singer makes, when he forces in his breath,
is generally white, because the cavity adjusbnent which he ·pre-
forms" is usually for a white, throaty tone. This is only a tentative
device. His attention may be drawn to the fact that he drops his
larynx, hardens the area under his chin and tenses his neck muscles.
This, at least, makes him conscious of his faults. The overcoming
of these faults is often difficult of accomplishment. The teacher must
devise various angles from which he can work at it, according to
the characteristics exhibited by each individual pupil. A proper
breath cannot be inspired until such time as the "tongue-grab,"
which is made before he starts to breathe, has been eliminated or in
a large measure abated.

"Tongue-grab" and Listening

The next phase of this problem occurs when the pupil starts to
sing. He generally makes a second tongue gesture, or "grab," at the
moment of attack, even when he has stopped "grabbing with his
tongue" before he starts to inspire. Of course, if he does so, the
tone will be throaty, whatever else he may do. The elimination of
the "tongue-grab," at the moment of attack, can be achieved by
teaching him to attack properly. Thus, he must be made to attack,
on a signal (cue) from the teacher, before he has stopped inspiring
and he must continue the expanding-inspiratory-gesture of the
diaphragm and ribs, through the attack, without jerking. This again
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 is difficult of accomplishment, but it must be worked out if the
pupil is to learn how to sing properly. The importance of forcing
the pupil to obey signals promptly through his sense of hearing-
not sight-is absolute in this phase of the work. He must obey the
cue ( a tone or chord played on the piano) promptly and he must
not look at the teacher's hand as he plays. If he does so, he will
never obey the cue properly. The self-listener is absolutely unable
to obey it, since he is listening to his own voice and is impervious
to any outside source of sound, which will serve merely to distract
him from his objective-self-listening. Therefore, he will inevitably
jerk a moment after he has heard the distracting sound, which tends
only to interrupt the center of his mental activity-self-listening.
He will, then, either give a sudden jerk, choke his voice off in his
throat with a "tongue-grab" and start to sing too late or he will sing
ahead of time. The jerk and "tongue-grab" set the constrictor ten-
sion which produces the "quality" for which he is listening-the
tone which seems so lovely to his own ear, and sounds so very nasty
to the ear of the listener. The jerk will, of course, set, more efficiently,
the technically destructive, listening tension on the sterno-mastoid
muscles which he has probably already established by tensing his
chest and shoulders during the act of inspiration.

"Tongue-grab" and Tongue Instrument

When the tongue instrument is being employed, the pupil often
tends to "grab with his tongue" when he is told to start singing.
He may correct this by relaxing his tongue completely while it is
being pushed back; by starting to breathe at the exact moment at
which he is told to do so; by continuing to breathe until he is told
to sing; by starting to sing at the exact moment he is told to attack
the tone; and by leaving his tongue still and apparently relaxed,
• in the position in which it has been set (relaxed)' by the instrument,
when he attacks the tone. Work along these lines should, in time,
eliminate the "tongue-grab" at the moment of attack, when the
tongue instrument is being used.

"Tongue-grab" and "Going Through the Falsetto"

When the male pupil is learning to "go through the falsetto"
while the teacher is using the tongue instrument, he will, in many
cases, tend to "grab with his tongue" a second time at the moment
of transition between the registers. In order to stop this grab he
must be told not to tense at the throat-or tongue-as he "goes
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through," i.e., adds the lower-register tension. At the same time,
he must be made to accomplish this end by applying the added
work very rapidly. This work must take the form of a rapidly ap-
plied, strong, out tension on the breathing muscles. If these muscles
are being held out for the falsetto, the augmented tension will take
the form of a smooth, not too pronounced, "out" tension on them.
This will not cause a jerk. The timing must be accurate-he must
make the sudden intensity increase, which accompanies the change
of register, very rapidly in co-ordination with the added tension.
Faulty "timing" is fatal. If he "times" inaccurately, he will inevitably
"grab with his tongue." If he "feels" into the lower register-i.e.,
crescendos slowly-instead of establishing the powerful lower-reg-
ister tone instantly, he will always release and establish an intense
tongue-grip, or "grab." This phase of the work is important and is
by no means simple. It must be worked out.

"Tongue-grab" and Connecting Tones

"Grabbing with the tongue" always occurs with the beginner,
when he is endeavoring to connect groups of tones. Every time he
slurs, jerks, or re-impulses he tends to "grab." Each time he makes
the "grabbing" gesture, the constrictor tension is augmented. Thus,
if he jerks or slurs several times when singing a group of tones, his
voice becomes progressively constricted.
It is hardly necessary to point out here that, when the singer's
voice is "set" in absolute constriction, this does not hold true-he
can jerk and "grab" with his tongue as much as he likes. Jerks and
slurs will not disturb anything, because the tongue is already held
back against the posterior wall of the laryngeal pharynx. The abso-
lutely throaty singer can do all the things which would completely
destroy the singer whose voice is well produced. The throaty singer
does not need to be skilled, neither need he be a musician, since
his voice does not move on a beat and he does not have to "time"
the tensions. He can, in fact, do anything he may desire to do-
except sing.
"Tongue-grab" and Consonants
Other phases of the technic into which this problem of the
"tongue-grab" enters prominently are in the articulation of con-
sonants and in the employment of illegitimate interpretive effects.
The base of the tongue must never jerk or "grab" during the forma-
tion of a consonant. The singer must be taught to hold the base of
his tongue still while articulating all the consonants with the excep-
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tion of the gutturals. These must be articulated so rapidly and skill-
fully that the proper position of the base of the tongue-byoid bone.-
is not lost. He must start the ensuing tone in the center of pitch-i .e.,
without slurring. The singer should never jerk before or after the
formation of any consonant. These procedures can be completely
mastered only at an advanced stage in the technical development,
but they must be worked on as soon as the pupil starts to sing songs,
or he will be certain to establish an absolutely throaty method of
singing in performance, whatever he may do in his technical work.
Having dealt with the employment of illegitimate effects in per-
formance at length in this book, I need not say more about it here,
except to state that practically all such effects are associated with
"tongue-grabs" as well as inartistic, unmusical noises.

The SuddenOpening and the Pupil

When a sudden opening occurs, constrictor control is momentarily
abated or lost and the pupil may be more or less unable to produce
a defined tone because his breath starts to escape extremely rapidly .
If he faces this, stands up to it, and sings vigorously through it,
progress can be very rapid. In actual practice, the sudden change-
over from constriction to opening tension-i .e., the sudden opening-
must generally occur several times before the pupil is able to estab-
lish and retain it. In this connection, it is interesting to note that
the throaty singer whose voice "opens" is apt to feel that he is not
really "singing," because he has become so accustomed to associ-
ating the constrictor action with the act of phonation. This condition
is further aggravated by the fact that there is an accompanying
release of tension on the sterno-mastoid muscles so that the sound
of his voice is no longer efficiently transmitted to his inner ear. In
other words, the intensity seems to have diminished alarmingly, and
the "quality" -as he hears it-has gone . Thus, it sounds neither pleas-
ant nor loud in his own ear, and he has lost control of his voice.
If he is a self-listener, he will not allow this to occur and, therefore,
he will never learn to sing. He will be able to surmount this obstacle
only if he can stop listening to his own voice and follow directions .
When the voice is "open," the constrictor muscles of the tongue and
neck release, and the body ( i.e., the breathing muscles) "connects"
with the voice to do the work of singing. This engenders a sensation
which is wonderfully satisfying and exhilarating. The feeling of
singing a really free tone is exciting, and even thrilling . However, it
must at no time be associated with self-listening, or it will never be
attained.
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 Personal Quality-Only Throatiness
The singer should realize that his primary objective is to interpret
the composition and portray the role. There is a fundamental differ-
ence between the artist and the cheap, mountebank performer.
When the artist sings, he is using his voice as an instrument upon
which he plays in order to interpret what the composer has written.
There must not be any personal characteristic present. He must not
attempt to project his own personality. Only too often young men
and women who come to me for auditions ask me whether their
voices have a good "natural quality" -i.e., "personal quality." This is
a foolish question. If the technic is really good, there is no "personal
quality." In very fact, that characteristic of the voice which is known
as the "personal quality" is throatiness, and nothing but throatiness.

Personal Quality and Interpretation

In this connection, it might be well to point out that there are
two main forms of throatiness. The first occurs because the singer
produces his voice incorrectly. It feels uncomfortable and he is
aware that there is something wrong with his technic. The elimina-
tion of this type of throatiness does not present a psychological, but
only a physical, or technical, problem. The second type of throati-
ness. is far more pernicious. It is engendered intentionally by the
singer who is listening to his own voice. He sings with a deliberately
throaty technic because it sounds beautiful to his own ear. The
degree to which the singer misinterprets the sound of his own voice
is absolutely incredible. This type of throatiness is much harder to
cope with because the singer fights to the death against its elimina-
tion. This is, of course, the basic type of throatiness upon which
the "personal quality" of the voice is based. As the technic improves,
these personal characteristics are eliminated. If all personal char-
acteristics-i.e ., throatiness-have been eliminated, the quality is
really beautiful in the absolute sense. The final goal is to make the
human voice function as a fine musical instrument which will re-
spond to the artist's touch, but which is inherently completely im-
personal. All personal forms of throatiness, tricks, habits, mannerisms
and devices must be abandoned by the artist. "Personal quality" is a
complete bar to artistic interpretation. When Caruso started singing,
as a young man, he employed many cheap, personal effects. As a
result, there was a somewhat personal quality in his voice which
was rather unpleasant. As he matured, he abandoned these tricks,
and his voice became less and less "Caruso" and more and more a
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perfect, musical instrument. The quality, in the true sense of the
word, improved immeasurably. The greater the singer, the more
nearly is this goal attained . There was also a highly impersonal
quality in the singing of such great artists as Destinn, Melba,
Kirkby-Lunn, Sammarco, Amato, etc., when they were in their
prime. These artists did not sing in order to "project their personali-
ties" to the audience. Their goal was to convey what the composer
had written. The great artist is actually a humble individual who
subjects himself to the composer. The moment the singer evokes his
own personality, he becomes cheap and tawdry. The voice of every
singer of today is weak, throaty, often out of tune, and from the
viewpoint of the trained listener, of unpleasant quality; and further-
more, in practically every case, their objective is primarily to project
personality. They do not even make any attempt to interpret legiti-
mately the music the composer has written . The gesture and acting
is often of a rather high order. However, this is quite futile when
they don't really sing. In order to interpret a composition, they
employ devices known as "nuance and color," "embellishing the
tone" and "spinning out the tone." In common parlance, this means
making a crescendo and decrescendo on practically every tone they
sing. These crescendos and decrescendos are usually accompanied
by a pitch slide up and down. These wails, which eliminate the
possibility of even attempting to indicate the rhythmic pattern of
the most elementary tune, are supposed to convey emotion. Such
singers not only destroy the rhythmic pattern of the music, but
often drag to a nauseating degree, especially in the passages which
should move. Of course, these devices are wrought entirely on con-
striction.
Opera and "Personality"
I maintain that the virtue of opera is primarily for the interpreta-
tion of the music the composer has written and for the portrayal of
the. emotions to be conveyed. As a general rule the plots, as such,
are rather trivial or even silly, but they serve their purpose very
well, provided that the objective of the singers is legitimate. How-
ever, the modem idea seems to be that the voices and music are of
no moment. Those who hold this idea believe rather that the story
and movement of the opera are of prime importance, and that they
should be performed according to certain so-called, modem ideas-
i.e., with the projection of as much "personality" as possible. This
angle on singing is most distressing and wholly inartistic. The per-
formances of the operas as given at the Metropolitan today are of
an incredibly low order artistically as well as vocally. The throaty
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voices, slurs, breaks, screams, grunts, groans, sobs, faulty intona-
tions, lack of musicianship, and the long periods of virtual silence
when the singers are completely drowned by the orchestra are,
indeed, a vicious abuse of the art of singing. The fact that the per-
formers move about rather prettily and that the stage setting is
artistic does not justify matters at all. Without real singers, opera
is a cheap and tawdry form of entertainment. It is true that the jazz
singer, the musical-comedy singer and the radio crooner must
project "personality." These individuals are not supposed to be real
artists-they have nothing else to give. This is the cheap, or "popu-
lar," field and has no place in art. It is, indeed, horrifying to realize
that the objective of most of the singers at the Metropolitan today
is exactly the same as is that of this class of performer.

Effect of Broadcasting Opera

In discussing the performances at the Metropolitan Opera House,
I have assumed that the reader has personally attended these per-
formances or those given at one of the other great opera houses of
the world. (The standard of singing does not vary appreciably. It
is about the same in all the great opera houses.) There may be some
who have not done so, but who have heard radio broadcasts of these
performances. These readers may not understand what I am re-
ferring to, in view of the fact that when the opera performances are
broadcast, amplifiers are used. When heard over the radio, the
voices of the singers are amplified until they consistently top the
orchestra. They, therefore , seem to be powerful and to 611the opera
house. Those who have attended performances in person will know,
nnly too well, how grotesquely deceptive this is. Actually, the voices
of all the singers are completely drowned much of the time the
orchestra is playing, and most of the voices are completely sub-
merged by the orchestra except for a few shrill or shouted high
tones. Some of the singers cannot even be heard when the orchestra
is silent. The middle voices of all of the singers are almost entirely
inaudible. Thus, all that one hears are periods of virtual vocal silence
intermittently broken by screams or shouts.
The voices of the great singers of the past filled the opera houses.
These opera houses were built to accommodate the voices of that
day. They topped the orchestra all the time. Their voices rang out,
and even reverberated when they sang their high tones. They bal-
anced with the orchestra, just as the singers of today balance with it
over the radio. Only those who have heard both can realize the
difference and can appreciate how low the art of singing has sunk.
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 The Pupiland Vocal Improvement
The measure of success which can be obtained by the competent
teacher, who conducts his work along the lines I have laid down
in this book, depends very largely upon the mental attitude of the
pupil.
In the Brst place, it is essential for the pupil to realize that he is
learning how to produce his voice properly-in the correct physio-
logical function. This requirement implies that he must completely
change his method of producing sound. It also means that the
quality and nature of the sounds he will produce will not only alter,
but will constantly be in the process of modification. Under the
process of properly conducted study, the change and improvement
in the voice is overwhelming when the pupil, who applies himself
properly, has been working for a considerable period. But, this major
change occurs in stages. He does not start with a throaty, small,
badly produced voice and suddenly hit upon the knack of producing
the perfect tone. "It" does not come suddenly. Progress only occurs
as the result of the careful working-out of the diverse problems
involved. This talces time. He goes through a series of progressive
changes-i.e., stages. At each successive stage, his voice comes into
better adjustment, and it improves progressively. It is the sum total
of a series of such improved adjustments that culminates in the re-
markable vocal improvement mentioned above. During one lesson
a definite improvement in the technical adjustment may be made,
but at best this improvement is only minor. Furthermore, it must be
established. The same ground may have to be traversed several
times before this end has been accomplished.

The Fake Vocal Teacher

The vocal student who has studied with a fake teacher who pro-
pounded nonsensical ideas about "singing in the masque," "placing
the voice," "focussing the voice," "covering the tone," "feeling the
tone floating in the head," "using nasal resonance," etc., ( ad in-
finitum) has been led to believe that one day "it" will suddenly
come. Since meaningless phrases convey nothing, the pupils of such
teachers merely go through their lessons taking blind shots at noth-
ing and hoping that, by some weird chance, they will suddenly "get
it"-whatever "it" may bel They go through a stereotyped series
of exercises aiming at nothing, and accomplishing nothing . They
are buoyed up by the continuous praise of the teacher. Each pupil
is told that the "natural quality" of his voice is beautiful, and that at
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any time now he will "get it." Such a teacher seldom stops the pupil.
He generally takes the easiest path of going through a futile routine.
He pretends that the actual exercises have a magic and innate
virtue and that, if the pupil goes on doing these wonderful exercises
and practices sedulously at home, he will surely get "it" in the near
future. When such teachers do stop their pupils, they give them
some inane direction such as: "Get it more forward, and feel i~ be-
hind your nose." The pupil is then apt to repeat exactly the same
sound he has just produced. ( There is no reason why he should do
otherwise, since the direction means nothing.) "Ah," says the
teacher, "that is much better-you have made a big step forward!'"

Effect of Fake Teachingon Pupil'sAttitude

The reason why I have mentioned this sort of dishonest teaching
procedure is because such studios produce pupils who have no idea
what it means to take a real vocal lesson. In most such cases it takes
a considerable time for the serious teacher even to start this fype
of pupil really working out his technical problems. During the
lessons which he has taken formerly he has probably listened to his
own voice, corrected himself, and tried experiments. He has been
wont to sing a tone and then ask the teacher what he thought about
it. Sometimes they will have a "discussion-meeting," and things be-
come very friendly and quite haphazard. This pupil, when he goes
to a serious teacher, will be prone to persist in this sort of attitude.
He enjoyed his former lessons and felt very wise when he discussed
matters with his teacher-they "worked it out" together! Everything
was very harmonious-unless he asked a really cogent question to
which he demanded a logical, scientifically sound reply. This is the
unforgivable crime in the studio of the fake teacher. What a vile
offence it is when an intelligent pupil asks a "placing it in the
masque" teacher what he really means by this statement! How horri-
fyingly disloyal is the pupil who has learned some physics at school
or college, and who demands an intelligent explanation of some
such absurd phrase! The teacher is apt to become very angry-or
terribly hurt!

Followingthe Teacher'sDirections
The legitimate teacher welcomes intelligent questions, and is
ready to give a reason-an intelligent reason-for every direction that
he gives. Instruction in what is being done and why is part, an
essential part, of the training. But, the lesson must be conducted by
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the teacher, and the pupil must have as his sole objective the en-
deavor to follow the teacher's directions definitely and absolutely.
He must never try to paraphrase, or elucidate, what the teacher says.
If he does, he will become confused and will fail to accomplish
anything. Of course, every direction given by the teacher must be
simply phrased, absolutely cogent, direct, intelligent, clearly under-
standable, scientifically true and possible for the pupil to obey. The
teacher who cannot express himself in clear concise language, and
make himself definitely understood, cannot teach.

Reliance upon Teacher's Directions

I have said so much about self-listening that more need not be
said about it here. The self-listener cannot learn anything. But, the
pupil who takes blind shots, experiments, and tries things out for
himself, is in just as bad a condition. The pupil who cannot subject
himself to the rigid discipline of the properly conducted lesson and
concentrate upon obeying the directions of the teacher, without re-
gard to any resultant sound that he may make or sensation he may
feel, cannot learn. Every improvement in the adjustment is mani-
fested in an alteration in the nature of the sound the pupil produces.
If he resists the change of quality his progress ceases. He must be
ready to completely abandon the sounds he has been wont to make.
And he, himself, cannot tell whether the sounds he is making are
better or worse. If he has followed the teacher's direction, the sound
must be better. He must rely upon his teacher. Of course, he is
unforhmate if he has an incompetent teacher-since he must follow
directions absolutely-if he wants to learn. This does not mean that
he should not understand why the teacher is giving him the par-
ticular direction-he must do so. Nevertheless, his sole objective
must be to follow the directions literally. He must allow his voice
to produce the sound which results from the changed adjustment.
His goal is to change the adjustments he has been wont to employ.
The change of adjustment must be the objective. If he fails to make
it, he has failed to accomplish anything . True, any improvement in
the adjustment is concomitant with an improvement in the quality
of the sound he is producing and generally with an increase in
power. Sometimes this increase in power may be so pronounced as
to be alarming to the pupil-this is especially so in the early stages.
He must try desperately hard to abandon his inhibitions and let the
tone sound at the loudness indicated by the teacher, who is probably
driving him hard and trying to stop him from "holding back" his
v.<?ice.The ave~age human be4tg ~.a curious compos.ite of psycho-
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logical complexes. He automatically tends to resist change. Virtu-
ally every pupil tends to resist the technical and quality changes
which occur in his voice under proper vocal training. After all, his
voice is an expression of himself with all his psychological limita-
tions. He employs his voice in order to communicate with his fellow
human beings. His natural technic-untrained-is primarily the re-
sult of his psychological make-up. During the process of properly
conducted vocal training, he must readjust his psychological ap-
proach. Subconsciously, he tends to resist this readjusbnent. That
the teacher must drive him in order to assist him in this readjustment
is obvious. The change can be, and often is, overwhelming. Consider
the pupil who starts with a small, inoffensive, timid little voice!
Consider what happens to him when this voice "opens up" and
becomes similar to the organ of a great a~istl He must be made to
grow psychologically in order to meet his vocal growth with a corre-
sponding psychological growth. This is not easy for him, but it can
be attained under a competent teacher's domination and with his
help. It takes time.

Loud Throaty Voices

I have said so much about the development of power that the
reader may have misunderstood me. Of course, legitimate power is
one of the prime objectives of vocal development and technic, but
this most emphatically does not mean noise. When the term "loud"
is applied to a tone, it is only too apt to indicate a loud noise. When
the loudness of the tone is a manifestation of pronounced con-
strictor action, this wrong type of loudness must be eliminated. A
soft throaty tone is bad . A loud throaty tone is just that amount
worse. In other words, when a throaty tone is swelled, the con-
strictor action is augmented, and all the muscles which should be
relaxed are very pronouncedly tensed. A loud throaty tone is not
only intensely throaty, but it is also inevitably accompanied by
mixed registration. Even if the registration is fairly pure, mixed
registration occurs and becomes increasingly pronounced when a
throaty tone is swelled.
Although many pupils start with small voices which have to be
progressively built up, an almost equally large number of pupils
come to me with fairly loud voices, and this loudness is generally,
in fact practically always, on constriction. Such pupils lose their
apparent power under proper training, since their voices cannot be
developed until the constrictor tension has been reduced to the
point at which they are able to break through into opening tension.
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 There are many types of loud singing. Among these are the
following:

1. The man who produces a loud, throaty, white, shouted tone,

by means of an intense, deliberate tongue grab, in the middle of his
voice, and then thickens and pushes on a "booty" tone for the higher
pitches.
2. The man who deliberately .Puts on a thick, throaty quality
throughout his voice and pushes on it.
3. The tenor who deliberately produces a white, loud, screaming
noise in order to sing his high tones.
4. The pupil who forces a wide tremolo into his voice to make it
sound loud.
5. The woman who pushes and thickens her middle voice, thereby
employing a mixed falsetto in intense constriction.
6. The woman who screams her high tones.
7. The unfortunate student who has studied with an uninformed
"Stanley" teacher who brings together in a mixed registration
throughout the range, thick, throaty, mixed lower-register tones
and shrill, or thick, mixed falsetto tones. This is the worst case of all.

I remember one case of a dramatic soprano who had studied with

a self-styled "Stanley" teacher. She had a low register which was
shouted, crude, very throaty and loud, and an unassociated falsetto
which was thick in the middle and became a piercing shriek at the
top. Throughout the voice, she deliberately forced a wide tremolo.
This young woman, who sang in opera, was supposed to have a
fine, big, dramatic voice of great power. When I started to work
with her, I first-with the aid of the tongue intsrument-removed
the shout from the low register. This register was then found to be
very weak and undeveloped. The use of the tongue instrument on
the falsetto eliminated the high screams, and the tones that were
left were very weak indeed, as soon as they were produced with
a reasonable degree of purity. I then proceeded to abate the tremolo.
At this stage, this young singer had a weak, undeveloped lower
register and a very weak falsetto that only went to G. However, she
had, at this point, reached a stage at which her voice could be
developed along the correct lines.
I want it to be very clear, then, that where the loudness of a voice,
or the apparent power, is the result of pushing on constriction and
mixed registration, this power has to be eliminated. Thus, in many
cases throughout the early stages of training, the voice loses its
loudness. I need hardly say that after the forced noise has been
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taken out of the voice, the development of the proper power is a
more or less straightforward matter.
There is also another phase of this question that occurs with the
most virulence in the case of a self-listener. The self-listener aims
for a characteristic of the tone that he would designate as "quality."
He deliberately produces a tone that sounds full and rich to his
own ear. Now, this type of power and "quality" is nonexistent in
actual fact. It is merely deliberately imposed throatiness. A tone has
three characteristics and only three: pitch, spectrum (vowel), and
intensity. The objective of a proper technic is to enable the singer to
define these characteristics and to maintain them constant. When a
tone is really defined and held constant, the noise elements are ab-
sent, the quality is beautiful, and the voice carries in an auditorium.
When the tone is throaty, there is mechanical interference-by
means of the neck muscles-with the laryngeal action. The result of
this interference is that the vocal cords cannot retain a constant
length and tension. Thus the pitch is continuously drifting. This
drifting pitch is accompanied by an ever-varying spectrum so that
as the tone is held, an enormous number of diverse frequencies are
actually present, and this gives rise to an apparently loud, full tone.
This type of loudness is noise, not tone. It sounds, in many cases,
very loud in a room. It fades to virtually nothing in an auditorium,
but the singer himself imagines that he is producing a very rich,
ringing, full, loud tone. This is the loudness that must be eliminated
if the pupil is to learn to sing. As long as he listens to his voice and
retains this false power and "quality," he is only making a noise.
He is not singing and he can never learn to sing until such time
as he completely abandons this false characteristic which seems to
him to be his personal, vocal quality.
Generally, these singers who have loud, noisy, throaty voices have
studied with incompetent teachers for a considerable period. They
constitute the hardest problem with which the competent vocal
teacher has to cope. As I have already said, the most satisfactory
voice with which the competent teacher has to deal is often rather
small. In the case of a woman it has a clear, pure falsetto which
has not been pushed and mixed, and a low register which is often
very weak, but is easily found. Such small, undeveloped, purely
registered voices are very easy to work with and open up, since there
is nothing to break down. The most satisfactory men's voices
with which to work are characterized by a pure, relatively free,
lower register, which has not been forced and thickened and which
can produce low pitches, and a pure unco-ordinate falsetto. In
nearly every case where the singer can produce very high tones,
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the technic is violently throaty and the voice presents serious prob-
lems. The proper d<.velopment of high tones through the falsetto is
quite a simple matter, provided the lower register is pure, un-
thickened, and not forced or pushed. With the aid of the manipula-
tions which I have outlined in this book, the development of the
proper tongue muscles and the laryngeal muscles is a relatively
simple and straightforward matter.

Pupil Resistance to Quality Changes

In many instances a sudden, pronounced, quality transition is
essential for the attainment of the next stage in the technical de-
velopment. Even the best pupils tend to resist such quality changes.
The pupil may have started with "no voice" and the teacher may
have given him a really fine voice. Nevertheless, despite the fact
that his voice has been "made," he may have become vain. Under
such circumstances, he, too, will tend to resist future changes and
improvements in his voice, because these improvements demand
quality modifications. This resistance to improvement may occur
every time a change must be made. It may be unconscious, but it
occurs only too frequently.
Most pupils start with little, white, throaty voices. They tend to
resist the change into the dark stages, which are essential if they
are to open up at all. These dark stages are unavoidably accom-
panied by some degree of "t~ickness." The voice has been only
partly-not entirely-released. The pupil does not go from a throaty
"shut-oft technic into real "opening." As I have said, he goes through
progressive stages of release. At a certain-advanced-stage, the
darkness must be abated and the thickness eliminated. The voice
will then whiten considerably. This whiter quality is not in any
way associated with the small, constricted, white voice with which
the beginner started. Despite the fact that both the old and the new
voices sound white, the old voice was small, thin, and throaty,
while the new voice is full, clear, and "open." Teachers are apt to
consider only the quality of the voice. They don't attempt to change
the technical-physiological-adjustments. Their goal is only too
often to whiten the voices of all their pupils, irrespective of what
the technical condition may be. In fact, such directions as: "Get the
voice forward out of the throat and into the masque," virtually
mean: "Sing a white, throaty, nasal tone." This is always so when
the teacher tells his pupils to "place it forward," or "against the
t:eeth." Such teachers actually like white, throaty tones! Recently
three of my pupils who were taking a course at a university had to
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sing a short program for their masters· degrt es. They were in a
relatively elementary stage in the technical development. They were
going through the dark stages and, actually, their voices were all
quite throaty. The examiner told them that they had 6ne voices
which were too thick. This was indeed true enough, but, if the
necessary darkness for the opening process to occur had been aban-
doned, they would have iost their voices"-i .e., shut off altogether.
They would have been no better than the other students who all
had small, pinched, white, very throaty voices-i.e., "no natural
voice." The criticism was true enough, but the cure is not to whiten
at this stage, but to go ahead and progress into the later stages,
when the thickness can be modified and the voice can ultimately
be cleared up. Whiteness now would mean elimination of the voice.

Work on Co-ordinationof Registers

The stage in which the darkness can be abandoned is an ad-
vanced one. In all work on co-ordination ( a very advanced stage in
the technical development) every trace of thickness must be elimi-
nated or the voice will go throaty and the registers will mix. In co-
ordinative work, the registers are "pulled in on tension"-the change
is made smoothly "on tension" and not suddenly with a transition
which has to be "covered up." If either register is thick, or throaty,
in the slightest degree, when the transition-"pull-in" -is made, the
voice will go throaty and will deteriorate rapidly . All the great
singers of the past ( except Caruso) lost their voices prematurely
because their teachers did not understand these procedures. They
understood nothing scienti6cally, so they could not know how the
voice should be adjusted as it develops and progresses.
Thus, the teacher must break down all resistance to change and
the pupil must subject himself completely to the teacher. The more
the pupil leans upon the teacher's guidance, the easier is the job of
training his voice. Without this subjection, the outcome is conflict
and chaos.
Dangerof Self-Analysis
When the pupil comes to his lesson, he should be prepared to
listen calmly to what the teacher tells him to do and he must en-
deavor to follow the directions, irrespective of how hard he may
have to try and how much energy he may have to use. He must
not, under any circumstances, attempt to analyze what he is doing
while he is doing it. He must not even try to know whether he has
succeeded in following the direction, since, if he does so, he must,
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perforce, have usurped the teacher's prerogative. The teacher must
listen to and analyze every tone the pupil sings. This is his func-
tion-not the pupil's. If the pupil tries to examine what he is doing,
while he is singing, he is absolutely unable to follow the teacher's
directions. Furthermore, he will become introverted and the teacher
will lose control over his voice. The pupil's attention must be on
the direction of the teacher-not on himself. The pupil who stops
himself in the middle of an exercise and tells the teacher what he
has done wrong, is not taking singing lessons-he is giving himself
lessons. Under such circumstances, it is foolish for him to pay a
teacher. It is not clever to try to anticipate what the teacher is going
to say, or to paraphrase his direction-it only denotes a lack of
concentration. Since the training process involves an alteration
of the natural co-ordinations which the pupil has always employed
in order to make sound, he can only accomplish this end by be-
coming an instrument in the hands of the teacher. The pupil should
fully realize that, whenever he really succeeds in following the
competent teacher's directions, the tones he produces must in-
evitably be improved-the quality must be better. Very often, it
does not sound better to his own ear. In fact, if he is listening, it
will always sound worse, because he has abated some of the throati-
ness which sounds so pleasant to him. Even the sensation he ex-
periences is no guide to what is occurring. The change of adjustment,
brought about by his adherence to the teacher's direction, may feel
strange. Of course, if he persistently follows directions, he will start
to abate the constrictor tension and, after a short time, he will,
indeed, experience a sense of release and freedom.
As soon as the pupil starts to work things out for himself and
assert himself, he will revert to his old throaty habits in an even
more pronounced form than ever. Practically every time a pupil
stops himself, he does it when the tone is better. He stops himself
because the tone sounded or felt different. This probably means
that it was better. It could not have been better if it had not sounded
and felt different. He may contend that he stopped himself because
he "felt something go wrong"-but, when he repeats the exercise, he
always goes back to the old sensation and quality. The rule is so
consistently true in practice that there can be no gainsaying it. The
pupil who stops himself only succeeds in nullifying the teacher's
endeavors, and, at the same time, in checking his own progress.
When the pupil stops himself for a particular tone that he has sung,
he will instinctively tend to shy away from the production of a simi-
lar tone in his subsequent attempts. In other words, since he has
corrected this tone, he will inevitably avoid repeating it. He will,
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 therefore, revert to his old way of singing. Much of this sort of thing
may be subconscious, but it is, none the less, deadly, and must be
defeated.
Constant Directions
Certain directions are absolute-i.e., constant at all times. An
example of this is the direction to take a deep breath before starting
to sing. The pupil has been told that it is impossible for him to sing
a tone which is not absolutely throaty unless he does take a deep
breath. Nevertheless, all pupils seem to be incredibly careless in this
phase of the work. Another example of a constant direction is to
open the jaw all the way, when opening it at all, and never to sing
with the jaw in the locked position. Here again, pupils are only too
apt to be careless and negligent . Even these two phases of the
technic, which should be simple for any one who has been studying
for any considerable length of time, have to be constantly watched,
or the pupil is apt to forget about them.
The pupil should always bear in mind the constant directions.
He should then endeavor to obey them, and, at the same time,
follow any other directions the teacher may give him. U the pupil
concentrates properly, the teacher does not have to be continually
reverting to the constant directions. A really good pupil can progress
very rapidly. He can, however, only progress according to the de-
gree to which he applies himself along the lines I have indicated.
Improvement cannot occur along haphazard lines.

Use of the Proper"Sense"in Learning

When the teacher sounds a vowel, the pupil must concentrate
on the vowel sound, not on what the teacher does physically. He
must carry this sound in his mind and must sing from the memory
picture of this sound-not from his own interpretation of it. He
must use his sense of hearing-not sight. This presupposes that the
teacher can produce the vowel desired. He is in a bad way if he
cannot do so-so is the pupil!
If the teacher demonstrates a physicalprocedure, the pupil must
copy this procedure, and not try to reproduce the sound, or sounds,
the teacher has made. The pupil must use his sense of sight-not
hearing. The teacher must be able to make the operation. It is not
good when the teacher tells the pupil to sing a triad without break-
This has to be ing off, and then, when he illustrates, breaks and jerks himself.
Cornelius Many years ago, I had a pupil who was a bookkeeper. He had
Reid. studied with another teacher before coming to me and had de-
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veloped a nodule on one of his vocal cords. An unsuccessful opera-
tion on this nodule resulted in the removal of part of one of the
cords. I was able to alleviate the technical condition which originally
caused the nodule, but, of course, it was physically impossible for
him to learn to sing. So, he gave up bookkeeping and became a vocal
teacher. He loves to sing for his pupils. The results are just what
one would expect.
This question of utilizing the proper sense and not trying to em-
ploy any other sense is most important in learning how to sing.
Thus , if the pupil is told to listen to the sound the teacher illustrates
to him, he will fail to really hear it and carry it in his mind if he
endeavors to use his sense of sight-i.e ., if he looks at the teacher. I
always tell my pupils that they should never look at me during the
lesson unless I tell them to do so. I tell them to look at me only
when I am showing them a physical operation such as how and
when to open the mouth, how to position the lips, how to stand,
how to breathe, etc. When intense concentration is necessary, it may
even be a good idea for him to close his eyes, so that he can con-
centrate altogether upon the sound .I am. i)J_ustrati.ngto him, or
upon the pitch sounded by the piano. His attention is, then, not
distracted by anything his eyes may perceive. The underlying prin-
ciple is quite important . For example, I always close my eyes when
I am making the manipulations, so that I can concentrate upon my
sense of touch without any distraction which might occur if I were
also employing my sense of sight. This does not mean that the pupil
should close his eyes when singing-he should not do so.
Since a grentmany pupils are self-listeners, one of the best courses
to pursue in obviating this impenetrable barrier to learning how to
sing is to tell them to listen to, and concentrate on, the pitch, or
tune, played on the piano , or to the vowel sound as sung, or spoken
by the teacher . If they really do this, they have concentrated upon
an external source of sound and have not introverted and listened
to themselves. Th~, they h~ve, f~r the moment, _stopped listening to
their own voices. Actually, such pupils generally tend to look at the
piano, or at the teacher. They do this unconsciously, no doubt, be-
cause they are still listening to their own voices and they are trying
to utilize another sense, so that they will not have their attention
distracted from what is still the center of their mental activity-
self-listening. Of course, they must be forced to stop using their
sense of sight and to concentrate upon the external source of sound .
Such psychological principles are important in teaching.

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 Practicing at Home-Dangerous
Many pupils want to practice at home. As I have already said,
this is most harmful. It is particularly unwise in view of the fact
that, if a pupil is prepared to concentrate very hard and follow the
teacher's direction properly during the lesson, he will generally
succeed in progressing very fast indeed. In many cases, the progress
is actually too rapid, and the pupil is psychologically unable to keep

Coloralura Soprano .a. lyric 7enor

• D
e
, _ ~e
ln,

'l)ramafic Soprano Vramalic 7enor

•
Conlrallo
0
•
= ,... fa
JJarilone

•
..a..
e 91 b•

JJass
91
'"
Fig. 38-Ranges of Human Voices
up with his vocal development-i.e., he fails to supply the energy
which is necessary if he is to sing with the voice he has developed.
In practice, the teacher's problem is, quite often, to slow down the
speed of progress, so that the pupil's voice does not get out of con-
trol. The procedures I have indicated are remarkably efficient, and
unless the teacher exercises proper judgment, they can become too
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efficient. When the voice is in the process of opening, muscles
develop and strengthen all the time he is singing properly. Manipu-
lation speeds up this development. Therefore, it is often incumbent
upon the teacher to use the manipulations very sparingly in the
more advanced stages. If he tries to go too fast, he will defeat his
own end and the pupil will only become confounded by the amount
of voice he has developed.

Rangesof Human Voices

There has been a great deal of discussion as to what range should
be covered by the human voice when it is properly produced. In
my earlier writings, I indicated ranges considerably exceeding
three octaves because I included very high tones which cannot be
produced legitimately. In view of the fact that such tones are not
legitimate, they should not be considered as part of the voice.
Actually, the range of a 'f'1'0perly'f'1'0ducedvoice should al.ways be
three octaves, plus or minus one or two semitones . See Fig. 88.
When one states that a singer has a range of three octaves, going
to high C, it means that he can sing four, not three, C's. Thus, the
tenor who can sing an octave below middle C, middle C, and high C
has a range of only two octaves-not three . A materially curtailed
range indicates a faulty technic. The inverse is not true-a wide
range does not necessarily indicate a good technic.

Teacher'sTaste
The co~petent teacher must know what he is aiming at. His taste
and discrimination must be good. If he likes the wrong sort of
singing, he will teach his pupils to sing badly, whatever he may say.
"Little Willie's" teacher (see page 295) only liked a light, mixed-
falsetto tenor which could hardly be distinguished from a woman's
voice. Now, this teacher had degenerate tastes in singing. He liked
the men's voices to sound like women's, and he liked the women's
voices to sound cold, emotionless and sexless. He liked the "squeak
voice" coloratura. He did not like the full, free, resonant, colorful
tones of a dramatic soprano, because such tones are expressive of
normal, love and emotion.

Perverted Singersand Teachers

We hear only too much perverted singing today. Many of the
most successful tenors actually sound like sopranos. Many of the
baritones, and even the basses, put on a false, thick quality which
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brings to one's mind the endeavors of the male impersonator, and
they make unnatural pianissimo effects in a mixed falsetto. I want it
to be clearly understood that the man who is peculiar psycho-
logically cannot teach singing, because he likes the wrong sort of
sound, and he will inevitably teach his pupils to make the sounds
he likes, whatever he may say and whatever he may know theo-
retically. Voice must be taught by a psychologically normal indi-
vidual who has normal reactions to life, to music, and to art, and
who really appreciates and likes fine singing by great artists. There
were singers in the golden age of song who sounded effeminate,
such as Clemont and Bonci. They enjoyed a measure of success
which was amazing in view of the fact that such singers as Caruso,
Sammarco, Destinn, etc., were contemporaneous with them. Of
course, their following consisted of individuals with psychologically
distorted minds and tastes. ·
It is hard for the aspiring singer or teacher of today to even
conceive what a really well-produced voice should sound like, since
there are no even moderately fine singers appearing before the pub-
lic. Thus, the young people of today have become accustomed to,
and resigned to, sounds which are really quite unpleasant and are,
only too often, effeminate. This state of affairs makes things appear
to be rather hopeless, but it is not as bad as it seems, since free
singing is actually a natural function, and the ear of the normal
individual instantly perceives and appreciates a really fine voice.
The serious student can soon learn to distinguish between the true
and the false in art-if he is properly directed and taught.

Suggestion to Managers
In closing, I want to suggest to the managers of the great opera
houses of the world, and to the concert managers, that they should
discharge every singer of both sexes whose voice is without power,
and every male singer who sounds effeminate. Let them engage
only singers whose voices are the most resonant and beautiful they
can find. The audience is entitled to hear the singers-to hear every
tone they sing over the orchestra.There may not be any really great
voices today-but things need not be as bad as they are. If the man-
agers engaged only the best voices they could find, things would
improve rapidly.
If they do not do so, things will go from bad to worse. Finally,
they will put amplifying systems in the great opera houses and
concert halls all over the world, and then we shall, indeed, be hear-
ing radio crooners and squeak voices singing Grand Opera. This
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would be the end of opera-the end of the art of singing for the time
being.
SingingWill LiveOn!
I will conclude on a note of optimism: Whatever they may do or
not do, they cannot really kill the art of singing. It is the most natural
of all the arts and the most expressive. It is an untrammeled art
only when the human voice rings out full and free-it is a natural
function only when the voice is properly produced. People will de-
mand real voices which are properly produced. They love free,
virile, natural singing.
The art of singing may be temporarily submerged, but the psy-
chologically normal art of physiologically correct singing cannot be
destroyed. The audiences of the world will demand it, and it will be
heard again!

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 APPENDIXTO THE THIRD EDITION

With the proper use of the manipulations, the process of vocal develop-
ment has been very markedly speeded up. With this improved efficiency,
the vital importance of the correct employment of the breathing muscles
has become increasingly manifest.
I have endeavored to indicate the proper method of coordinating the
inspiratory tension with the act of phonation. However, I feel I must
amplify and clarify what I have already stated.
There are two muscular coordinations by which breath may be in-
spired ( see Figs. 39 and 40 )-diaphragm and lower back ribs; or chest
and shoulders. These two actions are not complementary-they are
antagonistic.
Chest breathing ( see Fig. 40 )-the incorrect method- is accomplished
by means of the expansion of the upper part of the lungs, resulting
from tension on the muscles of the front ribs in coordination with those
of the shoulder blades and the upper back ribs. When this method of
inspiration is employed, the technic is throaty. It is physiologically im-
possible for the singer to tense the muscles of his chest, shoulders, or
both, without bringing his neck muscles into tension and thus, at the
same time, depressing his tongue, hyoid bone, and larynx. This con-
strictor action occurs because of tension on the sterno-hyoid, omo-hyoid,
and stemo-thyroid muscles ( see Fig. 26-page 133) . These are the
muscles which pull down the hyoid bone and the larynx from below
(i.e., from the chest). When they come into pronounced tension, they
act with tremendous force. The degree of throatiness-constrictor tension
-is primarily proportional to the tension on these muscles. They can be
relaxed only when the muscles of the chest and shoulders, and the rectus
abdominis muscle (see Fig. 41) are relaxed. Forcing the chest down, as
well as up, can bring these muscles into tension. In order that they may
be relaxed, the proper use of the breathing muscles, in coordination
with the act of phonation, is essential. If this condition is not attained,
vocal degeneration-not improvement-occurs, because the pupil com-
pensates for any laryngeal development which has been induced by
means of augmented tension on the constrictor muscles.
If any of the procedures which I have indicated are employed without
attention being brought to bear upon the proper coordination of the
breathing muscles, the results are destructive. This is especially true of
work on the registration. It is only too easy for any "teacher" to pull in
a mixed lower-register, through the manipulation of the thyroid cartilage,
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and thus enable his pupil to make a loud noise. This is most injurious.
The thyroid manipulation must be employed in combination with the
proper use of the tongue instrument for falsetto tones, in order to bring
about a corresponding development of the falsetto muscles. Unbalanced
thyroid development makes for a sudden increase in loudness, but it
only serves to impair the proper coordination of the laryngeal muscles.
A sudden increase in intensity is only too often a sign of mixed registra-
tion and constriction and, therefore , of technical degeneration . I have
encountered a shockingly large number of voice students who have been
seriously hurt through the incorrect use of the manipulations I have
described-some of them were so badly injured that the training of their
voices was thereafter impossible.
I have devised a new manipulation which works very well-when
properly employed-in the mitigation of the action of the above-men-
tioned neck muscles.
This manipulation has proved to be most helpful, especially in cases
where intense constriction had been engendered by bad teaching.
Several of these cases were victims of unqualified persons who claim to
teach according to my findings.
When the larynx is pulled down pronouncedly and the registration
is badly mixed, it is often very difficult for the teacher to apply the
thyroid manipulation . The use of the manipulation I am about to describe
mitigates the "down" pull on the larynx and thus makes thyroid manipu-
lation possible. It does not always work immediately, but after a few
sessions it has nearly always proved to be helpful . Its effect is eliminated
if the breathing action is not properly worked out, since the "down"
pull is primarily brought about because of the tension on the muscles
of the chest and shoulders, and on the rectus abdominis muscle (see
Fig. 41).
Fig. 42 shows this manipulation: The two thumbs are inserted as low
as possible in the indentation at the base of the neck. Pressure is then
applied to the sterno-thyroid muscles, which are situated behind the stemo-
mastoid muscles ( see Flg:- 2G}. The teacher must press in, down, and
sideways on these muscles, which he can feel behind the stemo mastoids.
Having established the pressure, he must tell the pupil to inspire. As
soon as the inspiration starts, the neck muscles-sterno-thyroid, stemo-
hyoid and omo-hyoid-are apt to tense. The degree to which they tense
is a measure of the degree of constriction that has been initiated. The
pressure of the thumbs on these muscles must be maintained all the time
the pupil is singing the tone. Very strong pressure is often necessary.
This manipulation is used for single tones, generally in the middle of
the range . It should be performed three or four times on the same tone .
If the quality is too "white-throaty" or "thick-throaty," the manipulation
does not work. If the teacher is unsuccessful because the tension is too
great, he must try again. When the degree of throatiness is very pro-
nounced, the pupil is apt to cough and experience some discomfort.
This is unfortunate, but it cannot be helped . It only indicates the fact
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 Notice: The abdomen is
distended to its lowest
reaches ( See arrow) .
The rectus abdominis
muscle is relaxed.
The chest is relatively
dropped and relaxed.
The muscles of the neck
are relaxed-correct for good
technic.

Fig. 39-Correct Inspiration of the Breath-Diaphragm and lower

backribs.

Notlce: The abdomen is

drawn in.
There is some tension on
the rectus abdominis muscle.
The chest is raised and
tensed.
The neck muscles are in
a high degree of tension-
incorrect for good technic.

Fig. 4-0-Incorrect Inspiration of the Breath-Chest and shouldsn.

Digitized by Google
 Notice: The rectus ab-
dominis muscle in the mid-
dle of the body ( see arrow)
is highly tensed and forced
out. This condition elimi-
nates the possibility of in-
spiring even a moderate
volume of breath. This ten-
sion is antagonistic to both
diaphragmatic and chest
breathing. When this muscle
is tensed, the technic is
throaty.

Fig. 41-Incorrect Attempt to Inspire the Breath.

This manipulation is used

in many cases when the
technic is pronouncedly
throaty and the tongue is
badly dropped and tensed.
It is of considerable useful-
ness in cases of mixed regis-
tration .

This illustration looks

rather horrid from the pu-
pil's point of view. Actually
it does not hurt him at all.
It can, however, be very un-
comfortable for the teacher
when the mixture and con-
striction are pronounced. It
must be performed 1'f'operly.

Fig. 42-Sterno-Thyroid Manipulation.

Digitized by Google
that the manipulation is necessary and should be continued. Most pupils
experience little or no distress when subjected to this manipulation, and
any they may feel soon disappears.
As soon as some alleviation of the "down" pull on the larynx has
been attained, the thyroid manipulation should be attempted. When this
is done, great care must be taken to stop the pupil from compensating
for the effect of the manipulation by assuming an augmented constric-
tor "grab" with the base of his tongue. He must be stopped at once if
he does so. If the tone is "thick-dark" or "white-throaty," the manipulation
is harmful, because the increase in loudness is due to mixed registration.
White, "shouty" loudness indicates mixed registration. It is destructive.
So also is thick, pushed, "hooty" darkness! A pronounced tremolo lends
to nullify this or any other manipulation.
When the thyroid manipulation is being used, the hyoid bone must be
held up. If it drops pronouncedly, the teacher must stop the pupil at
once or he will impair and not help his technic.
The effort which must be exerted by the teacher, in the accomplish-
ment of these manipulatjons, is often very pronounced. In bad cases,
the strain on the fingers may be so great that they can only be em-
ployed for a short time. This is especially true of a pupil who has
studied with an unqualified "Stanley" teacher, since such a pupil is
only too apt to sing very loudly with a mixed, violently throaty technic.
Persistence in the use of these manipulations will often clear up cases
which would otherwise be hopeless. After these manipulations have
taken effect, the teacher should hold the pupil's mouth wide open. He
should then be able to sing a purer, fuller, lower-register tone.
This manipulation should be employed only periodically. If it is used
too much, the pupil will fail to hold the "opening" engendered. He
will then compensate by grabbing with his tongue harder than ever,
thereby inducing augmented throatiness. This is true of all the manipu-
lations: Their excessive use will induce increased constriction, unless the
development is properly taken up by the necessary augmentation of
the inspiratory hold on the breathing muscles.
I do not think that I have made myself completely clear with regard
to the proper muscular coordination for the act of inspiration, and for
holding the breath during the act of phonation. In the act of inspira-
tion, the lower back and side ribs expand in coordination with the
descent of the diaphragm. As the diaphragm descends, it pushes the
intestines down and thus causes a distension of the abdomen. This ab-
dominal distension must be held during the act of phonation in order
that the diaphragm may not ascend suddenly when the expiratory ten-
sion is applied and held. The muscles of the abdomen must be
developed, especially those at its lower sides ( see Fig. 39). These ab-
dominal muscles, together with the lower back rib muscles, must be
made to hold the additional tension necessary for each opening. The
entire process of training the voice is not only nullified, but is rendered
injurious, if this muscular development is not balanced with the develop-
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 .

ment of the laryngeal muscles and, of course, of the tongue muscles.

Development of the breathing muscles is not easy to accomplish. The
pupil seldom makes the intensified effort without being forced to do so.
Some pupils hate to be forced to exert themselves. The dishonest teacher
knows this. He, therefore, disregards the proper development and co-
ordination of the breathing muscles, and injures his pupils' voices.
There is one misconception which must definitely be cleared up :
While there are two methods of inspiration-chest and diaphragmatic-
there is not a third. The muscle in the center of the body-the rectus
abdominis-is not a breathing muscle. Fig. 41 shows expansion and ten-
sion on this muscle. This is entirely wrong. The distension that occurs
when the diaphragm is in proper function is in the abdomen-it extends
to its lowest reaches. Some teachers instruct their pupils to force out
and tense the rectus abdominis muscle, under the mistaken impression
that this muscle is the diaphragm-the diaphragm is inside the torso and
descends during the act of inspiration; it does not move horizontally.
The muscular coordination which distends the rectus abdominis muscle
not only fails to help in the inspiration of the breath-it stops it. Tension
and distension of this muscle actually locks the breathing apparatus . Its
development is essential for the prize fighter-he cannot be winded
when it is tensed . It is used in order to stop the breathing action. The
other device for stopping the breath-closure of the throat by means of
the tongue muscles-will, therefore, always coordinate with tension on
the rectus abdominis.
Weight lifters also develop this muscle, and in so doing develop
muscles in the chest, neck, and in the upper part of the back. All of
these developments militate against a good vocal technic. The elimina-
tion of tension on the rectus abdominis muscle during the acts of respira-
tion and phonation is absolutely essential. It is desirable for this muscle
to be weak. It can be relaxed and uncoordinated with the act of
phonation when it is developed ; however, the singer with this develop-
ment is handicapped , since he is only too apt to tense the rectus
abdominis when he endeavors to work for the product ion of tone.
Such work is negative. The harder he tries, the more throaty will his
technic become. Men have more trouble with this muscle than do
women, since they are more apt to have developed it.
When the pupil lets go of the hold on the breathing muscles while
singing, he often tenses the .rectus abdominis, and then transfers the
tension up into the chest and shoulders. This transference of tension
eliminates altogether the proper work which should be done. It induces
tension on the neck muscles. The technic then becomes throaty. Since
this process cannot be reversed once it has begun , the pupil should be
told to stop singing the tone as soon as this transference of tension
starts . The central problem in the working out of the technic of certain
pupils may, at the start, center around this question of releasing the
tension on the rectus abdominis. In fact, little can be accomplished until
this tension has been modified.
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 Fig. 39 shows the proper distension of the abdomen after the breath
has been inspired; Fig. 40 shows chest breathing; Fig. 41 shows incorrect
distension due to a coordination of tension which centers on the rectus
abdominis muscle. Notice that in Fig. 39 the abdomen is distended all
the way down and that the pressure is down. The lowest part of the
abdomen is involved. Notice that, when the rectus abdominis is tensed,
the lower part of the abdomen is somewhat drawn up and there is chest
involvement-see Fig. 41.
Let it be clear, then: There can be no half-way measures! The
breathing is either lower back ribs and diaphragm with distension of
the abdomen, or it is chest. If the middle of the body-the rectus
abdominis-is involved, there is virtually no intake of breath, and any
tone produced under these conditions is throaty. The singer who wants
to employ an open technic must coordinate the tension of the proper
breathing muscles. If he does not want to make the necessary effort, he
must decide to sing on constriction-i.e., with a throaty technic. Under
these circumstances, he does not coordinate the breathing muscles with
the act of phonation and he should, therefore, relax as much as possible.
He must not study with any teacher who professes to teach Stanley
and then leaves out one or more of the essential phases of my teachings.
He will fare far better if he goes to a "masque" teacher, however silly
this may be. He will not, then, be as seriously hurt.
At a certain advanced stage of development, the pupil should be
able to open his throat consciously. Actually, he should always make
this opening gesture before starting to inspire. However, he must not
attempt to do so until he has virtually eliminated all constrictor action.
If he endeavors to open his throat too soon, he will only succeed in
increasing his throatiness. When thus consciously opening the throat, it
is most important for the pupil to realize that the opening gesture must
include the posterior part of the tongue, and that the entire tongue all
the way round, not the center section alone, is tensed and drawn forward .
The tongue extends a long way back-almost to the point at which the
stemo-mastoid muscles attach to. the mastoid bones. The sections of the
tongue which extend far back are most important-they must be tensed
ai;id.drawn .foa:ward.. The area of maximum tension is back at the Me&
of the tongue. The part of the tongue situated. under the chin should
be indented-drawn up, not down-i.e., the space in the center, imme-
diately under the chin, should be hollow. If the tongue presses down
at this point, the tension is in reverse-i.e., constrictor tension-and it
must be eliminated. The tongue must, of course, be relaxed and drawn
back with the tip pointing down, before it is set in opening tension.
The jaw must not be allowed to relax during the act of phonation, since
the genio-hyo-glossus muscles are attached to it. li it does so, the tongue
muscles will, pedorce, also relax, and constrictor tension will ensue.
When the tongue is tensed properly before the singer starts to inspire,
he. will-~~-a sli§bt .teasion •.on tlae.Jnspiratory muscles .of the .lower
back ribs and on the abdominal muscles; this.despite.the.fact.that,he.is
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neither breathing nor singing. If the rectus abdominis protrudes and
tenses, the opening tension will immediately be eliminated and con-
strictor tension will be induced. This is always so. The moment the
rectus abdominis is tensed, constrictor tension is engendered . Lateral
tension on the muscles of the tongue is similar to the tension on the
abdominal muscles when the breath is being properly held. The
muscles at the sides of the abdomen must be actively tensed in order to
hold the inspiratory tension. It is the tension on these muscles, in co-
ordination with the lower, back-rib muscles, that "holds" the inspiratory
tension and makes it possible for the singer to employ an open technic.
If the center of the abdomen moves out, during the act of phonation,
the inspiratory hold will be lost and throatiness will ensue. Tension
on the rectus abdominis muscle instantly destroys this hold on the
abdominal muscles. When the technic is correct, the necessary tension on
the side-lateral-muscles of the tongue and of the a~domen must be
maintained at all times during the act of phonation.
The voice must not be registered unless the tongue action is properly
worked out, and the teacher must not work on either registration or
tongue tension, if the far more difficult work on the breathing muscles
is not properly undertaken. Only the properly trained teacher under-
stands how to deal with each of these phases of his work in the correct
sequence and balance. The pupil must not, under any circumstances,
permit anyone to work on his voice, or to employ any of the manipula-
tion, unless he is able to show a letter, under my signature, which
specmcally states that he is properly trained and competent to do so.
The manipulations are invaluable when employed properly and ex-
tremely dangerous when incorrectly applied . Their incorrect use often
produces a sudden, apparent improvement which later degenerates into
mixed registration and violent constriction. The manipulations must be
performed properly. They must be used at the appropriate time and in
the correct sequence for each individual case. No untrained or partially
trained teacher could possibly use them without doing serious harm to
his pupils' voices.
There are no legal qualmcations for a vocal teacher. Anyone is allowed
to teach. There are only too many dishonest people who take advantage
of this fact. Anyone can show the prospective pupil one of my books
and say, "This is the method that I employ." This may mean nothing.
He might just as well show a collection of medical books and say, "I
understand these books and I will be your physician." In this case the
law protects you-it is illegal for him to practice medicine without the
proper training and qualmcations. The law does not protect you against
the quack vocal teacher-you must protect yourseH.
One last word : In order to become a really competent teacher accord-
ing to the principles I have laid down, the following requirements must
be met:
A. The aspiring teacher must have a very good ear which has been
trained to perceive minute differences of tonal quality and to associate
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these diflerences with the physical coordinations of which they are
the aural manifestations.
B. He must be a college graduate who has been trained in the essential
sciences and in music.
C. He must have natural teaching talent.
D. He must be sincere and honest in his dealings with pupils.
E. He must be willing to study for four or five years with a view to
teaching.
F. He must serve his internship-Le., work with pupils under guidance
for a period of about two years.

Digitized by Google

INDEX
Acoustics
acoustic coupling, 40
amplitude of sound vibrations, 33
abnospheric pressure, 1
conductor of sound, 38
consonants, 36
damping material, 37, 291
definition of sound, 33
energy distribution in the tone, 36
frequency, 34
fundamental, 35, 68
intensity of sound, 35
measurement of intensity (decibel),
41
musical intervals, 37
musical tone, 34
noise, 14, 34, 235-236
overtones (harmonics), 35, 69
periodic vibration, 34
pitch, 34
pressure pulse, 34
pure tone, 34
quality of tone, 35-36, 69, 227
refiection of sound, 38
resonance, 39-40, 68
resonance cavities, 28, 39, 60-61,
68, 70, 280-281
reverberation of sound, 38, 237
segmentation of strings, 35, 68-69
sound absorption,trT
sound spectrum, 36, 69, 74
sound wave, 34, 37
sounding board, 40, 281, 291
sympathetic vibration, 39, 69
transmission of sound, 33, 68, 282,
291
velocity of breath and "vocalized
breath," 3, 68, 291
vibration, 34
vowels, 36-37, 69-70, 72, 74, 274-
275
vowels, frequencies of, 36
Articulation-vocal ( see Consonants)
Attack, 2, 6, 117, 119, 122, 124, 197
glottis,closure of, and, 315
inspiration and, 305
inspiratory gesture and, 311
..
jerk and, 305
ribs, lower, and, 334
sensing inspiratory tension and, 311
tongue, mild tension on, and, 314
Breath
"blowing" of, 5, 97
control of ( ,es Breath control)
expulsion of, 4, 95-97, 104-105, 130
"holding" of, 3, 5, 122, 317
inspiringof,303,304,305,360,361
phrasing and, 244, 249
tension of breathing muscles and,
304
Breath control, 303
throatiness and, 306
tongue and, 306
"vocalized breath" and, 3, 4, 32,
282-283, 286, 290
Breath intensity curves, 96-97
Breathing, 5, 122, 358, 360-362
abdomen, tension on, 312, 362
abdomen, distension of, 362-364
chest, shoulders, neck and, 304, 358,
360
correct, and vital capacity, 307, 359
correct, difficulty of teaching, 308,
313
drawing in breath, 304
excessive tension on breathing mus-
cles, 332
full inspiration and high tones, 308
holding inspiratory tension and par-
tial breath, 318
holding inspiratory tension and
rapid breath, 333, 334
importance of proper, 303
inspiratory blast and, 318
inspiratory tension and control, 335
inspiratory tension, loss of, and
' tongue-grab," 335
inspiratory tension, singing on, 318
new pupils and, 303, 313
pre-tension and, 304, 305
rapid inspiration, 333
reserve of breath necessary for open
singing, 333
Digitized by Google
Breathing-( Continu«l}
tension required for, 831
throaty singer can use all his breath,
833
Breathing muscles (,ee Muscles-
breathing)
Broadcasting
opera, ana
false impression of, 842
Color-vowel modification, 37, 74,
283-234, 246, 254-255, 271-272
Compre.,sed air
proper inspiration and, 308
throaty singing and, 309
Consonants, 37, 72, 73, 244
articulation of d, l, n and t, 253,
275
holding opening tension and, 315
humming, 10, 11, 37, 254, 260,
270
"tongue-grab" and, 838, 839
Constriction
great natural voices and, 180, 288,
295-296
singing on, 4, 6, 9-10, 296
"tongue-grab" and, 338, 362
tongue instrument incorrectly used
and, 324
tongue tension and, 309, 358
Co-ordination
tension on breathingmuscles and,
304
unit, 87, 91
"Coup de glotte," 7
"Covered tones," "head tones," etc.,
7, 10, 283-284
Cuing, 229-231
Diaphragm
excessive tension on and vibrato,
832
inspiration and, 304, 358
Diction singer, 23, 24, 253, 272
Ear, 153, 173, 210
Ear vs. musicianship, 256, 257
Equilibrium, 3, 5, 8, 53, 78, 79, 122,
129, 192, 200, 211
r,JFexibility,8th,168, 173, 174, 206, 244
ocussing e voice," 4, 9, 283
"Give" (muscular), 9, 125, 210-211,
213, 220, 233
Glottis, 5, 55, 59, 104, 134
closure of, and attaclc, 315
368
Digitized by
opening of, and Joa of inspiratory
tension, 316
"Hamming," 10, 252, 254, 260, 270,
271, 297
Head position, 136, 138, 217
"Head register," "head resonance,"
"head tones," "head voice," (,ee
"Covered tones")
High tones
easily produced when throaty, 320
full inspiration and, 308
illegitimate, 321
throaty, and incompetent teachers,
320
throaty tecbnic and, 320
transitional, 322
"Hold" (muscular), 10, 124, 283
Hyoid bone, 59, 62, 73-74, 81-83,
110, 111, 219-221, 358,362
breathing and, 327
jerks, slurs, noises and, 327
lifting of, 326, 327
separation of thyroid cartilage and,
326
uneven separation between thyroid
cartilage and, 326, 327
Inspiration
chest gesture and throaty singing,
312
combatingtongue-grab,336
constriction of trachea during, 313
correct method of, 307, 368
full, 306
holding opening tension and, 314
hyoid bone and, 327
incorrect, and big gesture, 313
incorrect sound during, 307
incorrect "up• gesture and, 311,360
pre-tension and-unco-ordinated mus-
cular gesture, 310
pronounced expansion and sensing
inspiratory tension, 311
rapid, possible for open voice, 833
rapid, and throaty technic, 834
sensing inspiratory tension, 311
singing with, 311
sound of breath being inspired, 305,
306
tension for pronounced expansion,
312
throaty technic and forcing in the
breath, 312, 313
tongue and, 318, 319
tongue tension and throaty voices,
312
Google
Inspiratory tension
loss of, and establishment of con-
strictor tension, 816
ribs and, SS4
Intensity
color vs., 246, 254, 255
control of ( see Vibrato-intensity
variation and)
melodic line and, 243, 247, 259
mixed registration and control of,
95,208, 286
registration and control of, 86, 88-
91, 95, 179-181, 184, 208
scale, 28, 90, 103, 162, 208-209,
251, 284
tongue and control of, 816
Interpretation
falce effects and, 341
Intonation, 11, 195-196, 213, 229, 295
mixed registration and, 204
Jaw
badly articulated, 147, 216-217
going through lock, 819
Tips and, 143, 216
lock ( middle position), 24-25, 140,
142, 216, 285
lock J>OS.ition
of, 329
lock and teeth, 329
lock and tongue, 142, 285
major triad and, 216-219
manipulation of, 828
mouth-resonance adjustment and,
24, 25, 140
neck muscles and ( ,ee Neck mus-
cles)
opening the, 140-141, 145, 216
opening of, in mild tension, 829
permanently locked, 328
tongue position and opening the,
218
Larynx,55, 59, 83, 186-189,358
mixed registration and, 110-111,
186-189
position of the, 63, 81, 84, 111,
136-137, 292
Lips, 24, 26, 148-144, 216
mouth-resonance adjustment and,
24, 143
Manipulations
danger of improper use of, 319, 820,
358-359, 365
difficulty of proper employment of,
319,362
excessive use of, 859, 362
head, 186
hyoid bone, 82-84, 98, 160, 219-
221
l·aw, 147, 218-219
aryngeal, and proper use of, 825,
826
laryngeal, thyroid cartilage and hy-
oid bone, 826
limit to use of, 153
lips and jaw, 828
major triad and, 219-222
mixed-registration, 110-113
octave jump and, 160
personal problems and, 327
pupils' reactions and, 330
pupils' resistance to, 330, 331
relaxing neck muscles and, 330
sparing use of, 354, 355
stemo-thyroid, 358-359, 362
thyroid, 97-100, 159, 219-221
tongue instrument, 75-79, 85, 101,
118. 152, 157, 211-212. 221
'"Masque," sin~ng in the, 4, 10, 12-
13, 280-288, 292, 364
Melodic line ( connecting tones), 127,
206-209, 213-214, 237, 242-248,
253, 273
consonants and, 275
intensity scale and, 243
slurring and, 128, 208, 236-237
"timing" and, 128, 209, 265
Mezza voce ( see Pianissimo)
Middle tones
Caruso's, 821, 322
importance of correctly produced,
321
tenors', 321
Muscles
antagonistic and interfering tension
on, 1, 3, 11, 14, 53, 63, 117-
118, 125, 127, 140, 180, 282,
294,358
balanced development of, 3, 5, 78
breathing (see Equilibrium), 5, 31-
32, 53-54. 119, 122, 129, 171-
173, 177,358, 360-361
co-ordination of, 150, 293
"give," 9, 125, 210-211, 220
laryngeal, 55-60, 105, 183-189,
196, 859, 363
muscle tone (tonus), 30, 115-117,
231, 264-265, 385
neck (see Neck muscles)
reflex and consciously controlled, 5,
15, 115
tension on (see Muscle tension)
tongue, 60-62, 73, 309
369
Digitized by Google
Muscle tension
excessive tension on breathing mus-
cles, 332
making the pupil work, 831
proper degrees of, 831
teacher's illustration of necessary
..drive," 831
throaty vs. open technic, 832
Musical line
holding opening tongue tension and,
814,815
Musicianship, 198, 249, 263-264
accent, 240, 242-243, 254
accompaniment, 239-240, 245, 247
articulation (music), 247
beat, 245, 254-255
cadences, 241, 244-245, 255
chords, 249
climax, 245-246, 255, 259
counter-melody, 239-240, 247-248
dynamic effects, 239-240
ensemble, 238-240
form, 242
free passages, 250
harmonic structure, 241-242, 244
horizontal outline, 247, 255
interludes, 239-240
interpretation, 198, 238, 242-252,
258,286
intervals (musical), 37
legato, 247
melodic outline, 240, 247, 250-
251
melody, definition of, 207, 240
modulation, 244
motive, elaboration of, 240
motive figure, 173, 240, 249, 256
period, 238-239
phrase (musical), 173, 238, 245
portamento and vibrato, 32, 174,
208, 247
principal melody, 239, 247-248
recitatives, 247, 249-250
rhythmic pattern, 174, 209, 229-
231, 240-241, 243, 253, 260-261
scales, 241, 244
schools of music, 239, 246
section, 238-239, 242
stress (music), 238, 245, 250
syncopation, 243
tempo, 240, 243
theme, 240, 245
time, 174, 239-240, 243, 251
tradition. 262-263
"Natural voice," 13, 52, 164, 166,
295-296
370
Neclc muscles, 6, 105, 182, 188, 140,
185,282,285,358,360
manipulation for relaxing, 380, 859
open technic and, 810
relaxed, and correct technic, 826
throaty technic and, 310, 358
"Neck whistling," 14, 32, 64, 151
Nodules, 13, 109, 184
Noise
vs. legitimate power, 346,347,359
Octave jwnp, 161-162
Open technic
glotteal closure and, 816
mild tongue tension and, 814
"Opening" ( see Resonance adjust-
ment), 21, 85, 104, 130, 200-
201
breath expulsion and, 4, 96, 104-
105
power increases and, 106-107, 201
in . stages, 201, 212
sudden "openings," 104-105, 201
sudden and self-listening, 839
vibrato and, 32, 172
Opening tension
holding, 315
sudden loss of constrictor control
and, 839
volitional establishment of, 315
Opera
grand, and amplifying systems,856
Personality
fake effects and, 340, 841
"jazz" and Metropolitan singers,
341,342
projection of, 841
Pianissimo, 167, 179-181, 189, 251,
261, 288
vibrato and, 32, 167, 181
Pitch and laryngeal muscles, 59, 186-
189
Pitch range and faulty registration,
92
"Placing the voice," 4, 9
Posture, 29, 120, 121, 188
attack and, 334
Power
legitimate vs. illegitimate, 846
vs. loudness, 347, 848
noise and, 322
Pre-tension, 2, 14, 76, 125, 127, 231,
304, 305
Psychology, problems of, 106-107,
124,152,154,174,225,229,231,
244
Digitized by Google
Quality (,ee Acoustics), 35-37, 51,
105, 176, 195, 228-229
canying power and, 38, 236-237,
348
changes in, pupils' resistance to,
349
conditions for good, 348
"dark" ,tages, 349
intonation and, 12, 193, 228
length of vocal cords and, 192
mixed registration and, 94, 199-
200, 202
..natural," and throatiness, 340 .
noise and, 348
"personal," and the great singers,
340, 341
",I,ersonal," and throatiness, S40
' personal," and types of voices, 227,
228
pure registration and, 87, 195
self-listening and, 348
"throaty," and fake effects, 341
vibrato and, 31, 51, 169
whiteness, 349
Radio technic, 9, 25, 101, 176, 199-
200, 202, 283, 287
Ranges
of human voices, 354, 355
wide, and incompetent teachers, S20
Recordings of great artists, 178, 213-
214, 266-267
Rectus abdominis muscle
breathing and, 358, 360, 363
inspiration and, 358, 363
jaw and, 364
tension and, 123, 359, 363-365
throatiness and, 358, 363, 365
tongue and, S65
Registration
balancing of registers, 15, 18, 102
104, 159-160, 162-163, 196, 200,
222
break between registers, 16, 92,
193-195, 205, S20
change point between registers,
103, 222-224
co-ordinated vs. mixed, 194
co-ordination between registers, 17,
87-91, 131, 194, 315, S20
correct use of both registers, 222-
226
definition of, 15, 86, 184-189
elimination of lower register, 190
falsetto register, 17, 86, 92, 98, 101,
157, 164, 187-188, 224, 232, 235
falsetto- and lower-register-derived
tones, 234
"going through falsetto," 157, 232
incompetent teachers and, 320, S58
incorrect use of lower register, ltsS-
164
induced mixed, 20, 164
isolated (pure), 15, 18, 87, 93, 165,
195
laryngeal muscles, 15, 60, 86, 183-
189
lower register, 18, 86-87, 188
"middle register," 19, 165
mixed, 19, 60, 93-95, 110, 164,
183-185, 189-205, 287, 320, 321,
359
mixed falsetto, 19, 93-95, 198
mixed lower register, 19, 93-95,
196
octave relationship between regis-
ters, 20, 100-102, 165, 185, 199,
215,287
permanent muscular mixed, 20,
164, 196
pitch range and, 91, 103, 166
proper matching of registers, 322
psychological development and,
323
reflection between registers, 163,
226, 232
resonance adjustment and chang-
ing the registers, 224
tongue and, S27
unbalanced, 21, 114, 200
use of lower register in perform··
ance, 223
use of one register only, 92, 195-
196, 204
"Relaxation," 21, 293
breathing and, SOO
Inspiration and, S05
Reproduction (recording), 176-177,
298-299
Resonance adjustment
jaw lock and, 24
lips and, 24, 26
mouth and, 24, 60, 72, 252-253,
275, 281, 286
pharyngeal-open, 21-23, 60, 70, 80-
81, 104, 280-281
registration and ( ,ee Registration)
slurring and, 29, 175, 197
throaty, 23, 26-27, 101, 203, 284
tongue and ( ,ee Tongue)
Resonance cavities ( see Acoustics)
Rhythn_ticflow
rapid Inspiration and, 3S4
371
Digitized by Google
Scale intensity ( see Intensity scale)
Scales and vibrato, 168
Self-analysis .
danger of, 350, 351
Self-listening, 124, 154-155, 230, 282
carrying quality and, 348
combating, 353
cues and, 337
sudden opening and, 339
throatiness and, S40
"tongue-grab" and, 336
Singers
demand for legitimate, 356
effeminate and Golden Age, 356
effeminate and managers, 356
great, of the past. 342
Metropolitan, of today, 342
present-day, 276-277, 289
Slurring, 29, 128, 173, 286
attack and, 2, 117, 197
"give" and, 213
intonation and, 11, 173
mixed registration and, 29, 117,
196-197
pure registration and, 197
resonance adjustment and, 29, 175,
197
time spot and, 29, 174-175, 207-
208, 260
tongue control and, 316
vibrato and, 173-174
Sob, 245, 261
Sound ( see Acoustics)
Spealcing voice, 268-275, 297
faults of diction, 271
mixed registration and, 20, 269
natural quality of, 271-272
pitch and intensity of, 268, 270-
273
registration and, 269, 272, 297
requirements for good, 268-269, 297
singing vs., 268
ttainiil~ ·the, 272, 297
"tune,' tempo, accent and rhythm,
and the, 270, 273-27 4, 297
vibrato and, 268, 27 4, 298
"Squeak voice" and registration, 20,
26, 101, 198-199
Technical practice alone, 155
Tessitura, 166, 255
Throat
leading with the, and tongue ten-
sion, 313, 364
opening of, and inspiration, 336, 364
372
Throatiness( .- Tongue, Resonance
adjustment, etc.), 23, 27, 74-75
control of voice and, 335
co-ordination, premature work on,
and, 350 ·
droppe<l tongue arid, 24, 81-82, 358
fake effects and, 341
holding breath with tongue and,
317
inspiration and, 304, 358
loud, throaty voices hard to train,
346
loud voices, types of throaty, 347
loudness, loss of, under proper
training,347
low tones (weak) and, 322
mixed registration and, 94-95, 198-
204
neck, chest and shoulder muscles
and, 6,132, 136-137, 140,358
"personal quality" and, S40
thiclcness and, 349
tremolo and, 171
whiteness and, 349
Throaty singing and muscular devel-
opment, 109, 137
Throaty technic
chest gesture and, 312
conceit and, 323
constrictor tension and loud sing-
ing, 316
~losive effects and, 316
inspiration and, 309
inspiratory tension and, 316
jaw ( permanently loclced) and, 328
muscular development and, S09, 310
rapid inspiration and, 334
singers, today's, and, 342
slurred effects and, 316
tongue tension, pronounced, and,
314,358
Throaty voices and interpretation,
258,264
"Timing," 2, 29, 127-128, 209-211
muscle tone and, 335
Tone vs. noise, 108, 296
Tone, work done in production of,
125
Tongue
connecting tones and, 327
constrictor control of intensity and,
314,316
constrictor tension and, 309, 358,
364
correct position of, 73, 79-80
control of voice and, 309
 danger of trying to hold opening
tension on, 314
dropped ( see Throatiness)
"gra'6" (see ''Tongue-grab")
holding opening for musical line,
314
holding tension on, and rapid in-
spiration, 333
incorrect breathing and, 308
inspiration and, 307, 312, 318, 319
instrument ( see ManiJ.>ulations-
tongue instrument; and Tongue
instrument)
l ·erk of, and constrictor tension, 327
ock position of, 324
movement of base of, 316
muscles of the ( see Muscles)
open vs. throaty technic and, 309
position of tip of, 79, 81-82
register change and, 223
resonance adjustment, pharyngeal,
21-22, 60, 62, 73, 80
resonance adjustment for throaty
technic, 6, 26-27, 63, 74, 79, 81-
82, 309 . li3-174
tension on genio-hyo-glossus mus-
cles and, 309, 364
tie ( see Tongue-tie)
triads and jerking the, 327
''Tongue-grab"
breathing and, 309
connecting tones and, 338
control and, 335
going through falsetto and, 337,338
illegitimate effects and, 339
proper breathing and, 336
self-listening ana, 336
Tongue instrument ( see Manipulations
-tongue instrument)
another use of, 325
going through falsetto and, 338
proper use of, 323, 324
J.>upildiscipline and, 324
'tongue-grab" and, 337, 362
use of by pupil harmful, 325
Tongue-tie, 118
tongue instrument and, 325
Tonus (see Muscles-muscle tone)
Trachea and bronchi, 235
Translations, 238
Tremolo, 30, 171, 287
elimination 'of, 175
Henbility and, 8, 175, 287
jaw, 30, 143, 171
laryngeal, 30, 176
tongue, 30-31, 171-172, 175
Tremolo-vibrato, ~l, 172
Trili._168-169, 175
Vibrato
accent and, 242-243, 254
breathing muscles and, 172-173
characteristics of, 31~32, 167-170,
177
excessive tension on diaphragm and,
332
intensity variation and, 31, 167-170,
177
interpretation and, 31-32, 174-175,
251-252, 254-255
intonation and, 11, 31, 173-174
measurements of, 168-170
physiological reason for, 167
quality and, 31, 51, 169
recordings and, 168
slurring and, 173-174
training the, 172
tremolo vs., 171, 177
voice movements and, 8, 31, 168,
Vibrato-tremolo, 31, 172
Vocal student '
constant directions and, 352
lesson, attitude at, 351, 364
self-guidance and, 351
"sense," use of proper,352
technical practice dangerous, 354
Vocal teacher
choosing a, 300, 365
cues ana tongue-grab, 337
demonstrationsby,352
"driving" pupil and, 346
fake, 343, 344, 363
fake, and demonstrations, 352, 353
fake, and effect on pupils' attitude,
344
fake, and noisy voices, 348, 362
fake, and shortcuts, 321
fake directions of, 349
following directions of competent,
345
former, 277-279
incompetent, and danger of illus-
tration, 332
legitimate, 345
perverted, 355, 356
province of, during lesson, 350, 351
pseudo-scientific, 277-278,290-291
pupil and, 343
stages of development and, 350
taste of, 355
373
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Voice-(Continued)
quali.6cations of, 67, 85, 214-215,
278,293,296,300,365-366
Voice
development of, 60, 97, 130, 201
forcing the, 9, 106, 135, 292
improvement, process of develop-
ment in stages, 343
process of training, 345
pupil's resistance to changes in,
345,346
loss of, 189-191, 288, 294-295
range of, 854
"saving" the, 135
technic vs. age, 271
type of, 13, 28, 42, 166, 227
-Voice placement," 4, 7, 32, 291
Vowels ( see Acoustics)
forced modification of, 72
frequency table, 36
Whisper, absolute, 90-91, 167
White tone and throatiness, 74-75.
221, 235, 359. 362

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