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Principles of
Communications
Frequency Modulation

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Bessel Function

u Given the modulation index, the number and

amplitudes of the significant sidebands can
be determined by solving the basic equation
of an FM signal.

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Bessel Function

u The FM equation is FM = Vcsin[2fct + mf sin

(2fmt)], where FM is the instantaneous value
of the FM signal and mf is the modulation
index.

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Bessel Function

u Note that this equation expresses the phase

angle in terms of the sine wave modulating
signal. This equation is solved with a
complex mathematical process known as
Bessel functions.

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Bessel Function

u The FM wave is expressed as a composite of sine

waves of different frequencies and amplitudes that,
when added, give an FM time-domain signal. The
first term is the carrier with an amplitude given by a
Jn coefficient, in this case J0.
u The next term represents a pair of upper and lower
side frequencies equal to the sum and difference of
the carrier and modulating signal frequency. The
amplitude of these side frequencies is J1.
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Example

u What is the maximum modulating frequency

that can be used to achieve a modulation
index of 2.2 with a deviation of 7.48 kHz?

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Narrowband FM

u This is a special case of FM in which the

modulation process produces only a single
pair of significant sidebands like those
produced by AM. With a modulation index
of 0.25, the FM signal occupies no more
spectrum space than an AM signal.

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Narrowband FM

u The formal definition of NBFM is any FM

system in which the modulation index is less
than 1.57, or mf < pi/2.

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Narrowband FM

u Common FM mobile radios use a maximum

deviation of 5 kHz, with a maximum voice
frequency of 3 kHz, giving a modulation
index of mf = 5 kHz/3 kHz = 1.667. Although
these systems do not fall within the formal
definition of NBFM, they are nonetheless
regarded as narrowband transmissions.
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Narrowband FM

u The primary purpose of NBFM is to

conserve spectrum space, and NBFM is
widely used in radio communication. Note,
however, that NBFM conserves spectrum
space at the expense of the signal-to-noise
ratio.

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Example

u State the amplitudes of the carrier and the

first four sidebands of an FM signal with a
modulation index of 4.

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FM Signal Bandwidth

u For example, assume that the highest

modulating frequency of a signal is 3 kHz and
the maximum deviation is 6 kHz. This gives a
modulation index of mf = 6 kHz/3 kHz = 2.
BW = 2 fm N
where fm = modulating signal
N = number of sidebands
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Carson’s Rule

u Another way to determine the bandwidth of

an FM signal is to use Carson’s rule.
u This rule recognizes only the power in the
most significant sidebands with amplitudes
greater than 2 percent of the carrier.

BW = 2 [ fd(max) + fm(max) ]
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FM Signal Bandwidth

u Carson’s rule will always give a bandwidth

lower than that calculated with the formula
BW = 2fmN.
u However, it has been proved that if a circuit
or system has the bandwidth calculated by
Carson’s rule, the sidebands will indeed be
passed well enough to ensure full
intelligibility of the signal.
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Example

u What is the maximum bandwidth of an FM

signal with a deviation of 30 kHz and a
maximum modulating signal of 5 kHz as
determined by
u (a) Fig. 5-8 and
u (b) Carson’s rule?

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Noise Suppression Effects of FM

u Noise is interference generated by lightning,

motors, automotive ignition systems, and
any power line switching that produces
transient signals. Such noise is typically
narrow spikes of voltage with very high
frequencies. They add to a signal and
interfere with it.
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Noise and Phase Shift

u The noise amplitude added to an FM signal

introduces a small frequency variation, or
phase shift, which changes or distorts the
signal.

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Noise and Phase Shift

u The carrier signal is represented by a fixed-

length (amplitude) phasor S. The noise is
usually a short duration pulse containing
many frequencies at many amplitudes and
phases according to Fourier theory.
u To simplify the analysis, however, we
assume a single high-frequency noise signal
varying in phase.
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Noise and Phase Shift

u This noise signal is represented as a rotating

phasor N. The composite signal of the
carrier and the noise, labeled C, is a phasor
whose amplitude is the phasor sum of the
signal and noise and a phase angle shifted
from the carrier by an amount 𝝓.

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Noise and Phase Shift

u The maximum phase shift occurs when the

noise and signal phasors are at a right angle
to each other. This angle can be computed
with the arcsine or inverse sine according to
the formula.
𝝓 = sin-1(N/C)

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Noise and Phase Shift

u It is possible to determine just how much of

a frequency shift a particular phase shift
produces by using the formula
𝜹 = 𝝓fm
where 𝜹 = frequency deviation produced by noise
𝝓 = phase shift in rad
fm = modulating signal
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Example

u The input to an FM receiver has an S/N of

2.8. The modulating frequency is 1.5 kHz.
The maximum permitted deviation is 4 kHz.
What are (a) the frequency deviation caused
by the noise and (b) the improved output
S/N?

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Preemphasis

u Noise can interfere with an FM signal, and

particularly with the high-frequency
components of the modulating signal. Since
noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy, it
contains a lot of harmonics and other high-
frequency components.

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Preemphasis

u Most of the content of a modulating signal,

particularly voice, is at low frequencies.
u In voice communication systems, the
bandwidth of the signal is limited to about 3
kHz, which permits acceptable intelligibility.

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Preemphasis

u In contrast, musical instruments typically

generate signals at low frequencies but contain
many high-frequency harmonics that give them
their unique sound and must be passed if that
sound is to be preserved.
u Thus a wide bandwidth is needed in high-
fidelity systems. Since the high-frequency
components are usually at a very low level,
noise can obliterate them.
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Preemphasis

u To overcome this problem, most FM

systems use a technique known as
preemphasis that helps offset high-
frequency noise interference. At the
transmitter, the modulating signal is passed
through a simple network that amplifies the
high- frequency components more than the
low-frequency components.
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Preemphasis Circuit

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Deemphasis Circuit

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Frequency Modulation Versus

Amplitude Modulation

u In general, FM is considered superior to AM.

Although both AM and FM signals can be
used to transmit information from one place
to another, FM typically offers some
significant benefits over AM.

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Noise Immunity

u The main benefit of FM over AM is its superior

immunity to noise, made possible by the
clipper limiter circuits in the receiver, which
effectively strip off all the noise variations,
leaving a constant-amplitude FM signal.
u Although clipping does not result in total
recovery in all cases, FM can nevertheless
tolerate a much higher noise level than AM for
a given carrier amplitude.
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Capture Effect

u Another major benefit of FM is that interfering

signals on the same frequency are effectively
rejected. Because of the amplitude limiters and
the demodulating methods used by FM
receivers, a phenomenon known as the
capture effect takes place when two or more
FM signals occur simultaneously on the same
frequency.
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Transmitter Efficiency

u A third advantage of FM over AM involves efficiency.

Recall that AM can be produced by both low-level
and high-level modulation techniques.
u The most efficient is high-level modulation in which
a class C amplifier is used as the final RF power
stage and is modulated by a high-power modulation
amplifier.
u The AM transmitter must produce both very high RF
and modulating signal power.
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Excessive Spectrum Use

u Perhaps the greatest disadvantage of FM is

that it simply uses too much spectrum space.
The bandwidth of an FM signal is, in general,
considerably wider than that of an AM signal
transmitting similar information.
u Although it is possible to keep the modulation
index low to minimize bandwidth, reducing the
modulation index also reduces the noise
immunity of an FM signal.
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Circuit Complexity

u One major disadvantage of FM in the past

involved the complexity of the circuits used
for frequency modulation and demodulation
in comparison with the simple circuits used
for amplitude modulation and demodulation.
u Today, this disadvantage has almost
disappeared because of the use of
integrated circuits.
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