Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Pulchowk campus, Institute of Engineering,

Tribhuvan University

MANUFACTURING AND PRODUCTION PROCESSES

Automation and Numerical Control of Machine Tools

Dr. Shree Raj Shakya

July, 2013
 Automation of Manufacturing
• Automation is defined as the process of enabling
machines to follow a predetermined sequence of
operations with little or no human intervention and
using specialized equipment and devices that perform
and control manufacturing processes and operations
• Full automation is achieved through various devices,
sensors, actuators, techniques, and equipment that are
capable of
a) monitoring all aspects of the operation
b) making decisions concerning changes that should be made
in, and
c) controlling all aspects of the operation.
• Automation is an evolutionary rather than a
revolutionary concept.
History of Automation of Manufacturing
 Automation of Manufacturing
In manufacturing plants, it has been implemented especially in
the following basic areas of activity:
• Manufacturing processes: Machining, forging, cold extrusion,
casting, powder metallurgy, and grinding operations.
• Material handling and movement: Materials and parts in
various stages of completion (works in progress) are moved
throughout a plant by computer controlled equipment, with
little or no human guidance.
• Inspection: Parts are inspected automatically for dimensional
accuracy, surface finish, quality, and various specific
characteristics during their manufacture (in-process
inspection).
• Assembly: Individually manufactured parts and components
are assembled automatically into subassemblies and then
assemblies to complete a product.
• Packaging: Products are packaged automatically for dispatch
and shipment.
 Flexibility and Productivity of Manufacturing Systems

Figure: Flexibility and productivity of various manufacturing systems. Note the

overlap between the systems; it is due to the various levels of automation and
computer control that are possible in each group.

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
 Types of Production
• Job shops: These facilities use general-purpose machines and
machining centers with high levels of labor involvement.
• Stand-alone NC production: This method uses numerically controlled
machines, but with significant operator-machine interaction.
• Manufacturing cells: These cells use a cluster of machines with
integrated computer control and flexible material handling, often with
industrial robots.
• Flexible manufacturing systems: these systems use computer control of
all aspects of manufacturing, the simultaneous incorporation of a
number of manufacturing cells, and automated material-handling
systems.
• Flexible manufacturing lines: These lines organize computer-controlled
machinery in production lines instead of cells. Part transfer is through
hard automation and product flow is more limited than in flexible
manufacturing systems, but the throughput is larger for higher
production quantities.
• Flow lines and transfer lines: These lines consist of organized groupings
of machinery with automated material handling between machines.
The manufacturing line is designed with limited or no flexibility, since
the goal is to produce a single part.
 Approximate Annual Production Quantity

• Piece-part production generally involves very small quantities and is suitable for job
shops. The majority of piece-part production is done in lot sizes of 50 or less.
• Small-batch production quantities typically range from 10 to 100, and the equipment
used consists of general-purpose machines and machining centers.
• Batch production usually involves lot sizes between 100 and 5000. It utilizes machinery
similar to that used for small-batch production, but with specially designed fixtures for
higher productivity.
• Mass production involves quantities often over 100,000. It requires special purpose
machinery (called dedicated machines) and automated equipment for transferring
materials and parts in progress. Although the machinery, equipment, and specialized
tooling are expensive, both the labor skills required and the labor costs are relatively
low. These production systems are organized for a specific type of product;
consequently, they lack flexibility.
Characteristics of Three Types of Production Methods

Figure: General characteristics of three types of production methods: job

shop, batch, and mass production.
 Considerations for applications of Automation
• Automation can be applied to the manufacturing
of all types of goods, from raw materials to
finished products, and in all types of production,
from job shops to large manufacturing facilities.
• The decision to automate a new or existing
production facility requires at least the following
considerations:
– Type of product manufactured
– Production quantity and rate of production required
– Particular phase of the manufacturing operation to be
automated if not all phases are automated
– Level of skill in the available workforce
– Reliability and maintenance problems that may be
associated with automated systems
– Economics of the whole operation.
Hard Automation
 Hard Automation
• In hard automation, or fixed-position automation, the
machines are designed to produce a standard product,
such as a gear, a shaft, or an engine block.
• Although product size and processing parameters, such as
machining speed, feed, and depth of cut, can be changed,
these machines are specialized and hence lack flexibility.
• Because such machines are expensive to design and
build, their economical use requires the production of
parts in very large quantities-for example, automotive
engines.
• The machines, generally called transfer machines and
consisting of power-head production units and transfer
mechanisms, usually are built on the modular (building-
block) principle.
 Hard Automation
• Power-head Production Units: Consisting of a frame or bed, electric
drive motors, gearboxes, and tool spindles, these units are self-
contained. Because of this inherent modularity, they can easily be
regrouped for producing a different part and thus have some
adaptability and flexibility.
• Transfer Machines: Typically consisting of two or more powerhead units,
these machines can be arranged on the shop floor in linear, circular, or U-
shaped patterns. Transfer machines also are used extensively in
automated assembly. Transfer mechanisms are used to move the
workpiece from one station to another in the machine, or from one
machine to another, to enable various operations to be performed on the
part. Workpieces are transferred by such methods as (a) rails, along which
the parts (which usually are placed on pallets) are pushed or pulled by
various mechanisms, (b) rotary indexing tables, and (c) overhead
conveyors.
• Transfer Lines. A transfer line, or flow line, in a very large system for
producing complicated products (cylinder heads for engine blocks)
consists of a number of transfer machines. This system is capable of
producing 100 of products (cylinder heads) per hour using various
machining operations.
 Types of Transfer Mechanisms

Figure: Two types of transfer mechanisms:

(a) straight rails and
(b) circular or rotary patterns.
Transfer Line for Engine Blocks and Cylinder Heads

Figure: A large transfer line for producing engine blocks and cylinder heads.
Source: Courtesy of Ford Motor Company.
 Soft Automation
• In soft automation, also called flexible or
programmable automation, greater flexibility is
achieved through the use of computer control of the
machine and of its functions; thus, it can produce
parts having complex shapes.
• Soft automation is important because the machines
can be reprogrammed easily and readily to produce
a part that has a shape or dimensions different from
the one produced just prior to it.
• Further advances in flexible automation include the
extensive use of modern computers, leading to the
development of flexible manufacturing systems, with
high levels of efficiency and productivity.
Flexible Manufacturing Cell
Flexible Manufacturing System
Flexible Manufacturing System
 Conventional Numerical Control
• Numerical control (NC) is a method of controlling the movements of
machine components
– by directly inserting coded instructions in the form of numbers and letters
into the system.
– The system automatically interprets these data and converts them to
output signals,
– which, in turn, control various machine components - for example, turning
spindles on and off, changing tools, moving the workpiece or the tools along
specific paths, and turning cutting fluids on and off.
• In numerical-control operations, data concerning all aspects of the
machining operation (such as tool locations, speeds, feeds, and cutting
fluids) are stored on hard disks.
• On the basis of input information, relays and other devices (known as
hardwired controls) can be actuated to obtain a desired machine setup.
• Complex operations, such as turning a part having various contours or die
sinking in a milling machine, are now carried out easily.
• NC machines are used extensively in small- and medium-quantity
production (typically 500 or fewer parts) of a wide variety of parts, both
in small shops and in large manufacturing facilities.
 Historical Origin of Numerical Control
• The basic concept was implemented in the early 1800s, when punched holes in
sheet-metal cards were used to automatically control the movements of
weaving machines. Needles were activated by sensing the presence or absence
of a hole in the card.
• This invention was followed by automatic piano players (Pianolasm), in which
the keys were activated by air flowing through holes punched in a perforated roll
of paper.
• The principle of numerically controlling the movements of machine tools was
first conceived in the 1940s by JT Parsons (1913-2007) in his attempt to machine
complex helicopter blades.
• The first prototype NC machine was built in 1952 at the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology. It was a vertical-spindle, two-axis copy-milling machine
retrofitted with servomotors, and the machining operations performed
consisted of end milling and face milling on a thick aluminum plate.
• The numerical data to be punched into the paper tapes were generated by a
digital computer, another invention that was being developed at the same time
at MIT. In the experiments, parts were machined successfully, accurately, and
repeatedly without operator intervention.
• On the basis of this success, the machine-tool industry began designing, building,
and marketing NC machine tools. Later, these machines were equipped with
computer-numerical controls (CNCs) yielding greater flexibility, accuracy,
versatility, and ease of operation
Conventional Numerical Control
Conventional Numerical Control Part Programming
Conventional Numerical Control Part Programming
 Positions of Drilled Holes in Workpiece

Figure : Positions of drilled holes in a workpiece. Three methods of measurements

are shown: (a) absolute dimensioning referenced from one point at the lower left
of the part; (b) incremental dimensioning made sequentially from one hole to
another; and (c) mixed dimensioning – a combination of both methods.

Numerical control based machining are superior over manual

machining in terms of accuracy, productivity, repeatability,
versatility
 Computer Numerical Control
• In the next step in the development of numerical
control, the control hardware (mounted on the NC
machine) was converted to local computer control by
software.
• Two types of computerized systems were developed
1) Direct numerical control and
2) Computer numerical control
1) Direct numerical control (DNC):
– several machines are controlled directly step by step-by a
central mainframe computer.
– operator has access to the central computer through a
remote terminal
– status of all machines in a manufacturing facility can be
monitored and assessed from a central computer
– however, if the computer shuts down, all of the machines
become inoperative.
 Computer Numerical Control
2) Computer numerical control (CNC)
– a system in which a control microcomputer is an
integral part of machine (onboard computer).
– machine operator can program onboard computers,
modify the programs directly, prepare programs for
different parts, and store the programs.
– CNC systems are used widely today because of the
availability of
• small computers with large memory,
• low-cost programmable controllers and microprocessors,
and
• program editing capabilities.
Principles of NC Machine Tools
• The functional elements in
numerical control and the
components involved are as
follows:
• Data input: The numerical
information is read and stored in
computer memory.
• Data processing: The programs are
read into the machine control unit
for processing.
• Data output: This information is
translated into commands
(typically, pulsed commands) to
the servomotor. The servomotor
then moves the worktable on
which the workpiece is mounted
to specific positions through linear
or rotary movements by means of
stepping motors, lead screws, or
other, similar devices.
 Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Control Systems (Circuits) for
Numerical-Control Machine

DAC means “digital-to-

analog converter.”

Figure: Schematic illustration of the components of (a) an open-loop: the signals

are sent to the servomotor by the controller, but the movements and final positions
of the worktable are not checked for accuracy.
(b) a closed-loop control: equipped with various transducers, sensors, and counters
that accurately measure the position of worktable. Through feedback control, the
position of the worktable is compared against the signal, and the table movements
terminate when the proper coordinates are reached.
 Direct and Indirect Measurement of Machine-Tool Work
Table
Direct measuring systems
(a) : a sensing device
reads a graduated scale
on the machine table, or
slide, for linear
movement. This system is
more accurate, because
the scale is built into the
machine and backlash in
the mechanisms is not
significant.

Indirect measurement systems(b and c): rotary encoders, or resolvers, convert

rotary movement to translation. Backlash (the play between two adjacent mating
gear teeth), however, can affect measurement accuracy significantly.
Movement of Tools in Numerical-Control Machining

Figure: Movement of tools in numerical-control machining. (a) Point-to-point, in

which the drill bit drills a hole at position 1, is retracted and moved to position 2
and so on. (b) Continuous (contouring) path by a milling cutter. Note that the
cutter path is compensated for by the cutter radius. This path also can be
compensated for cutter wear.
 Types of Interpolation in Numerical Control

Figure : Types of interpolation in numerical control: (a) linear, (b) continuous

path approximated by incremental straight lines, and (c) circular.
 Interpolation Methods

(b)

Figure: (a) Schematic illustration of drilling, boring, and milling

with various paths. (b) Machining a sculptured surface on a 5-axis
numerical-control machine.
 Advantages and Limitations of Numerical Control
• Numerical control has the following advantages over conventional methods
of machine control:
– Greater flexibility of operation, as well as the ability to produce complex
shapes with good dimensional accuracy and repeatability; high production
rates, productivity, and product quality; and lower scrap loss.
– Machine adjustments are easy to make.
– More operations can be performed with each setup, and the lead time
required for setup and machining is less than the lead time required in
conventional methods.
– Programs can be prepared rapidly, and they can be recalled at any time.
– Operator skill required is less than that for a qualified machinist, and the
operator has more time to attend to other tasks in the work area.
• Limitations:
– relatively high initial cost of the equipment,
– need and cost for programming and computer time, and the special
maintenance required.
– Because these machines are complex systems, breakdowns can be costly, so
preventive maintenance is essential.
 Adaptive Control

• Adaptive control (AC) is basically a dynamic-feedback system in

which the operating parameters automatically adapt themselves to
conform to new circumstances.
• It is a logical extension of computer numerical control systems.
• The part programmer sets the processing parameters on the basis of
the existing knowledge of the workpiece material and relevant data
on the particular manufacturing operation.
• In CNC machines, on the one hand, these parameters are held
constant during a particular process cycle; in AC, on the other hand,
the system is capable of automatic adjustments during the
operation, through closed-loop feedback control
Application of Adaptive Control (AC) for Turning Operation

Figure : Schematic illustration of the application of adaptive control (AC) for a

turning operation. The system monitors such parameters as cutting force, torque,
and vibrations. If these parameters are excessive, it modifies process variables
(such as feed and depth of cut) to bring them back to acceptable levels.
 Adaptive Control in Milling

Figure: An examples of adaptive control in milling. As depth of cut (a) or the

width of cut (b) increases, the cutting forces and the torque increase. The system
senses this increase and automatically reduces the feed (c) to avoid excessive
forces or tool breakage in order to maintain cutting efficiency. Source: After Y.
Koren.
Inspection of Work piece Diameter in Turning Operation

Figure: In-process inspection of workpiece diameter in a turning operation. The

system automatically adjusts the radial position of the cutting tool in order to
produce the correct diameter.
Material Handling and Movement
Automated Guided Vehicle (AGV)
During a typical manufacturing
operation, raw materials and parts in
progress are moved from storage to
machines, from machine to machine,
from assembly to inventory, and,
finally, to shipment.

Figure: A automated/self-guided
vehicle (Caterpillar Model SGC0M)
carrying a machining pallet. The
vehicle is aligned next to a stand on
the floor. Instead of following a wire
or stripe path on the factory floor, this
vehicle calculates its own path and
automatically corrects for any
deviations. Source: Courtesy of
Caterpillar Industrial, Inc.
 Material Handling Methods
Several factors must be considered in selecting a suitable material
handling method for a particular manufacturing operation:
1) Shape, Weight, and characteristics of the parts.
2) Distances involved and the position and orientation of the
parts during their movement and at final destination.
3) Conditions of the path along which the parts are to be
transported.
4) Level of automation, the controls needed, and any integration
with other equipment and systems.
5) Operator skill required.
6) Economic considerations.

Equipment: The types of equipment that can be used to move

materials and parts in progress may consist of conveyors, rollers,
carts, forklift trucks, self-powered monorails, and various
mechanical, electrical, magnetic, pneumatic, and hydraulic
devices and manipulators.
 Industrial Robots
• Word coined in 1920 by the Czech author K. Capek in his play R. U.R. (Rossum’s Universal
Robots meaning “Worker.”
• An industrial robot definition by International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as “a
machine formed by a mechanism including several degrees of freedom, often having the
appearance of one or several arms ending in a wrist capable of holding a tool, a workpiece,
or an inspection device.”
• Basic components:
– Manipulator: Also called an arm and Wrist, the manipulator is a mechanical
unit that provides motions (trajectories) similar to those of a human arm and
hand - six rotational joints and seven degrees of freedom.
– End Effector: The end of the Wrist in a robot is equipped with an end effector,
also called end-of-arm tooling. Depending on the type of operation,
conventional end effectors may be equipped with any required the devices
(Grippers, hooks, scoops, spray guns, spot and arc welding and cutting, power
tools (drills, nut drivers, and burrs), measuring instruments).
– Power Supply: Each motion of the manipulator (linear or rotational) is
controlled and regulated by independent actuators that use an electrical, a
pneumatic, or a hydraulic power supply.
– Controller (control system): is communications and information-processing
system that gives commands for the movements of the robot. It is the brain of
the robot and stores data to initiate and terminate movements of the
manipulator. It is also the nervous system of the robot; it interfaces with
computers and other equipment, such as manufacturing cells or assembly
systems.
 6-Axis KR030 KUKA Robot

Figure: (a) Schematic illustration of a 6-axis KR030 KUKA robot. The payload at
the wrist is 30 kg and repeatability is ±0.15mm (±0.006 in.). The robot has
mechanical brakes on all of its axes, which are coupled directly. (b) The work
envelope of the robot, as viewed from the side. Source: Courtesy of KUKA
Robotics.
 Devices Attached to End Effectors

Figure: Types of devices and tools attached to end effectors to perform a variety
of operations.
 Types of Industrial Robots

Figure: Four types of industrial robots:

(a) cartesian (rectilinear),
(b) cylindrical,
(c) sperical (polar) and
(d) articulated (revolute, jointed, or anthropomorphic)
 Work Envelopes for Three Types of Robots

Figure : Work envelopes for three types of robots.

The choice depends on the particular application.
 Industrial Robot Applications
• Material-handling operations can be performed reliably and repeatedly
with robots, thereby improving quality and reducing scrap losses. Some
examples are (a) casting and molding operations in which molten metal,
raw materials, lubricants, and parts in various stages of completion are
handled without operator interference; (b) heat-treating operations in
which parts are loaded and unloaded from furnaces and quench baths; (c)
forming operations in which parts are loaded and unloaded from presses
and various other types of metalworking machinery.
• Spot welding unitizes automobile and truck bodies, producing welds of
good quality. Robots also perform other, similar operations, such as arc
welding, arc cutting, and riveting.
• Operations such as deburring, grinding, and polishing can be done by
using appropriate tools attached to the end effectors.
• Applying adhesives and sealants
• Spray painting (particularly of complex shapes) and cleaning operations
are frequent applications because the motions required for treating one
piece are repeated accurately for the next piece.
• Automated assembly
• Inspection and gaging at speeds much higher than those which can be
achieved by humans.
 Industrial Robot Applications

(a) (b)
Figure: Examples of industrial robot applications.
(a) Spot welding automobile bodies with industrial robots.
(b) Sealing joints of an automobile body with an industrial robot.
Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
 Automated Assembly Operations

Figure: Automated assembly operations using industrial robots and circular

and linear transfer lines.
 Sensor Technology
• A sensor is a device that produces a signal in response to
its detecting or measuring a specific property, such as
position, force, torque, pressure, temperature, humidity,
speed, acceleration, or vibration.
• Sensors used in manufacturing operations are generally
classified as follows:
– Mechanical sensors measure such quantities as position, shape,
velocity, force, torque, pressure, vibration, strain, and mass.
– Electrical sensors measure voltage, current, charge, and
electrical conductivity.
– Magnetic sensors measure magnetic field, flux, and
permeability.
– Thermal sensors measure temperature, flux, thermal
conductivity, and specific heat.
– Other types of sensors are acoustic, ultrasonic, chemical,
optical, radiation, laser, and fiber optic.
 Robot Gripper
(Tactile Sensing)
Figure : A robot gripper with
tactile sensors.

Tactile sensing involves the

continuous sensing of
variable contact forces,
commonly by an array of
sensors for example, strain
gages, piezoelectric devices,
magnetic induction,
ultrasonics, and optical
systems of fiber optics and
light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
 Machine-Vision Applications ( Visual Sensing)

Figure: Examples of machine-vision applications. (a) In-line inspection of parts. (b)

Identification of parts with various shapes and inspection and rejection of defective
parts. (c) Use of camera to provide positional input to a robot relative to the workpiece.
(d) Painting parts having different shapes by means of input from a camera. The
system’s memory allows the robot to identify the particular shape to be painted and to
proceed with the correct movements of a paint spray attached to the end effector.
Smart Tool holder (Smart Sensors - decision making)

Figure: A tool holder equipped with thrust-force and torque sensors (smart
toolholder), capable of continuously monitoring the cutting operation. Such
toolholders are necessary for the adaptive control of manufacturing
operations. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
 Modular Fixture Design

Figure 1: Cast-iron housing and the

machining operations required. Figure 2: Modular components used to
construct the fixture for CNC machining of
the cast-iron housing depicted in Fig 1.

Figure 3: Completed modular fixture with

cast-iron housing in place, as would be
assembled for use in a machining center or
CNC milling machine. Source: Courtesy of
Carr Lane Manufacturing Company.
 Stages in Design-For-Assembly Analysis

Figure: Stages in the design-for-assembly analysis. Source: After G. Boothroyd

and P. Dewhurst.
 Methods of Assembly
1) Manual assembly uses relatively simple tools and generally is
economical for small lots. Because of the dexterity of the
human hand and fingers and their capability for feedback
through various senses, workers can manually assemble even
complex parts without much difficulty. In spite of the use of
sophisticated mechanisms, robots, and computer controls,
the aligning and placing of a simple square peg into a square
hole involving small clearances can be difficult in automated
assembly-yet the human hand is capable of doing this simple
operation with relative ease.
2) High-speed automated assembly utilizes transfer
mechanisms designed specially for assembly. in which
individual assembly is carried out on products that are
indexed for proper positioning.
3) In robotic assembly, one or two general-purpose robots
operate at a single workstation, or the robots operate at a
multistation assembly system.
 Transfer Systems for Automated Assembly

Figure: Transfer systems for automated assembly:

(a) rotary indexing machine and
(b) in-line indexing machine. Source: After G. Boothroyd.
 Two-Arm Robot Assembly Station

Figure: A two-arm robot assembly station. Source: Product Design for Assembly,
1989 edition, by G. Boothroyd and P. Dewhurst. Reproduced with permission.
Thank You
 Adjustable-Force Clamping System

Figure: Schematic illustration of an adjustable-force clamping

system. The clamping force is sensed by the strain gage, and the
system automatically adjusts this force. Source: After P.K. Wright.
 Part Feeders

Figure : Examples of guides to ensure that parts are properly oriented for
automated assembly. Source: After G. Boothroyd.