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Power System Harmonic Analysis in Wind Power Plants- Part I: Study Methodology
and Techniques

Babak Badrzadeh ,Manoj Gupta*, Nand Singhƒ,Andreas PeterssonƔ ,Lena MaxƔ, Martin Høgdahl^
Australian Energy Market Operator, System Capability, Melbourne, Australia
*
Vestas Global Solution and Services, Singapore
ƒ Ɣ
ABB Grid Systems, Stone, UK, Gothia Power, SE-411 33 Göteborg, Sweden, ^Energinet.dk, Frederica,7000, Denmark

Email:
babak.badrzadeh@ieee.org
ƒ
magup@vestas.com
*
nand.signh@gb.abb.com
Ɣ
andreas.petersson@gothiapower.com, lena.max@gothiapower.com
^mhz@energinet.dk

Abstract -- This paper discusses different aspects of power the HVDC links and motor drives. This behavior needs to be
system harmonic analysis in wind power plants. It begins with accounted for through measurements and simulation studies.
discussing various aspects of the harmonic analysis in wind Almost all commercial wind turbines are based on Voltage
power plants. The topics discussed include harmonic generation Source Converters (VSCs). Harmonic performance of these
mechanism of wind turbines, harmonic emission vs. harmonic converters differs from the conventional line- or load-
susceptibility, event driven harmonics, harmonic frequency
commutated current source converters. The main
range, harmonic cancellation, and harmonics standards.
Different methods suitable for harmonic analysis in wind power differentiators are that the VSC-based wind turbines generate
plants including harmonic power flow, frequency scans, and significantly lower level of harmonic distortion with a
time-domain analysis are elaborated on, and the differences significantly larger frequency span. Such a low distortion can,
between the stochastic and deterministic approaches are give rise to relatively high distortion when interacting with the
discussed. The modeling methodology for different components background harmonic voltage of interconnected network, or
of wind power plants including wind turbine generator, when coinciding with a grid resonance point.
transformer, cables, and the equivalent network representation
is then presented. Harmonic susceptibility and interaction of A few papers have been recently published on harmonic
wind turbine with the rest of power system and possibility of analysis of WPPs [2]-[12]. However, Different aspects of
resonance and harmonic excitation is then discussed. Several harmonics in wind power plants, various analysis techniques,
simulation case studies obtained from harmonic analysis of modeling methodology for the WTG and balance of plant
practical wind power plants are presented. (BOP) components, and differentiators between the
conventional power systems and WPPs in terms of the
Index Terms-- Power system harmonics, wind power plants,
harmonic analysis is not very widely discussed in the
harmonic modeling and simulation, harmonic resonance,
harmonic emission, harmonic susceptibility. technical literature.
The purpose of this paper is to discuss different aspects of
I. INTRODUCTION power system harmonic analysis in Wind Power Plants
(WPPs). The main motivation is that application of tools and
Wind Turbine Generators (WTGs) are becoming the
techniques applied for investigation of harmonic studies in
mainstream generation. Wind turbines are generally divided
conventional power systems could give rise to incorrect
into four distinct types referred to as type 1-4 turbines.
results or fail altogether when assessing harmonic
According to IEC 61400-21 it is not necessary to conduct
performance of WPPs. Factors contributing to this difference
harmonic measurements and hence studies for direct coupled
include active behavior of the WTG and interconnected
fixed speed wind turbines (type 1) [1]. The presence of a soft-
network, stochastic changes in the harmonic profile measured
starter in these turbines produces some harmonics yet with
at the point of common coupling, generation of high-
very low magnitude which can be neglected for most
frequency harmonics by the WTG, the likelihood of harmonic
harmonic studies. The same applies to the type 2 wind
interaction and instability, and event driven harmonic issues.
turbines. Type 1 turbines, however, often utilize an Static Var
Compensator (SVC) at the WTG terminals to enable them to
II. HARMONICS IN WIND POWER PLANTS
ride-though the network faults. For these cases a sufficiently
accurate representation of the SVC is generally required. A. PWM harmonics
Type 3 and 4 turbines utilize a back-to-back power electronic
Harmonics generated by wind turbine generators depend
converter which can inject harmonics in the same fashion as
on the control of the grid- and rotor-side converters. Most

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commercial wind turbines make use of PWM switching
strategy. Direct Torque Control (DTC) has been adopted by
one manufacturer but it is not discussed in the paper.
Harmonics generated by PWM converters primarily depend
on the modulation frequency ratio and modulation amplitude
ratio. For a VSC harmonics generated by the converter
switching during balanced steady-state conditions are termed
as characteristic harmonics. All other harmonics are
considered as the non-characteristic harmonics of the VSC-
based WTG.
For a simple sinusoidal PWM modulation with triangular
career signals this can be explained as follows. The
modulation frequency ratio (mf) is the ratio of the frequency
of the carrier wave to the desired fundamental output
frequency of the converter. For example with modulation
frequency and fundamental frequency set at 2500 Hz and
50 Hz the modulation frequency ratio can be calculated as
2500/50 = 50. In general the harmonic orders include [13]:
h=l*mf±k (1)
where l=1,2,3,4,… and k=1,2,3,4,… Note that l and k cannot
be simultaneously even or odd.
This equation indicates that during ideal operating
conditions no significant low order harmonics is generated by
the PWM switching, but higher order harmonic components
are introduced. These components are generally in the range
of the switching frequency and higher, sometimes in excess of
10 kHz. These high order harmonics have a lower magnitude
than those of the line- or load-commutated current source
converters. The second factor which influence the harmonics
generated by a PWM technique is the modulation amplitude
ratio (ma) [13]. This is defined as the ratio of the amplitude of
the desired fundamental output to the amplitude of the
triangular carrier wave which is normally smaller than unity.
The switching frequency of the grid- and rotor-side
converter for modern wind turbines generally is in the range
of 1-5 kHz. Note that the grid- and rotor-side converters may
or may not have the same switching frequency.
B. Harmonic aspects
When considering the impact of harmonics generated by
wind power plants there are generally two aspects that need to
be taken into account. These two aspects include harmonic
emission and harmonic susceptibility. Harmonic emission
generally deals with the distortion of current and voltage
waveforms, and compliance with grid codes or harmonic
standards. This aspect of harmonics is generally analyzed
with conventional harmonic penetration studies
Harmonic susceptibility deals with the adverse interaction
of the equipment due to undesirable current injection by the
power electronic components. In WPPs this can be caused by
fast control of power electronic converters employed in wind
turbines. When considering the harmonic susceptibility issue
the level of steady-state harmonic distortion is not the main
point of interest. The primary interest is the potential de-
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stabilization of the operation of a network component or wind
turbine itself, or excitation of a system resonance frequency.
Investigation of harmonic susceptibility issues cannot be
generally dealt with conventional harmonic penetration
analyses, and needs more advanced analysis techniques such
as time-domain based electromagnetic transient (EMT)
simulation methods.
C. Harmonic frequency range
In most guidelines and standards the requirements for the
individual and total harmonic distortion are up to the 50th
order. This is generally valid for line- or load-commutated
current source converters where the higher order harmonics
generally have negligible magnitude with respect to the low
order harmonics. As discussed earlier with voltage source
converters high order harmonics in excess of 10 kHz can be
generated. At such high frequencies current distortion
generally does not penetrate far into the system but the
possibility of exciting a system resonance at the switching
frequency and multiples thereof can exist. In an attempt to
address these harmonics the IEC standard 61400-21 requires
that harmonics should be stated individually up to the 50th
harmonic and then grouped in spans of 200 Hz from 2 kHz to
9 kHz.
Fast control action of the turbine converter can give rise to
very low order harmonics both below and above the
fundamental frequency. Although low in terms of the
emission levels, these harmonics have the potential to de-
stabilize the system operation when coinciding with a system
resonance frequency. The instability phenomena originated
from the super-synchronous components is generally referred
to as control stability. Instability caused by sub-synchronous
components generally lies in the category of sub-synchronous
interaction which includes instabilities caused by the inter-
harmonics. Harmonics related to the saturation characteristics
of the transformer generally contain frequency components up
to 1 kHz. This will be discussed in more details in the next
sub-section. The frequency range of different harmonic
phenomena pertinent to operation of WPPs is shown in Fig. 1
(The figure is plotted considering a 50 Hz fundamental
frequency).
Fig. 1. Frequency range of different harmonic phenomena
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D. Event driven harmonics
Conventional power system harmonic studies normally
deal with the harmonics generated during the steady-state
operation of the system. In addition to these steady-state
harmonics, event driven or transient harmonics can be
generated. The number of switching operations occurs in a
wind power plant is significantly higher relative to the
substations used for other purposes. Event driven harmonics
can occur due to energization of the turbine and substation
transformer, and reactive power compensation reactors and
capacitors. These harmonics can be amplified if coincident
with a grid resonance frequency. An example demonstrating
harmonic resonance in an actual wind power plant due to
switching operation of shunt capacitor banks is discussed in
the accompanying paper.
Power transformers are designed to operate just below the
knee point of the no-load saturation curve. Operating below
the knee point will generate some harmonics due to non-linear
current-voltage relationship. A slight over-excitation can
result in a substantial increase in the Total Harmonic
Distortion (THD) level when operating at this range and
above. Harmonics can increase significantly if the transformer
is subjected to a dc current in addition to its normal operating
current. The dc current can result in half cycle saturation
where the dc flux generated by the dc current offsets the ac
flux in the transformer core. A part of the flux waveform is
then moved into the saturated range in the transformer flux-
current curve resulting in generation of large harmonic
currents.
Fig. 2. Three-phase harmonic currents of a padmount transformer during no
load energization
Significantly larger harmonics are generated during
transformer energization. The most significant harmonics are
generally the lower order harmonics, in particular 2nd and 3rd
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orders in addition to a dc component. The harmonic spectrum
of three-phase currents of an unloaded transformer during
energization is shown in Fig. 2. This figure indicates
appreciable levels of the dc, and 2nd and 3rd order harmonics.
E. Harmonic cancellation
In power system harmonic studies it is sometimes assumed
that harmonics of the same order generated by different
sources are in-phase. This is a pessimistic approach which can
give rise to unnecessary design of harmonic filters. In practice
some harmonic orders might add up whereas others cancel out
each other. There are many factors that can lead to the change
of harmonic angles, some of which are listed below:
• Non-synchronization of control signals due to
measurement and communication delays
• Non-uniform distribution of the wind along the WPP
• Variation of grid conditions
• Asymmetry in collector grid
To account for the harmonic cancellation due to these
factors, probabilistic distribution factors are required. The
density factors can be found by taking several measurements
at various points using mathematical models. This can be a
time consuming and expensive process, however, it provides
a statistical distribution of the realistic harmonic distortion,
leading to an optimized filter design. IEC standards 61400-21
and 61000-3-6 [14] recommend methods to represent
harmonics cancellation for both current and voltage
harmonics. The methods outlined in these standards are
referred to as the 1st and 2nd law of harmonic cancellation.
These methods take account of the harmonic cancellations
due to a difference in phase angle of corresponding harmonics
from different sources as summarized below [14]:
First summation law
The first law of harmonic summation defines that harmonic
distortion can be determined by the following formula:
(2)
where
Uho: is the background voltage harmonic of the grid when
other harmonic sources were not connected to the grid
Khj is the diversity factor [14]
h is harmonic order
j is numbers of harmonic source
Uhj is voltage harmonic of jth harmonic source
The first summation law is useful if the phase angles of
background and other harmonics are known.
Second summation law
Second law of summation can be used when phase angles
of the background and WTG harmonics are not known. In this
case the cancellation of harmonics due to vectorial summation
is accounted for using (3) where exponent Į is defined in the
Table I.
(3)

TABLE I
VARIATION OF ALPHA AS FUNCTION OF HARMONIC ORDER
Į Harmonic Order
1 h<5
1.4 5”h”10
2 h>10
F. Harmonic standards
The most widely used standards for the assessment of
harmonic distortion in wind power plants are the IEC and
IEEE standards.
IEC standards impose limits for harmonic voltage
distortion only. Aside from having several parts for
conventional power system, the IEC standards include
dedicated parts for WPP installations [1]. In these standards
there are two sets of limits referred to as planning and
compatibility levels. The planning levels are applied for
assessment of harmonics at a specific point. The compatibility
level is applied for assessment of harmonics at the system
level taking into account the most severe contingencies, and
when considering the system wide impact of harmonics.
Planning levels are equal to or lower than the compatibility
levels. According to the IEC standards harmonic distortion
levels of up to 9 kHz should be documented. Distortion limits
are provided for harmonics and inter-harmonics. Lastly, as
discussed earlier harmonic phase cancellations criteria based
on the 1st and 2nd law of summation are provided.
Fig. 3. Illustration of the point of connection and point of evaluation
As per the IEC 61000-3-6 [14] for each installation, one or
several points of evaluation (POE) can be identified where the
voltage harmonics resulting from the installation should be
evaluated. As an example Fig. 3 shows two different
possibilities for point of evaluation. In this figure POE 1 is at
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Point of Connection (PCC) and POE 2 is further up in the
system. In general, the Point of Connection (POC) or PCC is
the point where the planning levels are defined. The POE is
the point where the emission levels of a given customer’s
installation are assessed for compliance with the emission
limits.
Unlike the IEC standards, the IEEE Std 519 [15] includes
limits on both harmonic voltage and current distortion. This
standard imposes stricter limits relative to the IEC standards.
For example, for voltage levels above 161 kV the maximum
permissible total harmonic distortion as per the IEEE Std 519
is 1.5% compared to the 3% allowed by the IEC standards.
The relative disadvantages of this standard are that it is only
applicable to the harmonics of up to 50th order; it does not
take account of the harmonic phase cancellation, and does not
apply any limits to inter-harmonics. A feature of the IEEE Std
519 is that the maximum permissible harmonic current at the
PCC should be calculated as a function of the ratio of short-
circuit capacity of the supply to the load current (ISC/IL). The
higher the ISC /IL ration is, the higher the permissible
harmonic currents will be. Harmonic voltage limits are,
however, independent of the (ISC/IL).
One deficiency of existing harmonic standards is that only
harmonic currents are measured. As will be discussed later in
this section for wind turbines harmonic currents measured at
the WTG terminals are the vectorial sum of the wind turbine
harmonic current distortion, and the background harmonic
voltage from the grid. Note that the background harmonic
voltage includes the impact of harmonic distortion of any
adjacent WPPs. Furthermore, the grid and converter
impedance generally vary with the frequency. With present
standards the contribution of the grid to the harmonics
distortion measured at the WTG terminals cannot therefore be
accounted for. It is anticipated that these standards will be
revised to mandate the measurements of both harmonic
currents and voltages, as well as the measurements of the
converter and grid impedance at different frequencies.
G. Harmonic signature of wind turbines
When considering harmonic signature of VSC-based wind
turbines, there are a number of differences with respect to the
conventional current source converters that needs to be
accounted for.
Harmonic distortion measured at the WTG terminals is
dependent on the network to which it is connected. This is
unlike a current source converter where the surrounding
network does not alter the harmonic distortion at the terminals
of harmonic source. For a WTG the voltage and current
harmonics are grid dependent, and also dependent on the
background harmonics. In a WTG some harmonics are
generated by the voltage source converter whereas others are
due to the grid background harmonics which are reflected
back at the WTG terminals, and therefore at the PCC.
Additionally, these harmonics do not necessarily vary
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proportional to the turbine loading. This is due to the
frequency dependent behavior of the wind turbine generator
whose impedance will vary as function of power level, and
various cables and transformer on the system. This behavior
alters the system equivalent impedance at different
frequencies, and therefore the background harmonic voltages
will be different at different frequencies. Note that all the
internal WTG filters, generators’ inductances, external grid
capacitors and grid inductances will contribute to the overall
grid impedance. This impedance has maxima and minima at
various frequencies and will effectively amplify or attenuate
the harmonics coming from the operation of the WTGs.
For better appreciation of these points an equivalent circuit
representation of the WPP and the interconnected network is
shown in Fig. 4. This figure takes account of the frequency
dependency of the converter and network impedance, and the
possible presence of background harmonic voltage distortion
at the grid side. The harmonic distortion at the PCC will be
the vectorial sum of the WPP and network harmonic
distortions.
Fig. 4. Illustration of the total harmonic distortion at the PCC
III. ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
A. Deterministic vs. stochastic
Generally the variations of harmonic generating source
over the time can be dealt with a deterministic or stochastic
analysis technique as discussed below.
Deterministic method
A deterministic method of harmonic analysis using
frequency domain requires a pre-defined harmonic emission
profile of WTGs, typically represented by a current harmonic
source. All components that can influence the impedance
profile at any given bus/point must be represented. This
requires accounting for the network components that vary
with frequencies. This approach of harmonic analysis uses a
known current harmonic emission and impedance profile to
calculate the voltage distortion at any bus.
This method is simple and easy to implement in simulation
tools. It does not, however, account for time-variant
characteristics of harmonics. In reality, harmonic profile at
any bus in the network changes with time. For this reason the
harmonics measured are averaged in a 10 minutes interval [1].
The time-variant characteristic of harmonics necessitates a
number of harmonic studies if deterministic method is used.
Each variation must also be analyzed for different network
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configurations such as variation of grid parameters, and
switching operations of mechanically switched capacitors and
reactors. This can lead to a large number of case studies.
The behavior of a WPP varies stochastically with time.
This combined with the random operating point of the WTG
impose a challenge on the use of deterministic approach for
the analysis of harmonics in WPPs. Other parameters that can
lead to a change in the harmonic profile are grid conditions
such as voltage imbalance and grid background voltage
distortion. Harmonic emission profile must account for the
impact of variations in grid conditions.
Using this approach the WTG can be represented as a
harmonic source with current harmonics profile obtained from
measurements. It is not practical to perform harmonic
measurements for all WTGs. The same harmonic profile is
therefore assigned to each of the WTG in the WPP. This
assumes that the wind distribution within the WPP is uniform
and controllers are perfectly synchronized. In reality,
however, wind profile is not distributed uniformly and
controllers are not perfectly synchronized. Because of this the
harmonic distortion at any bus within the WPP will be higher
as angles of displacement between harmonics of different
WTGs are not defined. This approach can therefore be
regarded as a pessimistic scenario that may lead to an over-
sized design of harmonic filters as a mitigation measure.
Statistical or Stochastic method
In the statistical harmonic analysis, harmonic emission is
represented using probability distribution/density functions
[16,17]. This implies that the harmonic emission is cyclic that
changes with time due to changes of grid operating
conditions, WTG power loadings, operations of non-
synchronized WTG controllers and uneven distribution of
wind velocity within the WPP. Definition of harmonic
emission based on statistical methods also includes
occurrence probability of a particular harmonic. For an
example the 5th harmonic at the point of measurement is
around 1.5% for 95% of the time, but it reaches to 3% for 1%
during the recorded time.
Harmonic analysis based on the statistical method requires
harmonic measurement data for different cycles,
representative of all variables that lead to a change in
harmonic profile. Measurements should be carried out such
that the probability density factor does not vary during each
representative interval, i.e. each interval represent changes of
one variable only. The probability density function for the
following conditions needs to be identified in order to
perform harmonic analysis using statistical models:
1) Constant voltage, constant harmonics (harmonics due
to control schemes- switching frequency, slots
harmonics)
2) Constant voltage variable harmonics (harmonics
dependent on wind distribution along the WPP-
power modulation, non-synchronization of
controllers)

3) Variable voltage and variable harmonics (voltage
dependent harmonics)
4) Variable voltage and constant harmonics (voltage
independent harmonics)
To determine these probability density factors (PDFs),
extensive measurements are required, which can be expensive
and time consuming. This will, however, result in a more
realistic prediction of the harmonics and probability of their
occurrences. A more cost effective filter design can be
therefore made if the need for a filter is identified through
harmonic studies. Harmonic analysis of WPP using the
statistical method has not been very commonly adopted. This
method requires measurement data that are not readily
available, and therefore may not be possible to conduct the
study unless generic PDFs for WPP are used. Note that with
modern power system harmonic tools, automation can be
included readily which allows executing a large number of
scenarios in a reasonable time. It is therefore recommended
that harmonic analysis to be performed using deterministic
approach.
B. Frequency domain vs. time domain
In general, harmonic analysis can be performed in time-
domain or frequency domain. The frequency domain
harmonic analyses are generally divided into the harmonic
power flow and frequency scanning analysis. In a harmonic
power flow program the nonlinearities are represented using
current injections with spectra of known magnitude and
phase. The system is therefore linearized and principle of
superposition holds valid. One disadvantage of this approach
is that computation of harmonic current flows from multiple
sources and resulting voltage distortion is limited to snapshot
scenarios valid for very specific loading conditions. Another
disadvantage is that in the frequency domain the harmonic
impedance is determined from the admittance matrix of the
system for each frequency. This means that only the passive
components, which are in the admittance matrix, are
considered. For rotating machines the computed impedance
will be based on the machine characteristic inductance and
not all parameters that build up the machine model are
included. Moreover, power electronic switches are seen as an
open circuit, which may not always be true.
In a time-domain simulation tool, the currents and voltages
are calculated based on differential equations governing the
behavior of components. This is considered as the most
accurate method for representation of the nonlinear
characteristics of a component where the converter model can
be as detailed as necessary. A time-domain analysis is suitable
for analysis of balanced and unbalanced conditions. For
specialized studies such as investigation of harmonics caused
by the transformer saturation interaction, and control
instability due to harmonic injection a time-domain method is
the only possible approach. With a time-domain approach the
system non-linearities and the effect of different controls can
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be accounted for more precisely. This can provide significant
advantage when calculating the harmonic impedance of the
wind turbine, but the impact seen from the network
impedance stand point is insignificant. Harmonic analysis
using EMT-type tools generally requires detailed and accurate
component model for all the components involved. The major
disadvantage of a time-domain analysis is the high
computational burden. For this reason a time-domain analysis
is not generally used for grid compliance and system impact
studies for large inter-connected power systems.
C. Frequency scan analysis
The frequency scan analysis generally refers to systematic
variation of frequency from an initial value to a final value. In
principle, a voltage or current injection can be injected at a
particular bus. It is more common to inject a harmonic current
which allows calculation of the voltage response of the
network. A voltage injection may also be used if the impact of
grid background harmonic distortion is the main point of
interest. Various frequency scanning methods have been
proposed in the technical literature [18]. This spans from
simple method for the passive and linear
components/networks to more advanced methods for active
and/or non-linear components such as wind turbine, or
networks with such components, e.g. an HVDC connected
network. Depending on the system characteristics various
signals can be injected into the system including the
sinusoidal, impulse, or white-noise signals. With the use of a
sinusoidal signal one frequency can only be covered at each
simulation run which necessitates the use of multiple-run
feature exists in most EMT-type simulation tools. The use of
an impulse or white-noise allows calculating the harmonic
impedance for the entire frequency range of interest in one
simulation run [18].
D. Harmonic power flow and hybrid harmonic power flow
As discussed before a conventional harmonic power flow
program is limited to the investigation of snapshot-type
scenarios. This can impose limits on the application of this
method for WTGs with stochastic behavior at different
loading conditions. To resolve this deficiency while
maintaining the fast simulation runtime of the frequency-
domain methods a hybrid harmonic power flow may be
utilized. This method is generally based on the time-domain
model of the harmonic generating sources along with the
frequency-domain network model. The non-linear component
is described in terms of the actual time-domain differential
equations that govern its performance. The converter currents
are then solved in the time-domain and converted into the
frequency-domain using Fourier analysis. Harmonic currents
are injected into the network model and the harmonic
voltages at each network bus are calculated. The computed
voltages are then used to recalculate the converter currents in
the time domain. In a Newton-Raphson or Gauss-Seidel type
harmonic power flow analysis, this procedure iterates until
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convergence criteria are met [19]. Despite being a powerful These conditions, however, unlikely to happen during
tool this method has not been widely used for power system conceivable operating modes of a WTG, and can be neglected
harmonic studies in wind power plants due to incapability of from the harmonic studies standpoint.
most existing harmonic analysis tools. Finally, when representing the WTG the impact grid- and
rotor-side harmonic filters and other filters such as EMC
IV. MODELING METHODOLOGY choke need to be accounted for. The high-frequency harmonic
A. Wind Power Plant filters installed at the grid- and rotor-side are generally tuned
at several kHz to deal with the PWM switching frequency and
A.1. Wind Turbine Generator
its multiples. The WTG harmonic filters can have a
The typical harmonic analysis practice used in the industry
significant impact during resonance conditions. As an
is to consider harmonic-generating devices as ideal current
example, a representation of the type 3 (doubly-fed induction
sources. This method is normally applied to load-commutated
generator) wind turbine for harmonic studies is shown in Fig.
converters and diode rectifiers. Most guidelines recommend
5. At the low side the equivalent turbine model includes the
representing harmonic sources as ideal current sources. A
generator and converter impedance, and the rotor-side filter
WTG can be represented as an ideal current source only if the
but without the grid-side filter which has not been very widely
change of stator voltage or voltage imbalance in the grid does
used in practice. Note that harmonic current measurements
not change harmonic profile of a WTG. The current injected
are conducted at the high side of the turbine transformer after
by an ideal current source is invariant with system impedance
the turbine tower cable.
and presence of other harmonic sources, such as grid
background voltage distortion. When analyzing the influence
of other sources the harmonic source modeled in this way
would be considered as an open circuit.
A simple method to represent the harmonic generating
sources is to use ideal current sources. The use of current
sources is often justifiable when connected to strong power
systems. Harmonics generated by a VSC-based WTG do not
remain constant but vary according to the grid conditions,
turbine operating conditions, and the converter control action.
For weak power systems the impact of background harmonic
voltage, and frequency dependent behavior of the WTG can
be significant. Representation of the VSC by an ideal current
source may therefore give rise to inaccuracies. A voltage
source converter can be better characterized by a Norton or Fig. 5. Representation of a type 3 turbine for harmonic studies
Thevenin equivalent source as shown in Fig. 4. An example
of a more accurate representation of the converter for A.2. WTG Aggregation
When simulating a large WPP, detailed models of the
harmonic studies is shown in Fig. 5 where the converter
feeders may be simplified to an aggregated model for each
equivalent impedance is accounted for. The information
feeder. Instead of having a cable system with several wind
required to derive the equivalent impedance of the converter
turbines, the feeder can be modelled as a single cable and an
can be provided by the WTG manufacturer.
aggregated wind turbine model as shown Fig. 6. As an
Another point when representing WTGs for harmonic
example, it is assumed that the WPP comprises six individual
studies is whether to treat them as current sources or voltage
wind turbines connected as shown in the figure.
sources. A VSC is considered a source of harmonic voltage
The methodology used for the aggregation is based on the
which can be represented as a Thevenin equivalent voltage
fact that the aggregated cable model should give rise to the
source. The choice of current or voltage source depends on
same losses as the sum of the losses in the individual cables.
the functionality of the component and the ability of the
If all wind turbines have the same current (In = i1 = …= i5),
harmonic simulation tool used. Under steady-state conditions
the cable losses across the feeder cable, Sloss, can be
the WTG can be modeled as a current source as the stator
calculated as:
current is always controlled. During dynamic condition a
Sloss (6I n ) 2 Z Y (6I n ) 2 Z1  (3I n ) 2 Z 2  (2I n ) 2 Z 3  I n 2 Z 4  (2I n ) 2 Z5  I n 2 Z 6  (4)
VSC operate with current being controlled such that the
IGBTs are protected from thermal run-down. The VSC can where In is the nominal current of each wind turbine.
therefore be represented a current source for power system Eliminating the expression for the aggregated impedance
harmonic studies. The only exception occurs when the VSC ZY gives:
operates at frequencies well above the bandwidth of the ZY
1
(6)2
(6) Z  (3) Z
2
1
2
2  (2)2 Z3  Z4  (2)2 Z5  Z6  (5)
controllers. For these conditions the VSC can be best
represented as a voltage source rather than a current source. The total capacitance can be calculated as:

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 Page 8 of 11

m As shown in Fig.7 the overall harmonic impedances of the

CY ¦C
s 1
s C1  C2  C3  C4  C5  C6 (6) different models are consistent with minor differences visible
in terms of the magnitude and frequency of the resonance
The cable parameters are determined to give the same points. While these studies are performed with an EMT-type
losses as for the model with the full feeder. simulation tool, the conclusion made on validity of the
Ploss R 1i12  R 2i 22  R 3i32  R 4i 24  R 5i 52  R 6i 62 (7) aggregate model holds true if other tools are used. For smaller
R 1 6I n   R 2 3I n   R 3 2I n   R 4 I n   R 5 26I n   R 6 I n 
2 2 2 2 2 2
WPPs the aggregation may not be necessary and the WPP
The resistance of the aggregated cable model is then components can be represented individually.
calculated to give the same losses as the total losses in the
B. Transformer
cables in the aggregated feeder. The resistance RY can
therefore be calculated as: Conventional power system harmonic studies generally
deal with frequencies in the range of up to 3 kHz. For this
Ploss R 1 6 2  R 2 32  R 3 22  R 4 12  R 5 26 2  R 6 12 (8)
RY frequency range it is reasonable to consider the power
(6I n ) 2 62
transformer as an inductive plus resistive component. With
the introduction of VSC-based wind turbines the frequency
range of importance can be in the range of 10 kHz and above.
In general, at frequencies above 2-3 kHz the transformer
winding capacitances and capacitive coupling among
windings become important [20]. At high frequencies the turn
ratio between the winding is determined by the stray
capacitance between the windings. A relatively moderate
overvoltage at one side can be significantly magnified while
transferring to the other side. For most high-frequency
harmonic studies it is reasonable to represent the transformer
with its terminal capacitances only. Figure 8 shows the impact
of including the WTG transformer capacitance on the
Fig. 6. Illustation of the WPP feeder aggregation
harmonic impedance of the feeder depicted in Fig. 6. This
Figure 7 shows the variation of the total resistance and figure shows that neglecting transformer capacitance results
reactance as function of frequency with the use of three in small deviations in the harmonic impedance of the feeder.
different types of models: This is because the nF range transformer stray capacitances
are significantly smaller than the ȝF range cable capacitance
x Detailed EMT-model with representation of PWM
the and dominant inductive impedance of the WTG.
switching and individual representation of each WTG
and associated cable, 20

x detailed EMT-model with average voltage V90 VSCCA

without
Resistance [p.u.]

V90
withVSC
C C
10
representation of the PWM converter, and individual
representation of each WTG and associated cable 0
x detailed EMT-model with average voltage
representation of the PWM converter, and aggregated -10
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
representation of the six turbines and associated cables Frequency [Hz]

20
20
Detailed
without
V90 VSCCA
Reactance [p.u.]
Resistance [p.u.]

Simplified withVSC
V90 C C
10 10
Aggregated

0 0

-10 -10
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Frequency [Hz]
Frequency [Hz]
10
Detailed Fig. 8. Typical variation of the transformer reisstance and reactance as
Reactance [p.u.]

5 Simplified function of harmonic order

Aggregated
0

-5
Another factor to consider is the skin effect which refers to
the increase in resistance and slight decrease in inductance as
-10
0 500 1000 1500
Frequency [Hz]
2000 2500 3000 frequency increases. This is schematically shown in Fig. 9.
Harmonic analysis tools generally take account of resistance
Fig. 7. Comparison of the WTG harmonic impedance with detailed and
simplified EMT models, and aggregated EMT model
changes only which is sufficient in most cases. Lastly, the

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Page 9 of 11

saturation characteristics of the transformer and associated
harmonics need to be accounted for especially during
transformer energization. The same applies for HVDC
connected WPPs where a dc current in proximity of the
transformer can result in the saturation of the transformer
during steady-state conditions and further generation of
saturation related harmonics, in particular 2nd and 3rd orders.
drawbacks. Based on above discussions an equivalent pi
model is therefore considered as the most appropriate method
for most harmonic studies as it provides the best trade-off
between the accuracy, simulation speed, and ease of
parameter estimation.

Fig. 10. RL-circuits for compensation of the skin effect

To investigate the impact of representation of the cable

Fig. 9. Typical variation of the transformer reisstance and reactance as
function of harmonic order
C. Cable
In general, the cable capacitance has two primary impacts
on the power system harmonic studies: firstly it leads to a
shift in the resonance frequencies toward the lower orders,
and secondly it can result in the amplification of the
background harmonics. A sufficiently accurate representation
of the cable capacitance is therefore important. In general, the
capacitance of the cable does not change as a function of
frequency except in the MHz range. It is therefore sufficient
two simulation case studies are conducted with two different
terminations being used. These include termination to a rated
load of 363 Ÿ, and open-circuit conditions. The cable used is
a 1500 m segment of a 33 kV aluminium cable with a 95 mm2
conductor area. The variation of the cable resistance and
reactance for the rated load, and open-circuit conditions are
shown in Figs. 19-20, respectively. The calculations are
performed with the geometrical model and equivalent pi
(distributed parameters) model each utilizing time-domain
and frequency-domain modelling approaches. Figure 11
indicates that the differences are negligible when the cable is
connected to its nominal load. As shown in Fig. 12 minor
differences are visible in the low-frequency region of the
harmonic resistance when the cable is open-circuited.
1.5
geo., time
Resistance [p.u.]

to determine the cable capacitance at the fundamental 1

pi, time
geo., freq

frequency. 0.5
pi, freq

Several approaches can be applied for representation of 0

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
various cables used in a typical WPP. The main objective is Frequency [Hz]

to account for the variation of the series impedance of the 0

geo., time
Reactance [p.u.]

cable at higher frequencies primarily due to the skin effect of -0.2 pi, time
geo., freq
-0.4
the core and screen. The simplest model is the nominal pi- pi, freq

-0.6
model. The main limitation of this model is that it will only -0.8
predict one resonance frequency which is not generally 0 500 1000 1500
Frequency [Hz]
2000 2500 3000

suitable for investigation of kHz range harmonics generated Fig. 11. Harmonic impedance for the 1500 m 33 kV 95 mm2 aluminium
by VSC-based WTGs. The drawback can be somewhat cable at rated power (363 Ÿ load)
overcome by the use of a cascaded pi-model which is
geo., time
essentially a series of connection of a number of pi-links. It 0.2
Resistance [p.u.]

pi, time
0.1
geo., freq
has been shown that the accuracy is somewhat compromised 0 pi, freq
-0.1
near the resonance frequencies [21]. A more precise approach -0.2

is the equivalent pi or distributed parameter representation of 0 500 1000 1500

Frequency [Hz]
2000 2500 3000

the cable. With this method the resonance frequencies can be 0

geo., time
determined with sufficient accuracy for a wider range. It has
Reactance [p.u.]

pi, time
-5
geo., freq
been reported that this method is generally more accurate than pi, freq
-10
the cascaded pi representation [21]. The frequency
dependency can also be included using the so-called Foster -15
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Frequency [Hz]
equivalent [22]. This method utilizes a number of RL circuits
Fig. 12. Harmonic impedance for the 1500 m 33 kV 95 mm2 aluminium
connected in series with the nominal pi-link as shown in Fig. cable at no load (open circuit)
10. The most accurate model is the geometrical cable model
based on the time-domain modeling. Such a model is Note that a quad core cable is typically used inside the
generally valid for up to 1 MHz with the computational tower of the WTG. The cable length is typically in the range
burden and parameter estimation being considered as its main of 50-150 m. The impact of the tower cables in harmonic

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studies is negligible due to the short distance and low
impedance of the cable. Nominal pi-models are therefore
considered appropriate for these cables.
D. Network
The simplest way to represent the interconnected network
for harmonic studies is to use an infinite bus representation
neglecting the network impedance and grid background
harmonic distortion. This has been sometimes adopted for
conventional power system studies. As discussed earlier for
VSC-based wind turbines the network impedance and
presence of grid background harmonic distortion will have
some impact, and this method cannot therefore provide
sufficient accuracy. A more precise method of representation
is to include the grid impedance with its fundamental
frequency short circuit impedance. With this method
generally 2-3 busbars farther from the collector grid is
represented such that the impact of grid side reactive power
compensation devices is included. This method is generally
valid for very strong transmission systems and when
investigating harmonic distortion below the first resonance
frequency. A detailed Frequency Dependent Network
Equivalent (FDNE) of the interconnected network can be
developed if a fundamental frequency representation of the
interconnected system is available [23]. The equivalent
harmonic impedance of the network can then be computed
with a frequency scanning tool looking from the point of
interconnection (POI) into the network. With this approach
each network resonance frequency can be represented as a
tuned RLC branch added on top of the fundamental frequency
model of the grid. Another approach sometimes applied to
HVDC links and recently to some WPPs [4],[11] is to
represent the harmonic impedance of the network with an
encapsulated area. To grant the grid connection the harmonic
impedance of the WPP should lie within a pre-defined area
during the most onerous contingencies and resonance
conditions. Each impedance area generally covers a limited
range of frequency. Several harmonic impedance areas are
therefore needed. A variation of the latter method has also
been used where some utilities provide the amplitude and
phase angle of the harmonic impedance at the PCC from zero
to the frequency of interest.
E. Other BOP components
An equivalent pi (distributed parameter) model is generally
sufficient to represent the overhead lines normally used in
onshore WPPs. Most mechanically switched capacitors
(MSCs) and reactors (MSRs) used in practice are not plain
components but in most case are RLC elements. To avoid the
risk of resonance MSCs and MSRs are often tuned at a
specific frequency. Correct representation of these
components can have a significant impact during resonance
conditions. An STATCOM is the most widely used dynamic
reactive power compensation equipment in WPPs. Similar to
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Page 10 of 11
the WTG, an STATCOM is essentially a VSC-based
compensator and the modeling methodology described for the
WTG holds true for the STATCOM. An SVC may be
occasionally used for the dynamic reactive power
compensation at the collector grid, but more widely used at
the terminals of type 1 turbines for the purpose of low-voltage
ride-through (LVRT) capability. An SVC is a Thyristor-fed
current source converter which can be conveniently
represented as an ideal current source together with the
associated harmonic filters.
V. HARMONIC INTERACTION
Wind turbine converter can inject integer or non-integer
harmonics causing system instability. The WPP should be
designed so that the harmonics generated from one
component are not amplified by another component or by a
resonance in the grid. In general, harmonics generated by the
converter control can be above or below the fundamental
frequency. The converter controller is generally an order of
magnitude slower than the switching frequency. Harmonic
interaction generally occurs in the range of 0-300 Hz. Those
instabilities involving frequencies above the fundamental
frequency are generally termed as harmonic instabilities
whereas those below the fundamental frequency are referred
to as sub-synchronous interaction.
Injection of harmonics by the converter control may not
independently cause an instability, but when combined with
other factors including system resonances, and non-linearities
such as transformer core saturation it can cause excessive
voltage amplification in the system. Harmonic instabilities are
known in some WPPs utilizing type 4 turbines with a
relatively higher bandwidth compared to the type 3 turbines.
It is understood that the WPP became unstable when a certain
number of WTGs were brought online. Addition or reduction
of the number of turbines by only one avoided the instability.
This is a clear indication of the harmonic instability problems.
The high frequency harmonics produced by PWM
switching generally have a low amplitude. They may excite a
resonance point and cause harmonic voltages with large
amplitudes, which may impose additional stress on the
insulation of the equipment and eventually cause failures.
Another aspect of harmonic susceptibility is the excitation
of series or parallel resonance points on the system. Both
types of resonance can occur in a WPP. The harmonic order
of a parallel resonance can be approximated as:
MVASC
hr (9)
MVAR Cap
where MVASC and MVARcap are the short circuit capacity of
the system and total reactive power generated by all
capacitances on the system.
During a parallel resonance condition s small harmonic
current can cause a large voltage drop across the impedance.
This will result in a high impedance at the resonance point.
Page 11 of 11
Plain or improperly tuned capacitor banks at the
interconnected power systems can cause a parallel resonance.
Equation (9) implies that a parallel resonance can only
involve super-synchronous resonance frequencies. This is
because the occurrence of a sub-synchronous resonance
implies that the aggregate system capacitance is greater the
short circuit capacity of the system which is unlikely to
happen.
The harmonic order of a series resonance can be
approximated as:
MVA tr
hr
X tr ˜ MVAR Cap
where MVAtr and Xtr are the rated apparent power and the
reactance of the transformer assuming that the dominant
inductive component in the system is the transformer.
During a series resonance condition a small harmonic
voltage can cause a large harmonic current. This can be
caused by the presence of grid background harmonic
distortion. Moreover, long cables often used in offshore
WPPs can give rise to both series and parallel resonance
conditions.
Equation (10) indicates that during a series resonance
condition the resonance frequency can be above or under the
fundamental frequency.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
This paper is the first part of a two-paper series discussing
various aspects of the power system harmonic analysis in
wind power plants. It begins with discussing active behavior
of the WTG and interconnected network, harmonic signature
of a WTG and the impact of phase cancellation, generation of
high-frequency harmonics by the WTG, and the occurrence of
event driven harmonics.
Various harmonic analysis technics including frequency
scanning, harmonic power flow and hybrid harmonic power
flow, and electromagnetic transient-type simulation methods
were discussed. The differentiators in terms of the underlying
approaches for conventional harmonic studies and harmonic
studies for WPPs were discussed in detail. Modeling
methodology for different system components including the
wind turbine, various cables and transformers in the system,
and equivalent network were presented, and justifications
were provided on the simplifications proposed.
The second part of the paper discusses harmonic spectrum
measured at the WTG terminals, and provides case studies
conducted for practical WPPs. Various harmonic mitigation
methods will also be presented.
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