13 Biodiversity

Biodiversity is a general term used to describe the variety of life

on Earth. It refers to the number and variety of living organisms and
can be divided into three levels:
● Genetic diversity refers to the variety of alleles within a
particular species.
● Species diversity refers to the number of different species
and the number of individuals of each species found within
a habitat.
● Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of different
habitats found within an ecosystem.
All three levels of biodiversity are important because living organisms Coral reefs are highly diverse ecosystems
interact with each other in numerous ways. Human activity often acts to
reduce biodiversity at all three levels. Greater understanding of biodiversity
has led to conservation in an attempt to conserve biodiversity worldwide.

Genetic diversity
Similarities and differences between organisms result from the variation in their DNA.
It is these differences in DNA that lead to the vast genetic diversity that is found
on Earth. Members of the same species have the same genes, but different
combinations of alleles. These different combinations of alleles occur
due to mutation, recombination during meiosis and random fertilisation by gametes.
The number of different alleles within a species is called the genetic diversity
of that species. Continuous variation
There are two types of variation that exist within species continuous mean height
and discontinuous.
frequency (number of

Continuous variation
individuals)

Some characteristics show a continuous range of values, for example height.

When these values are plotted, a frequency histogram will produce a
smooth, bell-shaped curve. In continuous variation, there may be small
differences between individuals which can be measured, for example length,
mass and volume. These categories are therefore quantitative and each
category is continuous with the next. Characteristics tend to be controlled height of 16-year-olds/cm
by a large number of genes (polygenic characteristics). Continuous
characteristics can be affected by the environment, for example body mass,
Discontinuous variation
muscular fitness, photosynthetic efficiency and growth rate. 100

Discontinuous variation
% of UK population

Here the characteristics can be divided into distinct categories in which

individuals can be placed. In this instance, the histogram will assume a
50
much different appearance. There is no overlapping between categories
since the characteristics are distinctive and qualitative, for example hair
colour. The characteristics tend to be one thing or another, with no
‘in-betweens’. They tend to be controlled by one gene or a small number
of genes and are generally unaffected by the environment, for example 0
A B AB O
human blood groups, flower colour and seed shape. Continuous blood group
characteristics tend to be very common in humans and other organisms, Percentage of the UK population with
whereas discontinuous characters are much less prevalent. ABO blood groups

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 Loss of genetic diversity
Genetic diversity means that there are numerous different alleles present
within a species. This is important because it is the basis upon which
natural selection and evolution operate. A species with a high level of
genetic diversity is likely to produce individuals with characteristics that
enable them to survive environmental change. In contrast a species with a
low genetic diversity is more likely to face extinction due to its inability to
cope with changes in the environment. Genetic diversity tends to be
higher in species with large populations, and lower in species with only
small populations. A number of factors can contribute to a population
having low genetic diversity, these include the founder effect, genetic
bottlenecks and selective breeding.

The founder effect Cheetahs are threatened by low genetic

diversity
The founder effect occurs when only a few individuals from a population
colonise a new region and start a new, isolated population. These few
individuals will carry with them only a small range of alleles from the
original population. These alleles may not be representative of the larger
population. As a result the new population that develops from a few
colonisers will show far less genetic diversity compared with the
population from which it originated. Examples of founder effects can be
seen when new volcanic islands arise out of the sea, for example the
Galapagos and the Hawaiian Islands. Colonisation of these barren islands
is difficult and rare.
A few seeds may be carried there by winds, or perhaps animals may
reach them by currents or on ‘rafts’. But the few individuals that are able
to colonise give rise to populations that are genetically distinct from the Marine iguana on the Galapagos Islands
populations they left behind. In South Africa the Afrikaners have a high
incidence of Huntingdon’s disease, which is caused by a dominant allele
carried by one of the original Dutch settlers.

Genetic bottlenecks eight different alleles

are present in original
Populations may from time to time suffer a dramatic decrease in size. population in varying
This may be due to a chance event such as a volcanic eruption or human frequencies
interference. The few individuals that are left will have a much smaller
variety of alleles between them compared with the original population so
their genetic diversity will be reduced. As these few individuals breed and
re-establish a population, their genetic diversity will remain low. Many of population passes
the original alleles will have been lost in individuals that did not survive. through a bottleneck
At the end of the nineteenth century, the population of northern elephant only a few survive
seals was hunted almost to extinction by humans with a population of just
20 remaining in a colony on the coast of Mexico. The population has
now recovered to around 30 000. However, the northern elephant seal
has a far lower genetic diversity than the southern population in survivers have only four
California, which was not intensively hunted. alleles with different
frequencies
Cheetahs are a threatened species partly due to their low genetic diversity.
This is likely to be due to a genetic bottleneck at the end of the last glacial
period, 10 000 years ago. Less diversity means fewer alleles, making it new population, but less
less likely that the population is able to adapt to major changes in its diverse as allele frequency
environment. There is, in fact, so little genetic diversity in the world’s and number reduced
cheetah population that it has practically become a clone. The bottleneck effect

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 Selective breeding
Selective breeding (or artificial selection) is the process by which animals or
plants with characteristics useful to humans are allowed to breed. The aim
is to produce offspring in which these characteristics are further enhanced.
In genetic terms, man rather than the environment determines which alleles
pass to successive generations and which are lost.
This means that certain alleles are selected and others are rejected,
so reducing the genetic diversity of these animals and plants.
The whole idea of selective breeding is to bring about change to a species
so that it becomes more useful to humans. This can result in new breeds of Hereford cattle are bred for their meat
animals and new varieties of plants.
Selective breeding has been practised for centuries and has been used to
develop our modern crop plants, farm animals and domestic pets from
their wild ancestors.
Cattle, for example, have been selectively bred for two reasons.
Breeds such as the Hereford and Aberdeen Angus have been selected for
the quantity and quality of their meat, whereas other breeds such as the
Jersey and Guernsey have been selected for their milk yield.
Techniques such as artificial insemination and embryo transplantation have
increased the success of selective breeding in animals. However, more Guernsey cattle are selected for their
work has been carried out on breeding improved varieties of plants, as milk yield
they have greater potential for providing food.
Increasing the yield of crops such as wheat, as well as breeding for disease
resistance, are two important areas of research.
A very familiar example of selective breeding is the domestic dog.
There are many different breeds of dog, but they all belong to the species
Canis familiaris.
The dog was selectively bred from the wolf (Canis lupus) around
13 000 years ago.
The many breeds that exist have been selected for a whole host of
characteristics such as speed, agility and the ability to follow scent.
Domesticated animals and plants will have a low genetic diversity.
The wolf is the wild ancestor of many
This means that their chance of survival in the wild is reduced as they domestic breeds of dog
would have to compete with those wild species with greater diversity.
Low genetic diversity means that they are more prone to predation and
disease, and more susceptible to abiotic factors, for example drought.
Another danger with selective breeding in animals is excessive inbreeding.
This involves selective reproduction between closely related organisms, for
example offspring of the same species, which is common in pedigree
‘show’ dogs.
The danger is that there is a reduction in the variation of alleles within a
population. This then increases the risk of homozygosity, and harmful
recessive alleles being expressed in the phenotype.
As a result of selective breeding the development of physical problems can
occur in domestic animals. Natural selection would mean that these
particular animals would normally disappear in the wild due to The bloodhound, The German
competition. bred for its tracking shepherd, bred for
This process of selection leads to an ethical issue as to whether animals ability speed and agility
are being harmed by this type of breeding.

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 Species diversity
Species diversity is a measure of the number of different species in a habitat,
and the proportion of the community that an individual species makes up.
So species diversity takes into account not only how many different species
there are in a habitat (species richness), but also the relative sizes of the
populations and how well the species is spread through the habitat (species
evenness). It may be that two communities have the same number of
species, but differ a great deal in the proportion of the community that each
species makes up. For instance, meadow or natural grassland and a field of
barley may each contain 30 different plant species. But it may well be that
the 30 species in the meadow are equally abundant, whereas in the field of
Tropical rainforests have high species
barley, 90% of the plant species present consist of the barley only. diversity
Species diversity and ecosystems
Species diversity is an effective measure of the stability of an ecosystem.
In general, the higher the species diversity, the more stable the ecosystem,
and the less likely it is to be threatened by events such as climate change.
Ecosystems with high species diversity are more likely to have individuals
in the community that will be better equipped to tolerate change and
maintain the community than an ecosystem with a low species diversity.
Hostile environments, such as deserts, are difficult for species to colonise
and survive in. In such extreme conditions, only plants and animals that
have evolved adaptations to enable them to cope with the lack of water
and wide-ranging temperatures can survive. There are relatively few such
organisms, and the population size tends to be fairly small. Hostile
environments tend to have relatively low species diversity as only a few
species are able to adapt and survive the harsh conditions, which leads to Barren sub-arctic tundra has low species
an unstable ecosystem. The distribution and abundance of organisms in diversity
this type of environment is largely determined by their ability to deal with
the abiotic factors in the habitat. Biotic factors are relatively unimportant.
In contrast, stable ecosystems, such as tropical rainforests, have high
species diversity. In such environments, huge numbers of species are able
to survive. This is a result of:
● high primary productivity and an increase in height and biomass of the
vegetation,
● the forest ecosystem being able to support a large variety of organisms,
● a large number of different food chains,
● the height and density of vegetation providing numerous micro-habitats
and niches,
Low species diversity occurs in harsh
● a high genetic diversity between the species present,
environments, such as this desert near
● a mature soil developing with increased depth and greater organic content, Petra in Jordan, because few species are
adapted to survive
● a stable ecosystem being far more able to tolerate changes in climate.
In a rainforest environment, abiotic factors are relatively unimportant in determining the distribution and abundance of
species. The most important factors tend to be biotic ones, such as competition between plants for light.

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 Measuring species diversity
Various methods have been devised for quantifying the species diversity of a community. All of them are based on the
relationship between the total number of organisms present and the number of individuals per species.
Since we are dealing with numbers, some method of sampling will have to be employed. It is not possible to count all
the individual plants in a grassland habitat, and estimates such as percentage cover would not be appropriate.
Sampling strategy can be random or systematic (see page 450).
A number of quadrats can be used, or a line or belt transect can be employed. A point quadrat may be the
most preferable method of sampling in this case, since data records the number of hits for a particular species
(see page 450). The larger the number of samples taken the more reliable the data collected, but there is
obviously a limit to the amount of time and effort that can be employed. However, it is important that samples are
representative of the whole area. This is because some species may be quite dominant over the grassland, whereas
others that are very rare may be clumped together in one corner.

Maths skills
Simpson’s Diversity Index (D)
A good measure of diversity takes into account the species richness and their abundance.
One commonly used method is Simpson’s Diversity Index (D).
N(N − 1) where N = total number of individuals in the sample
D= n = number of individuals for each species
∑n(n − 1)

The higher the index, the higher the species diversity.

Data from 200 randomly placed point quadrats on a lawn
Species n n −1 n(n − 1)
grass species 1 80 79 6320
grass species 2 45 44 1980
clover 9 8 72 N(N − 1)
D=
black medick 22 21 462 ∑n(n − 1)
daisy 13 12 156
dandelion 3 2 6 232 × 231
So, D =
germander speedwell 10 9 90 10 528
= 5.09
self-heal 14 13 182
moss 36 35 1260
Total (N) = 232 Total n(n − 1) = 10 528
A community where one species dominates over the others will tend to have a lower species diversity than one
where the species numbers are more evenly spread.
For example, the two communities below each have three species present, with a total of 100 individuals.

a) Species abundance n (n − 1) b) Species abundance n (n − 1)

A 90 8010 A 34 1122
B 5 20 B 33 1056
C 5 20 C 33 1056
total 100 8050 total 100 3234

(100 × 99) (100 × 99)

D= = 1.23 D= = 3.06
8050 3234

The community with the higher diversity is b). The dominant species in a) causes the Diversity Index to decrease.

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 Loss of species diversity
The extinction of species is currently taking place at an alarming rate.
If natural selection operates, then the less well adapted species will be
threatened with extinction.
This has always been the case, but what is different now is the accelerating
pace of species extinctions and habitat losses as a result of human activities.
These activities include agricultural practices, deforestation, pollution, hunting,
habitat destruction and climate change.
The effect of agriculture Combine harvester at work on
Over the last few hundred years there has been huge increases in the a monoculture
human population. In part this has been due to the increased ability of the
world’s farmers to produce more food as a result of modern technology.
These advances include:
● Arable farms use large agricultural machines to work very large
fields. Examples are tractors and ploughs for preparing land for sowing
seeds, and combine harvesters for harvesting crops.
south-facing north-facing
● These large fields make the land easier and cheaper to work, but have (high illumination) (low illumination)
resulted in the destruction of hedgerows previously used to delineate shrub and tree zone
field boundaries. Hedgerows are made up of many different plant species
at different zones, some at the shrub layer, for example hawthorn, hazel,
elder and holly, and others at the bank layer, for example ferns,
celandines, primroses and bluebells. These plants upper zone
provide habitats and food for nesting birds, and inner zone crop
hundreds of species of insects, which in turn provide outer zone lower zone
small mammals with food. Traditionally hedgerows hedge

have acted as wildlife corridors allowing animals safe

bank field
passage between woodlands. road verge

● Monocultures are grown on these large fields.

ditch
A monoculture is the same crop grown on the
same land year after year. The main reason for
growing a monoculture is to increase the Section of a hedgerow bordering a road
productivity of farmland. The increased use of on one side and a field on the other
machinery and decreased labour costs mean that continuous cropping
of one crop brings greater economic returns per unit area of land.
Monocultures inevitably reduce both species diversity and genetic
diversity of plants, but they also reduce the species diversity of animals
because there are far fewer niches available.
● Agrochemicals are used to improve crop productivity.
Chemical fertilisers do not improve the structure of the soil, unlike organic
fertilisers which will rot down and provide the soil with humus as well as
nutrients. Chemical fertilisers containing nitrogen and phosphorus can
leach out into nearby waterways causing eutrophication (see page 466). Hedgerow being mechanically
Pesticides are sprayed on crops to prevent damage from pests like insects grubbed out in Oxfordshire
and nematodes. But many pesticides are ‘broad-spectrum’, not just killing
the target pests but also a wide range of other invertebrates so reducing
animal species diversity (see page 469).
Herbicides kill weeds that compete with crops for water, light and nutrients.
● Selective breeding has increased yield and made crops more resistant to
drought and diseases. But as we have already seen it can result in a reduction
in genetic diversity within species.
For the effects of deforestation on species diversity see page 460.
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 Conservation
Habitats are destroyed due to increased land-use for building, quarrying,
dumping waste and agriculture. Human populations are making ever
greater demands upon food resources and energy reserves, and producing
more waste. It is important that we conserve the environment for the
benefit of future generations. We have a duty of care to maintain not only
biodiversity of species and habitats, but also the genetic diversity of species.
We should conserve ecosystems, habitats and species for the following
reasons:
Demonstration at the UN Conference on
● Ecosystems provide us with services such as providing food and fuels,
Sustainable Development Rio+20, 2012
and giving us areas for recreation. They provide us with useful
substances such as medicines.
● Ecosystems help to maintain the balance of life on the planet, for
example nutrient cycles.
● Habitats support a wide variety of organisms that interact in ways that
we do not fully understand. This is often to the benefit of life on this
planet, for example by keeping pests and diseases in check.
● Other species have as much right to live on this planet as we do. We
have a role as guardians of the planet.

Endangered species
A species can be classed as being endangered if
● it is threatened with extinction,
● its numbers are reduced to a critical level,
● its population is so low that its reproduction is affected.
Many plants and animals have become extinct: the giant otter, wood bison, American bison
Parma wallaby and Tasmanian wolf to name a few. Their fate has been
sealed due to the destruction of their habitats and their over-exploitation
for commercial use. However, the American bison and the Saiga antelope
in Russia have been brought back from the brink of extinction.
Deforestation has meant the extinction of thousands of rainforest plants that
could have provided us with new medicines.
Illegal ivory poaching resulted in a loss of half the elephants in Kenya and
90% in Uganda in the 1970s.
As a result, the Commonwealth and International Trade in Endangered
Species (CITES) imposed a worldwide ban on the ivory trade in 1989.
This move led to a significant increase in the elephant population.
The trade in furs and other animal skins seems senseless when there are
plenty of imitation furs available. And the shooting and trapping has taken
its toll on the wild species. The demand for these products comes mainly
from the affluent countries of Europe and the USA. The trade in exotic
birds takes 10 million birds from the wild each year. About half of these
die even before they reach their destination. Commercial fishing requires
legislation if it is to be sustainable. Improved fishing technology means
that more fish are able to be caught. However, sustainable quotas should
be agreed on how many fish can be caught, fishing should be avoided
during the breeding season, and nets should have a minimum net mesh Confiscated pile of 27 tonnes of
size to allow small, young fish to escape and survive to breed poached ivory and rhino horns being
(see page 234). burned

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 Conservation in action
No species lives in isolation, so we have a duty to conserve ecosystems
and habitats. Here are some of the ways in which this is being done.
Zoos and captive breeding programmes
Breeding animals in captivity, building up their numbers and eventually
releasing them back into the wild has become increasingly common in
many of the world’s zoos. The Arabian oryx has been bred in captivity at
Phoenix Zoo, Arizona, and herds have been released in areas where the
species was previously extinct, such as Oman. Other species saved by Arabian oryx with young
captive breeding include the European bison and Pere David’s deer. Many
species of Partula snails became extinct on the Pacific Islands during the
20th century. Some are now kept in captivity and are being prepared for
release back into their habitats.
Botanic gardens and seed banks
Botanic gardens are public gardens that keep collections of plants for
conservation, research and education. We have seen the threat that
deforestation, land development and agricultural expansion can bring to
plant species diversity. There are now about 1600 botanic gardens
worldwide, between them growing tens of thousands of plant species. Many
of these are endangered species and by reintroducing them back into the
wild the natural vegetation can be conserved. Seed banks are cold stores of
seeds that originally concentrated on commercial crops, such as cereals and
potatoes. But they also conserve seed stocks of endangered or valuable
species. In southern England, the £18 million Millennium Seed Bank was
constructed at Wakehurst Place. This building stores seeds from 10% of the
world’s estimated 250 000 wild flowering plants. The project stemmed from
Britain’s signing of the Convention on Biological Diversity in Rio, 1992.
All the methods detailed above are examples of ex situ conservation.
National parks
These are large areas of land that have been set aside for wildlife. They may
be occupied by people as well, and are patrolled by wardens, for example
the game parks of east Africa such as the Masai Mara in Kenya and the
Serengeti in Tanzania. Marine parks are protected areas of the sea where
damage by fishing and pollution is prevented, for example Goat Island The Svalgard Global Seed Vault in Norway
Marine Reserve in New Zealand. Ecosystems where land has been degraded is carved into the Arctic permafrost
can be re-established, for example the creation of the Guanacaste National
Park in Costa Rica in 1989. These are examples of in situ conservation.
Sustainable management
In the UK the need to import so much timber from Scandinavia and
North America can be reduced by recycling, and using wood that has come
from sustainably managed forests. This means replacement planting as
soon as trees are felled and establishing new forests on surplus agricultural
land. It also involves the planting of more native trees in order to maintain
and enhance biodiversity. As mentioned, if commercial fishing is to be
made sustainable then effective legislation needs to be introduced. Many
species are now overfished. International agreements so far have failed
to control the amount of fishing. Sustainable fishing and sustainable
forestry often involve conflicting interests. Planning and cooperation is
required at local, national and international levels if true sustainability is to A large catch of fish in a trawl being
processed on a freezer trawler
be achieved (see pages 234 and 436).
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 Biology at work: Biodiversity in the Pantanal
One hectare of land in a tropical forest in the Amazon can have 650 tree species –
more than in all of North America. This has left biologists baffled for decades. Venezuela
Successful species survive and reproduce, which depends on how readily they Colombia
obtain resources. So if two species are too similar in their use of resources, they will
compete with each other for a given niche. In any environment, niches are limited. Brazil
That is why the diversity in a tropical forest cannot be explained by the exploitation Pantanal
of niches alone.
Bolivia
Although not as well-known as the Amazon rainforest, the Pantanal to the
south is the world’s largest wetland, covering 210 000 km2 extending across Paraguay
Chile
Brazil, Bolivia and Paraguay. It is home to a staggering variety of plants and
animals and is more biodiverse than the Amazon.
Argentina

Seasonal flooding is the most important ecological feature of the Pantanal. Species type Numbers
Every year many parts of the biome change from terrestrial into aquatic habitats and of species
vice-versa.
plants 3500
The Pantanal is characterised by a high density of various species of large vertebrates,
many of them endangered, such as the Brazilian giant otter, the greater hyacinth birds 656
macaw and the jaguar. There are densities of populations that are not observed in any fish 325
other biome in Brazil, with averages per km2 of 4.3 for alligators, 1.8 for capybaras mammals 159
(a giant guinea-pig) and 0.3 for marsh deer. It is for this reason that the Pantanal is reptiles 98
considered one of the major wilderness areas remaining on Earth. amphibians 53
Research of the jaguar population since 2009 at the Taiama Ecological Station on Abundance of various animal
the Paraguay River in the Pantanal has shown that a population of 51 individuals and plant species in the
exist in an area 300 km2. A surprising number considering that the territory of Pantanal (Source: WWF)
these solitary big cats can be 70 km2. It is thought that the high incidence of sandy
beaches along the river that are used by large numbers of the jaguar’s prey, such as
capybaras, are responsible for this high number.
The competition for niches is shaped by species’ interactions with the environment,
which includes both abiotic elements (climate, water, soil, etc.) and biotic elements
(inter-specific interactions). Tropical forests have stable abiotic environments.
Recent research has suggested it must be the biotic interactions that explain the
extraordinary diversity in these tropical forests and wetlands. The research argues
that an arms race between plants and plant-eaters is what drives evolutionary
changes. When a plant-eater finds a new way to attack a plant, the plant must
evolve to fight the plant-eater. Through many generations these adaptive changes Jaguars on a sandy beach
cause the formation of new species, leading to the observed tropical diversity.
This explanation is known as the ‘Red Queen hypothesis’.
The lifespan of a plant can be hundreds of times longer than the average leaf-eater,
which is usually a small insect. That is why a single tropical tree may have hundreds of
distinct chemical compounds in its defence arsenal against herbivores.
Chemical analyses across forests in the Amazon show that neighbouring plants mostly
have different defences than would be expected if it were a random process.
Although Alice may not like it, the Red Queen seems to be in action. Alice and the Red Queen

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 Biology at work: Sustainable fishing
Data for 2013 showed that worldwide 77 billion kilograms of fish were
removed from the sea. Scientists fear that this rate of consumption
may lead to the collapse of many of the world’s fisheries.
It is generally accepted that if fish are to remain an important food
source, sustainable fishing practices need to be widely adopted.

Which species are under particular pressure?

Greenpeace has compiled a list of the major species sold in the UK
that are under the most pressure, or are caught using the most
wasteful or destructive fishing methods. Among these species are
familiar names such as Atlantic cod, plaice, haddock and Atlantic
salmon. Seafood is said to be sustainable if it comes from a
fishery with practices that can be maintained indefinitely without Plaice is one of the species under pressure
reducing the target species’ ability to maintain its population. from unsustainable fishing practices

What determines whether a fishery is sustainable?

Apart from the health of the population the main determinant of a
sustainable fishery is the method used to catch the fish.
Some techniques are very destructive such as bottom trawling,
which effectively ploughs up the seabed, and others are indiscriminate
such as pair trawling, which will catch non-target organisms
(bycatch), such as dolphins. Other indiscriminate techniques are also
associated with the efficient removal of hundreds or thousands of fish
in one catch. Purse seining is an example of this type of fishing,
which uses a net that herds fish together in large numbers.
The purse seine net encloses and
removes thousands of fish in one catch
Overfishing
Techniques such as purse seining and long lining (a fishing line up to 100km in length with thousands of hooks)
can result in overfishing, which basically means taking fish faster than their population can reproduce.
A good example of an overfished catch is the Bluefin tuna. This fish is in high demand, which has encouraged
fishing using both purse seine nets and long lines. The result of these techniques has been a fall in the spawning
population of Bluefin tuna by 70–80% since 1970.

Examples of sustainable fisheries

In the UK the best examples of sustainable fisheries are line caught mackerel
and sea bass.
Line catching is a more selective technique and is often associated with
small-scale fisheries. As a result the dangers of stock depletion and
bycatch are greatly reduced.
Tuna and herring caught by rod and line are also good examples of
sustainable fisheries.

Buying sustainable fish

A lack of clear information means that it is difficult for shoppers
in the UK to be sure of buying sustainably-caught fish. However, the Marine
Stewardship Council (MSC) does run a labelling scheme that certifies fisheries
that are sustainable or making the effort to be so. Such a label informs Marine Stewardship Council (MSC)
shoppers that the fish they are buying is from a sustainable fishery. logo

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 Summary
● Genetic diversity refers to the variety of alleles
within a particular species.
● Species diversity refers to the number of different
species and the number of individuals of each
species found within a habitat.
● Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of different
habitats found within an ecosystem.
● Continuous variation occurs when characteristics show
a continuous range of values, for example height.
● Discontinuous variation has characters that can be
divided into distinct categories, for example blood
groups.
● Loss of genetic diversity can occur due to the
founder effect, genetic bottlenecks and selective
breeding.
● The founder effect occurs when only a few
individuals from a population colonise a new region
and start a new isolated population.
● Genetic bottlenecks may be due to a chance event
which results in a much smaller variety of alleles
existing within a new population when it is
established.
● Selective breeding means that certain alleles are
selected and others are rejected, so reducing the
genetic diversity of the resulting animals and plants.
● Stable ecosystems such as tropical rainforests have
high species diversity.
● Hostile environments, such as deserts, are hard to
colonise and survive in so have low species diversity.
● Measuring species diversity involves some method
of sampling and the use of a diversity index.
● Loss of species diversity is mainly the result of human
activities such as agriculture, deforestation, pollution,
hunting, habitat destruction and climate change.
● Conservation aims to conserve the biodiversity of
ecosystems, habitats and species.
● A species is considered endangered if it is
threatened with extinction, has its numbers reduced
to a critical level, or its population is so low that its
reproduction is affected.
● Zoos and captive breeding programmes, botanic
gardens, seed banks, national parks and sustainable
management all contribute to conservation
programmes.

Questions
1 Explain how each of the following act to reduce 3 A tropical rainforest is considered to be a stable
genetic diversity and give an example: ecosystem. Explain this in terms of the following:
a) the founder effect, b) genetic bottlenecks, a) primary productivity, d) number of food chains,
c) selective breeding. b) species diversity, e) organic content of soil.
c) number of micro-habitats,
2 The diagram shows the ranges of mean annual
temperatures and precipitation (water falling as rain 4 The table shows the total numbers of plants for each
or snow) for six types of ecosystem. The Arctic species found when sampling a grassland.
tundra is considered to be an extreme, hostile
environment whereas tropical forests are physically Species A B C D E F G H I J
less hostile to living organisms. Number 7 98 14 57 12 73 24 4 9 16
a) Explain how the information in the diagram Calculate the diversity index (D) using the following
supports this view. formula:
b) Describe and explain the relative effect of abiotic
factors on the species diversity in the tundra and Where N = Total number of organisms
the tropical forest. N(N − 1) of all species,
D=
∑n(n − 1) n = Number of individuals per
desert grassland
species
mean annual temperature/°C

30

20 tropical forest Show your working.

10 deciduous forest
5 Explain how each of the following agricultural
0 coniferous forest practices contribute to a loss of species diversity:
−10 arctic tundra a) the destruction of hedgerows,
b) monocultures,
0 100 200 300 400
c) the use of chemical fertilisers,
mean annual precipitation/cm d) the use of pesticides.

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 Further questions on evolution, classification and biodiversity

Evolution and classification 3 Testudo ephippium is one of the species of giant

tortoise found on the Galapagos Islands. Complete
1 The diagram below shows the relationship between the table below to show its classification.
six different species (A, B, C, D, E and F), which
Kingdom Animalia
have evolved from a common ancestor.
Chordata
A B C D E F
Reptilia
Chelonia
Family Testudinidae
time/thousands Genus
of years

AQA (formerly NEAB) [3]

a) i) Give the letters of the two species which Biodiversity

are most closely related. [1] 4 Grevy’s zebra Equus grevyi is one species of zebra
ii) Species A and species B are less closely found in East Africa.
related to each other than B and C. Use the a) What is a species? [1]
information in the diagram to explain why. [1] Unlike the plentiful plains zebra, the Grevy’s zebra is
b) Living specimens of species A, B and C are endangered. In 1977, there were approximately
available. Give one method scientists could use 15 200 Grevy’s zebras. Today there are fewer than
to determine which two of these species are 2000 remaining. Grevy’s zebras are being crowded
most closely related. [1] out of their grazing habitat by domestic livestock,
WJEC [3] and in the past have been hunted for their skins.
2 Beetles belonging to the genus Colophon are unable The map shows the distribution of the remaining
to fly and are found on hilltops in South Africa. Grevy’s zebra.
The dotted lines on the map on the following page distribution of
show the distribution of three species of this beetle. Grevy’s zebra
Suggest an evolutionary explanation for each of the
introduced
following statements. population
a) All of these beetles are of very similar general Ethiopia in Tsavo
National Park
appearance. [1]

Somalia

Kenya
2
1
Key
land over b) i) Use this information and your knowledge
1000 m to explain what is meant by a genetic
1 C. westwoodii
2 C. stokoei
bottleneck. [2]
0 20km
3 C. cameroni ii) A small introduced population survives in and
around Tsavo East National Park in Kenya.
b) There are slight differences between the species The founder effect will influence the genetic
of Colophon found in the three areas. [2] diversity of Grevy’s zebra in Tsavo National
c) The fact that beetles of the genus Colophon are Park. Explain how. [2]
unable to fly has been important in the evolution [5]
of twelve different species of the genus in a small
area of South Africa. [2]
AQA (formerly AEB) [5]
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 Further questions on evolution, classification and biodiversity
5 In 1800, only the red squirrel, Sciurus vulgaris, 6 A group of students investigated the effect of outflow
was found in Great Britain. from a drain on the species diversity in a river. They
In 1879, a few individuals of Sciurus carolinensis, sampled invertebrates from the river bed at two sites.
the grey squirrel, were introduced to southern One upstream of the drain, and one downstream of
England from the USA. Since then the range and the drain. The table below shows their results.
number of grey squirrels have increased, and the
range and number of red squirrels has decreased. Mean number of organisms
Grey squirrels are larger, spend more time on the per m2 of river bed
ground, and are less timid near people than red Invertebrate species Upstream site Downstream site
squirrels. flatworm 115 6
Northumberland is one of the few areas of England
leech 4 32
with a large population of red squirrels.
In an attempt to preserve the population of red snail 11 0
squirrels, and the biodiversity of the UK, the midge larva 10 2
government has funded a cull (trapping and killing) black fly larva 74 0
of grey squirrels in Northumberland. mayfly nymphs 55 0
a) i) Define the term biodiversity. [2]
water hog louse 0 5
ii) Suggest two reasons why the government
feels it is important to conserve red squirrels Gammarus 136 0
in a particular area, such as Northumberland. index of diversity 4.08
[2]
The index of diversity can be calculated from the
iii) Some residents have objected to the culling
formula
of grey squirrels. Suggest one reason why
people might object to the cull. [1] N(N − 1)
D=
Environmental groups have asked members of the ∑n(n − 1)
public to report sightings of grey and red squirrels. where D = index of diversity
In parts of Northumberland, the reported number of N = total number of organisms of all
sightings of grey squirrels is higher than that of red species
squirrels. n = total number of organisms of each
b) Suggest two reasons why the actual number of species.
grey squirrels might not be higher than the actual a) Use this formula to calculate the index of
number of red squirrels in these areas. [2] diversity for the invertebrates in the river at the
In 2010, a company applied for permission to build downstream site. Show your working. [2]
a wind farm in rural Northumberland. Before b) It may be more useful to calculate the index of
permission was granted for the development an diversity than to record the number of species
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) was carried present. Explain why. [2]
out by the local authority. c) The students could use the index of diversity to
c) State three criteria that would have been monitor levels of pollution in the river over a
considered when the EIA was carried out. [3] year. Explain how. [3]
OCR [10] OCR [7]

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