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Backlash Prediction of a Spur Gear Pair with Manufacturing Errors of Runouts,

Span and Pitch Deviations

Article · December 2018

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EJONS V – INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON MATHEMATICS – ENGINEERING – NATURAL & MEDICAL SCIENCES ISBN 978-605-7510-80-8

BACKLASH PREDICTION OF A SPUR GEAR PAIR WITHMANUFACTURING

ERRORS OF RUNOUTS, SPAN AND PITCH DEVIATIONS

Bahadır KARBA
Gaziantep University, karba.bahadir@gmail.com

Nihat YILDIRIM
Gaziantep University, nyildir@gantep.edu.tr
ABSTRACT
Whether rotates unidirectional or bidirectional, a certain amount of space between meshing
teeth flanks, usually called backlash, is allowed for functional reasons. Backlash actually is a
requirement for efficient performance of a gear pair when lubrication, manufacturing and
assembly errors, heating of the gearbox elements etc. are considered. However, for critical
applications where accurate positioning by bidirectional rotation of gears is a must, the actual
backlash of assembled gears has to be minimized and predicted before the real assembly of
gears.
The operating backlash of meshing gears teeth is affected by many factors among which
runouts, pitch errors and tooth thicknesses are the three most pronounced ones. All these three
parameters are the measurable ones once the gears are manufactured. Assuming that an
assembly line of a pair of (driving and driven) gears are supplied with hundreds of driving and
driven gears each of which was measured for the three parameters and all measured data are
stored in a data base, a software can be developed to predict the likely maximum and
minimum backlash of a pair selected arbitrarily. Such selected pairs with targeted backlash
range predicted via the software will help speed up the assembly process and reduce the
number of rejected assemblies.
Here in this paper, an algorithm is constructed to predict the likely backlash due to parameters
of runouts, pitch errors and tooth thicknesses (via span measurement) individually and in
combination. Case studies are presented by using MATLAB programming tool for different
combinations of the parameter effects within the range of allowable deviations with regards to
gear manufacturing quality grades.
Keywords: Spur gear, backlash, span measurement, runout measurement, pitch measurement

1.INTRODUCTION
By rigorous interpretation, no backlash exists until a gear is mated with another in an
assembly. However, part of the backlash which is then revealed for the gear pair is attributable
to sources identifiable in the individual gears before they are mated. For this reason, it is
possible and proper to consider the inherent backlash of a single gear before assembly [1]. The
definition of backlash is very simple, but accurately predicting backlash is often difficult. The
way to properly account for variations in operating center distance and in functional tooth
thickness is not obvious [2]. Runout is a characteristic of gear quality that results in an
effective center distance variation. As long as the runout doesn't cause loss of backlash, it
won't hurt the function of the gear. It is quite common for one to have problems trying to meet
specifications for index or pitch variation when the cause is actually runout [7]. Pitch circle
runout directly affects gear function and is of primary concern in precision gearing. It is
usually a single-cycle variation caused by eccentricity between the mounting axis and the
center about which the teeth were generated [1]. Although span measurement limits are based
on nominal tooth thickness values, readings are also influenced by deviations in base pitch,

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accumulated pitch over the spanned teeth, tooth profile, and helix angle. This inspection
method assumes that these deviations do not influence the calculation of the measurement
limits and are therefore 'inclusive' within the tooth thickness tolerance range itself. Runout is
not revealed by this measurement [2]. Pitch variation is the algebraic plus or minus (±)
difference in the transverse plane between the true position pitch and an actual pitch
measurement. This is the correct measure of the placement of a tooth relative to its adjacent
tooth [10]. While the deviations can affect the tooth thickness measurements, in general it is
not possible to infer the magnitude of the deviation from the tooth thickness measurement
.The two major exceptions to this are that runout can be estimated from any of the methods
that measure functional tooth thickness and measurement by pitch or index will give the single
and cumulative pitch deviations [2].

A best practice in gear design is to limit the amount of backlash to a minimum value needed to
accommodate manufacturing tolerances, misalignments, and deflections, In order to prevent
the non-driving side of the teeth to make contact and rattle. Paper presents an investigation of
minimum backlash values [5]. In many precision gear applications, backlash is objectionable,
and great effort is expended to eliminate or minimize its effect. Analysis of gear train
performance requires identification of error types, sources, and their interrelation to produce a
total error. In this analysis of gear train performance, backlash is used as a generic term
meaning all lost motion regardless of the origin. Pitch Circle Runout as the gear is rotated
through mesh, runout causes the teeth to move in and out of engagement. It can be deduced
that the gear center moves in and out of mesh with a simple harmonic motion. When exact
backlash value is required, it can be calculated from tooth thicknesses at the operating pitch
radii. That is, for the exact center distance the operating pitch circles are determined [1].To
estimate for backlash factors that influence backlash: the maximum and minimum operating
center distance of the mesh; the maximum and minimum tooth thickness, either nominal or
functional, for both the pinion and the gear; the total composite variation for both the pinion
and the gear when tooth thickness is specified in the nominal system with take potential
influences on backlash seriously. The definition of backlash is very simple, but accurately
predicting backlash is often difficult. The way to properly account for variations in operating
center distance and in functional tooth thickness is not obvious. The method presented here
will give a good estimate of the range of operating backlash, provided the range of operating
center distance and the range of operating functional tooth thickness is known. A method of
estimating the functional tooth thickness from a combination of the nominal tooth thickness
range and the elemental tolerances is presented [2]. The purpose of this article is to show how
to deal with errors in measurement when designing for minimum backlash [8,9].This article
presents a method that applies to any kind of modification of either profiles or leads. More
importantly, only one fitting process that takes into. Consideration all the inspection data is
used. The process is non-iterative, and a good result can be expected. This method only
applies to gears with eccentricity (radial runout). It does not apply to egg-shaped gears or
gears with considerable wobble (axial runout) [7]. The objective of this article is to show how
to determine drawing specifications for conventional tooth thickness measuring techniques
that will yield gears with the desired effective tooth thicknesses. The relationships between the
various types of tooth thicknesses are considered, The methods used by the AGMA to specify
the allowable variations for each given quality number of accuracy, spacing, profile, runout
and lead are examined. The way in which each of these allowable variations enter into each
tooth thickness measuring method are considered. Finally, a simplified method of relating the
measured value of tooth thickness, to the effective thickness is shown [17].
The actual value and effects of the backlash which is critical in the mesh condition of gears
has been a subject to be investigated by gear engineers. During meshing effects such as runout

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caused by eccentric, thermal effects, deflections, vibration, etc. Determine the dynamic
backlash. whereas errors caused by the failure to produce the toothed profile geometry
perfectly, manufacturing tolerances and design allowances, etc. Determine the constant
backlash. Few studies have been focused on controlling backlash with some mechanical
solitons that can be applied. Besides few studies have been interested to try to estimate
minimum/maximum variable backlash. The purpose of this article is to describe how to affect
take influence of operating centers via runouts, tooth thicknesses variation using span
measurement and single pitch deviation seriously when calculating minimum/maximum
variable backlash.This paper consists of 7 methods to predict minimum/maximum backlash
values. Methods are span measurement, single pitch deviation, runout measurement effect,
Integrated span measurement & single pitch deviation error, Integrated span & runout
measurement, Integrated runout & single pitch deviation errors, Integrated manufacturing
errors.

2.MANUFACTURING ERRORS

Gears are produced imperfectly under the precision or commercial components using
manufacturing methods such as hobbing, shaving, shaping etc. Error is defined as the
departure from specified condition, or more simply it is a mistake. In reference to gear
dimensions, it is a departure from the specified tolerance range [1]. Such as tooth geometry
and gear blank errors relate with manufacturing errros. These are pitch error, runout, profile
angle error, profile form error, lead form error, lead slope error, pressure angle error etc.
Backlash is the amount by which the width of a tooth space exceeds the thickness of the
engaging tooth on the operating pitch circles, see figure (1) [11].

Figure 1 Backlash [11]

The various measurement methods can lead to slightly different tooth thickness results on any
given gear. Variations in profile, pitch, helix, runout, and measurement location will have
different effects depending on the measuring method employed, see table (1).
Table 1- Gear deviations that can affect tooth thickness measurement [2]

3.DERIVATION OF BACKLASH PREDICTION FOR ALTERNATIVE

MANUFACTURING ERRORS
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Table 2- Paramaters and values of Spur Gears

Parameters Values Parameters Values

Module (m) 1mm Quality of Wheel (QWheel) ISO Grade 5
Reference Pressure Angle 20ᵒ Quality of Pinion (QPinion) ISO Grade 5
(∅)
Number of teeth of Wheel 20 Profile Shift Coefficient of 0
(T Wheel) Wheel (xWheel)
Number of teeth of Pinion 20 Profile Shift Coefficient of 0
(T Pinion) Pinion (x Pinion)

All studies are made for spur gear pair. Input parameters of spur gear as shown in Table (2).

3.1 Influence of Runout Effects on Variable Backlash

These are fluctuations in center distane during one revolution of the product gear. They appear
in the diagram as slowly increasing and decreasing curves corresponding to the ratio of the
gears in figure (2) [4].

Figure 2 Runout [4]

Backlash in a gear mesh is the circular arc length at the operating pitch diameter through
which one gear can freely rotate while holding its mate in a fixed position. In Figure (3), two
spur gears are in mesh contacting on their flanks at the pitch point [2].

Figure 3 Backlash in a spur gear mesh [2]

Derivation of Variable Backlash Under Runouts & Operating Center Distance

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Exact backlash expressions as given in [1].

T  TPinion
Reference center distance = C = m Wheel (1)
2
Runout of wheel and pinion = rWheel  eWheel ,Pinion sin  (2)
where eWheel ,Pinion = eccentricities of gears, where  = rotation angle
Total runout = Center distance variation = C  rWheel  rPinion (3)
C ' TWheel ,Pinion
Operating pitch radius Wheel, Pinion = RWheel  ,Pinion  (4)
TW heel  TPinion
where C’  C  C
2 C '
Operating circular pitch = pc '  (5)
TWheel  TPinion
where tWheel ,Pinion , RWheel ,Pinion ,  , are the known at pitch radius with pressure angle.
inv  tan   (6)
inv '  tan '  ' (7)
where  ’ = Operating pressure angle at pitch radius
where tWheel ,Pinion = The tooth thickness at pitch radius
R
 ,Pinion  t (
The tooth thickness at operating pitch radius = tWheel )  2 R(inv ' inv ) (8)
R
In addition, eWheel,Pinion are known via runout measurement. Hence, Backlash B is derived as
B  pc ' Wheel ,Pinion –  (t 'Wheel  t ' Pinion ) (9)

Flow Chart of Variable Backlash Under Runouts & Operating Center Distance

Figure 4 Flowchart Runouts & Operating Center Distance

Case Study of Variable Backlash Under Runouts & Operating Center Distance

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Program worked using as inputs e Wheel=10 um, e Pininon=0 um.

Figure 5 Case Study of Runouts & Operating Center Distance

Figure (5) describes backlash behaviour during single-cycle rotation based on every center
distance variations under runouts effects. This behavior is called Exact Backlash. The
software gives results using algorithm via operating center distance expressions.

3.2. Influence of Constant Backlash Under Single Pitch Deviation Error

The displacement of any tooth flank from its theoretical position, relative to a datum tooth
flank, see figure (6)

Figure 6 Pitch deviations [15]

Derivation of Constant Backlash Under Single Pitch Deviation Error

For the accuracy grade 5 is presented Single Pitch Deviation Tolearance formulation.
According to the new edition, the tolerances are calculated basing on particular values of gear
parameters and rounded accordingly to specified rules [14].
fpt  0,001d  0,4mn  5

where d=reference diameter, mn =normal module

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for mn=1,T=20 teeth d=1*20=20, 𝑓𝑝𝑡=(0,01*20)+(0,4*1)+5=5,4um tolerance range

Single Pitch deviation has an impact on occuring backlash depending on direction of rotation
during gear meshing. Backlash is affected whilst driven gear is rotating at clockwise direction
by right pitch errors and whilst driven gear is rotating at counter-clockwise direction by left
pitch errors
Flow Chart of Constant Backlash Under Single Pitch Deviation Error

Figure 7 Flowchart of Single Pitch Deviation Error

Case Study of Constant Backlash Under Single Pitch Deviation Error

Clockwise Direction (CW)

Counter-Clockwise Direction (CCW)

Figure 8 Case Study of Single Pitch Deviation Error under CCW and CW Rotation

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As shown in figure (8) single pitch deviation graphs, they are filled using pitch deviation
measurement device then these errors affect directly backlash depending on direction of
rotation. Especially, pitch error is very important for bidirectional applications so reversing
gear pair and train system. The algorithm of software is consisted without any phase angle
variation. In addition, this measurement results have taken independent from runout error.

3.3. Influence of Constant Backlash Under Effects of Tooth thickness Variation Via
Span Measurement

The length Wk is the distance measured in a base tangent plane between two parallel planes
touching a right flank and a left flank over k teeth of an external gear or over k tooth spaces of
an internal gear. The distance is constant along all normals between and common to both
tooth profiles see figure (9) [4]. Span measurement uses simple tools such as a disc
micrometer or a caliper to measure nominal tooth thickness, see figure (10) [2].
The main advantage of span measurement is the averaging of variations in individual teeth
and thus the achievement of better accuracy. Since this technique is independent of outside
diameter, no error is introduced by variation in outside-diameter size and by runout as
happens with single-tooth caliper measures. In addition, there are no errors from in or ball
diameter tolarences, no difficult handling and need of fixtures, and the gage is of much
smaller size than over-pins gaging; a small-capacity range can handle much larger gears with
ease [1].

Figure 9 Limits of span measurement Figure 10 – Span measurement using a disc

in base tangent plane [4] micrometer [2]

Derivation of Constant Backlash Under Effects of Tooth thickness Variation Via Span
Measurement

Span Measurement equations as given in [4].

Normal tooth thickness
SbnWheel ,Pinion  mcos( / 2.0  (TWheel ,Pinioninv)  (2tanxWheel ,Pinion ) (10)
The tooth thickness for any diameter
dyWheel ,Pinion  dWheel ,Pinion  2mxWheel ,Pinion (11)
where Reference Diameter = dWheel ,Pinion = mTWheel ,Pinion

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Where Profile coefficients of Wheel and Pinion  xWheel ,Pinion

Reference base diameters
dbWheel ,Pinion  dyWheel ,Pinion cos (12)
The angles of contact on the measuring circle
aytWheel ,Pinion  acos  dbWheel ,Pinion / dyWheel ,Pinion  (13)
WyWheel ,Pinion  dbWheel ,Pinion tan(aytWheel ,Pinion ) (14)
Possible of best spanned k value of Wheel and Pinion
kWheel ,Pinion  WyWheel ,Pinion  SbnWheel ,Pinion  / pbn  1 (15)
Where = Normal base pitch = pbn   mcos
Base Tangent length of Gears (No Backlash)
 
WWheel ,Pinion   kWheel ,Pinion  1 pbn  SbnWheel ,Pinion (16)
Influence of measured minimum base tangent lengths variation and its effects on maximum
normal backlash jnmax
jnmax  jnWheel _ Max  jnPinion _ Max (17)
Influence of measured minimum base tangent lengths variation and its effects on maximum
circumferential backlash jtmax
jtmax  jnmax / cos (18)
Influence of measured maximum base tangent lengths variation and its effects on minimum
normal backlash jnmin
jnmin  jnWheel _ Min  jnPinion _ Min (19)
Influence of measured maximum base tangent lengths variation and its effects on minimum
normal backlash jtmin
jtmin  jnmin / cos (20)
Where Maximum base tangent lengths variation of Wheel  WMeasured _Wheel ,Pinion _ Max
Where Minimum base tangent lengths variation of Wheel  WMeasured _Wheel ,Pinion _ Min
Flow Chart of Constant Backlash Under Effects of Tooth thickness Variation Via Span
Measurement

Figure 11 Flowchart of Tooth thickness Variation Via Span Measurement

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Case Study of Constant Backlash Under Effects of Tooth thickness Variation Via Span
Measurement

Table 3- Inputs of SM paramaters

Span Measurement Values Span Measurement Values
Parameters Parameters
WTheoritical (No Backlash) 7.660 mm WMeasured_Wheel_Min 7.651 mm
WMeasured_Wheel_Max 7.655 mm WMeasured_Pinion_Min 7.651 mm
WMeasured_Pinion_Max 7.655 mm kPinion (Number of Teeth 3
Spanned)
kWheel (Number of Teeth 3
Spanned)

As shown in table (3), the actual nominal tooth thickness are found using span measurement
values compared with theoretical one.

Figure 12 Case Study of Tooth thickness Variation Via Span Measurement

Figure (12) shows range of backlash under tooth thicknesses via span mesaurement. Above
all, the maximum and min values of all measured values are selected. Then these values
compare with theoretical (no backlash) ones. So that , constant backlash is occurred by
difference between both . For this case study, tooth thickness tolerance is assumed using
standard while finding max/min measured values. (Whether the weakening of the tooth
thickness needs to be taken into consideration in calculations of load-carrying capacity is
something which has to be decided for the case concerned. In any event this should be done
whenever and |lower allowance/module | > 0.005 [14].)
Where lower allowance = upper allowance-tolerance.
This tooth thickness tolerance range properties directly affect base tangent allowance
upper/lower under multiply with cos (reference pressure angle) effect.
Thus, 1mm module and 20 teeth and grade 5 of DIN quality gears tooth thickness allowances
are determined based on relation between reference quality numbers of gears and module to
determine tooth thickness tolerance and upper allowance. As specified in ISO 1328 and
AGMA: 2015. DIN grade 5 converted to (AGMA 2000-A88 AGMA 12 Quality and 1mm
module as seen in table (4) tolerance range between A-D (0.050/0.005 mm) [17]). Therefore,
tolerance range is selected upper/lower allowance -0.0047/ -0.0094 mm without any
allowance just used tolerance. In addition, this lower allowance is proper for lower
|allowance/module | > 0.005, 0.0094 mm / 1mm = 0.009 > 0.005 .

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Table 4 -Tooth Thickness Tolerance [17]

3.4 Influence of Variable Backlash Under Effects of Integrated Runouts & Single Pitch
Deviation Errors
As shown in Figure (13), the angle between the maximum cumulative pitch deviation and the
“runout” is about 90°. The approximate value of this angle is 90° + αt on the left flanks and
90° + αt on the right flanks. Runout, caused by eccentricity, results in a variation in backlash,
accelerations and decelerations due to pitch deviations.

Figure 13 Runout and pitch deviations of an eccentric gear [4]

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Derivation of Variable Backlash Under Effects of Integrated Runouts & Single Pitch
Deviation Errors

Figure 14 Flowchart of Integrated Runouts & Single Pitch Deviation Error

Case Study of Variable Backlash Under Effects of Integrated Runouts & Single Pitch
Deviation Errors
Clockwise Direction (CW)

Counter-Clockwise Direction (CCW)

Figure 15 Case Study of Integrated Runouts & Single Pitch Deviation Errors Under
CCW and CW Rotations

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In Figure (15), time-varying backlash depended on both runout and pitch error at
unidirectional or bidirectional applications. Software gave this results for how much range of
backlash changed without phase angle variation.
3.5 Influence of Variable Backlash Under Effects of Integrated Runouts & Tooth
Thickness Variation via Span Measurement
Flow Chart of Variable Backlash Under Effects of Integrated Runouts & Tooth Thickness
Variation via Span Measurement

Figure 16 Flowchart Integrated Runouts & Tooth Thickness Variation via Span
Measurement
Case Study of Variable Backlash Under Effects of Integrated Runouts & Tooth Thickness
Variation via Span Measurement

Figure 17 Case Study of Variable Backlash Under Effects of Integrated Runouts &
Tooth Thickness Variation via Span Measurement
As seen in figure (17), this study provides how integrated runout which is part of time-varying
backlash and span measurement which is part of initial maximum and minimum backlash
shows actual range of backlash without pitch error.

3.6 Influence of Variable Backlash Under Effects of Integrated Single Pitch Deviation
Error & Tooth Thickness Variation via Span Measurement
This method describes tooth thickness variation both nominal tooth thickness via span
measurement and pitch error via single pitch deviation.This functional effects helps to predict
backlash values.

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Flow Chart of Variable Backlash Under Effects of Integrated Single Pitch Deviation Error &
Tooth Thickness Variation via Span Measurement

Figure 18 Flowchart of Integrated Single Pitch Deviation Error & Tooth Thickness
Variation via Span Measurement
Case Study of Variable Backlash Under Effects of Integrated Single Pitch Deviation Error &
Tooth Thickness Variation via Span Measurement
Clockwise direction (CW)

Counter-Clockwise direction (CCW)

Figure 19 Case Study of Integrated Single Pitch Deviation Error & Tooth Thickness
Variation via Span Measurement Under CCW and CW Rotations

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As shown in figure (19), This integrated software gave results just depended on single pitch
deviation through direction about constant maximum and minimum range of backlash at every
meshing without runout error.
3.7 Influence of Variable Backlash Under Effects of Integrated Single Pitch Deviation
Error & Tooth Thickness Variation via Span Measurement & Runouts
Flow Chart of Variable Backlash Under Effects of Integrated Single Pitch Deviation Error &
Tooth Thickness Variation via Span Measurement & Runouts

Figure 20 Flowchart of Variable Backlash Under Effects of Manufacturing Errors

Case Study of Variable Backlash Under Effects of Manufacturing Errors
Clockwise direction (CW)

Counter-clockwise direction (CCW)

Figure 21 Case Study of Variable Backlash Under Effects of Manufacturing Errors

Under CCW and CW Rotations

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The results of figure (21) supplied to succed at closest backlash prediction under runout
errors, real tooth thickness and pitch errors. In addition, effects of Integrated Single Pitch
Deviation Error & Tooth Thickness Variation via Span Measurement & Runouts time-varying
maximum and minimum backlash through direction of rotation.

4.DISCUSSION
As shown in graphs, three main effects of manufacturing errors act on backlash prediction for
a spur gear pair after measurements. In this article, range of backlash prediction is investigated
both their own effects and their integration effects via combinations. These errors occur on
single gear as an inherent. Backlash occurs when gears are assembled. Actual backlash
consists of time-varying backlash and constant backlash. Tooth thicknesses variation are
measured span measurement. This values cause costant initial backlash. In addition, time-
varying backlash is consisted by measured left and right flanks pitch error of teeth values and
runouts of gears.
Both Runouts and pitch errors’s software helps to have knowledge how much backlash is
increasing/decreasing to avoid interference and excessive backlash while gears are rotating. In
this study about span measurement , its based on minimum/maximum tooth thickness instead
of avarage value of measured tooth thicknesses like in previous works. This method simplifies
to find maximum and minimum backlash Integrated runouts, pitch errors, and tooth thickness.

5.CONCLUSION
Many studies had happened which were interested in real backlash by who expert on gears
and gear trains. However, tooth geometries of gears with design allowances and acceptance
tolerances determined foreseeable backlash before manufacturing in previous studies. But
most of paramaters geometries of manufactured gears totally different than designed gears.
Morever, actual backlash was reshaped under assembly variables and manufacturing errors.
Hence, backlash prediction was done by using algorithms written by measurements on
manufactured gears. The purpose of this article points out importance of manufacturing error
whilst reaching closest real backlash. In addition, as seen in figure (21) minimum backlash
under ccw direction, In all cases backlash must want to be positive, however based on certain
values of runouts, single pitch deviation errors and tooth thicknesses variation could be seen
gear interference due to negative backlash.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ER MAKINA Precision Gear Industry strongly support the application of this study for
backlash prediction under the manufacturing errors. This subject was decided/suggested by
ER MAKINA Precision Gear Industry under supervisory of Prof.Dr.Nihat YILDIRIM.

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REFERENCES
[1] George W.Michalec, “Precision Gearing Theory and Practice”, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
1966.

[2] ANSI/AGMA 2002-C16, “Tooth Thickness and Backlash Measurement of Cylindrical

Involute Gearing”, American Gear Manufacturers Association

[3] ANSI/AGMA 2002--B88, “Tooth Thickness Specification and Measurement”, American

Gear Manufacturers Association

[4] BS ISO/TR10064-2:1996, Part 2: “Inspection related to radial composite deviations,

runout, tooth thickness and backlash”

[5] Charlos H. Wink, “Gear Backlash Analysis of Unloaded Gear Pairs in Transmissions”,
June 2016, Gear Technology.
[6] Robert E. Smith, “What Is Runout, And Why Should I Worry About It”, Gear
Technology, January/February 1991
[7] Xiaogen Su & Donald R. Houser, “Programmable Separation of Runout From Profile and
Lead Inspection Data for Gear Teeth With Arbitrary Modifications”, March/April 1998
[8] Richard L. Thoen, “Minimizing backlash in spur gears”, Consultant, Minneapolis, MN,
1994, pp. 26–28.
[9] Corrections to “Minimizing Backlash in Spur Gears,” Gear Technology, July/Aug. 1994
[10] Robert E. Smith, “Quality Gear Inspection Part I”, R. E. Smith & Co., Inc. Rochester,
NY, Sep/Oct 1994
[11] ANSI/AGMA 1012-G05, “Gear Nomenclature, Definitions of Terms with Symbols”,
American Gear Manufacturers Association, 2005
[12] ISO 1328-2:1997, Cylindrical gears - ISO system of accuracy - Part 2: Definitions and
allowable values of deviations relevant to radial composite deviations and runout information
[13] Wojtyła, Mirosław & Jakubiec, Władysław & Płowucha, Wojciech. (2014). Comparison
ISO standards 1328-1:1995 and 1328-1:2013.
[14] DIN 3967, System of gear fits – Backlash, tooth thickness allowances, tooth thickness
tolerances principles
[15] ANSI/AGMA 2015-1-A01, Accuracy Classification System – Tangential Measurements
for Cylindrical Gears
[16] Paul M. Dean, Jr., Consultant Schenectady, NY, The Interrelationship of Tooth
Thickness Measurements as Evaluated by Various Measuring Techniques,
September/October 1987, Gear Technology
[17] ANSI/AGMA 2000-A88, Gear Classification and Inspection Handbook - Tolerances
and Measuring Methods for Unassembled Spur and Helical Gears (Including Metric
Equivalents, American Gear Manufacturers Association

November 22-25, 2018 Gaziantep/ TURKEY 66

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