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STEM_BCAL

PROPERTIES OF LIMITS
Consider the function
Let f and g be functions such that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙)
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
2𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 6 both exist.
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−2
▪ Constant Coefficient | a constant coefficient k can
When x=2, the function is undefined, i.e., f(2) does not exist.
be taken out of the limit expression
DOMAIN: 𝑥 𝜖 ℝ | 𝑥 ≠ 2} 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒌[𝒇(𝒙)] = 𝒌 ∙ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)
{ 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

x=2
We investigate the function values when x is close to 2 but not ▪ Distributive Property | a limit expression can be
equal to 2. distributed among terms of a basic arithmetic
expression
x f(x) x f(x)
1.9 0.8 2.1 1.2
𝐥𝐢𝐦[𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) + 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙)
1.99 0.98 2.01 1.02 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
1.999 0.998 2.001 1.002
1.9999 0.9998 2.0001 1.0002 𝐥𝐢𝐦[𝒇(𝒙) − 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) − 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙)
1.99999 0.99998 2.00001 1.00002 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

Notice that as x moves closer to 2, f(x) moves closer to 1. 𝐥𝐢𝐦[𝒇(𝒙) ∙ 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) ∙ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙)
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

LIMITS | Let f be a function at every number in some 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)

𝒇(𝒙)
open interval containing a, except possibly at the 𝐥𝐢𝐦 [ ] = 𝒙→𝒂
𝒙→𝒂 𝒈(𝒙) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙)∗
number a itself. The limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L. 𝒙→𝒂
In symbols,
*provided that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) ≠ 𝟎.
𝒙→𝒂
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳
𝒙→𝒂
These properties remain valid when 𝑥 → 𝑎 is replaced
if the following statement is true: given any 𝜺 > 𝟎, however with either 𝑥 → 𝑎 +or 𝑥 → 𝑎−.
small, there exists a 𝜹 > 𝟎 such that if 𝟎 < |𝒙 − 𝒂| < 𝜹, then
|𝒇(𝒙) − 𝑳| < 𝜺. ▪ Exponential Properties | Let f be a function such
that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) exists, and n is any positive integer.
𝒙→𝒂
Therefore, in the prelude,
𝐥𝐢𝐦[𝒇(𝒙)]𝒏 = [𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)]𝒏
2𝑥2 − 7𝑥 + 6 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟏
𝒙→𝟐 𝑥−2 ∗
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒏√𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒏√𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

ONE-SIDED LIMITS *provided that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) > 𝟎 if n is even.

𝒙→𝒂

▪ Left-Hand Limit ▪ Composite Function | if 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒃 and is the

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳 𝒙→𝒂
𝒙→𝒂− function f is continuous at b,
if for any 𝜺 > 𝟎, however small, there exists a 𝜹 > 𝟎 such
that if 𝟎 < 𝒙 − 𝒂 < 𝜹, then |𝒇(𝒙) − 𝑳| < 𝜺 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝒇 ∘ 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒃)
𝒙→𝒂

▪ Right-Hand Limit
or, equivalently,
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳
𝒙→𝒂+
if for any 𝜺 > 𝟎, however small, there exists a 𝜹 > 𝟎 such 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝒇 ∘ 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙))
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
that if 𝟎 < 𝒂 − 𝒙 < 𝜹, then |𝒇(𝒙) − 𝑳| < 𝜺

LIMITS OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

EXISTENCE OF TWO-SIDED LIMITS ▪ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒌 = 𝒌, where k is a constant
𝒙→𝒂
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) exists and is equal to L if and only if both ▪ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙 = 𝒂
𝒙→𝒂
𝒙→𝒂
𝐥𝐢𝐦− 𝒇(𝒙) and 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒇(𝒙) exist such that
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒇(𝒙).

𝒙→𝒂− 𝒙→𝒂

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SPECIAL CASE ▪ Logarithmic Function | let b be a positive real

LIMITS OF PIECEWISE FUNCTIONS number, 𝒃 ≠ 𝟏

KExamplek
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒂, a>0
𝒙→𝒂
𝟐
𝒙 − 𝟏, 𝒊𝒇 − 𝟎 < 𝒙 < −𝟏
𝒇(𝒙) = { 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏, 𝒊𝒇 − 𝟏 ≤ 𝒙 < −𝟐 } ▪ Trigonometric Function | let a be a real number
𝟓𝟎 − 𝒙, 𝒊𝒇 − 𝟎 < 𝒙 ≥ −𝟐 in the domain of the given trigonometric function

a) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏) = 1 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝒙) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝒂) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒔𝒄 (𝒙) = 𝒄𝒔𝒄 (𝒂)
𝒙→−𝟑 𝒙→−𝟑 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

b) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟓 − 𝟑 = 2 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝒙) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝒂) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒔𝒆𝒄 (𝒙) = 𝒔𝒆𝒄 (𝒂)
𝒙→𝟑 𝒙→𝟏 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

c) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒙→−𝟏 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒕𝒂𝒏 (𝒙) = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 (𝒂) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒐𝒕 (𝒙) = 𝒄𝒐𝒕 (𝒂)
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
Since -1 is a boundary for conditions 𝒙 < −𝟏
and −𝟏 ≤ 𝒙 < 𝟐, we evaluate the one-sided limits of the ▪ Inverse Trigonometric Function | let a be a real
function at -1 number in the domain of the given inverse
trigonometric function
𝐥𝐢𝐦 (−𝟏)𝟐 − 𝟏 = 0 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟏 = 1
𝒙→−𝟏+ 𝒙→−𝟏−
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝒂) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒔𝒄−𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝒄𝒔𝒄−𝟏 (𝒂)
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
∴ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) does not exist.
𝒙→−𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝒂) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒔𝒆𝒄−𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝒔𝒆𝒄−𝟏 (𝒂)
INDETERMINATE FORM 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

If f and g are two functions such that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟎 and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 (𝒂) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒐𝒕−𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝒄𝒐𝒕−𝟏 (𝒂)
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
𝒇(𝒙)
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟎, then is in the indeterminate form 𝟎/𝟎.
𝒙→𝒂 𝒈(𝒙)
SPECIAL LIMIT FORMULAS
▪ If this happens, re-evaluate by factoring or
multiplying conjugates. 𝒆𝒕 − 𝟏 𝒍𝒏 (𝒕 + 𝟏)
𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟏 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟏
𝒕→𝟎 𝒕 𝒕→𝟎 𝒕
KExample 1k
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒕
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟑 (𝒙 + 𝟑)(𝒙 + 𝟏) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟏 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟎
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒕→𝟎 𝒕 𝒕→𝟎 𝒕
𝒙→−𝟏 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 − 𝟐 𝒙→−𝟏 (𝒙 − 𝟐)(𝒙 + 𝟏)
KExample 1k
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟑 (𝒙 + 𝟑)
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝒙
𝒙→−𝟏 𝒙 − 𝒙 − 𝟐 𝒙→−𝟏 (𝒙 − 𝟐) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ∙ 𝟑)
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝟑𝒙
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟑 −𝟏 + 𝟑 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝒙
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = =− 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝟏 ∙ 𝟑)
𝒙→−𝟏 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 − 𝟐 −𝟏 − 𝟐 𝟑 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎

KExample 2k 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝒙
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝟑) = 𝟑
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎
√𝒙 − 𝟐 √𝒙 − 𝟐 √𝒙 + 𝟐
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = ∙
𝒙→𝟒 𝒙−𝟒 𝒙 − 𝟒 √𝒙 + 𝟐 KExample 2k

√𝒙 − 𝟐 𝒙−𝟒 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟒𝒙 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟒𝒙 𝟒

𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ∙ )
𝒙→𝟒 𝒙−𝟒 (𝒙 − 𝟒)(√𝒙 + 𝟐) 𝒙→𝟎 𝟑𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝟒𝒙 𝟑
𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟒𝒙 𝟒 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟒𝒙
√𝒙 − 𝟐 𝟏 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟏 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = ∙ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( )
𝒙→𝟒 𝒙→𝟎 𝟑𝒙 𝟑 𝒙→𝟎 𝟒𝒙
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = =
𝒙→𝟒 𝒙 − 𝟒 √𝒙 + 𝟐 𝐥𝐢𝐦 √𝒙 + 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐
𝒙→𝟒 𝒙→𝟒 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟒𝒙 𝟒
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = ∙𝟎 = 𝟎
√𝒙 − 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝒙→𝟎 𝟑𝒙 𝟑
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = =
𝒙→𝟒 𝒙−𝟒 𝟐+𝟐 𝟒
Consider the function

1
LIMITS OF TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥2
▪ Exponential Function | let b be a positive real When x=0, the function is undefined, i.e., f(0) does not exist.
number, 𝒃 ≠ 𝟏 We can say that

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒃𝒙 = 𝒃𝒂 lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist.

𝒙→𝒂
𝑥→0

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Examine the table of values below. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒙 = −∞, for 𝒂 = 𝒌𝝅

𝒙→𝒂−
x f(x) x f(x)
0.1 100 -0.1 100 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒙 = +∞, for 𝒂 = 𝒌𝝅
𝒙→𝒂+
0.01 10000 -0.01 10000
0.001 1000000 -0.001 1000000 (𝟒𝒌+𝟏)𝝅
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 = +∞, for 𝒂 =
0.0001 100000000 -0.0001 100000000 𝒙→𝒂− 𝟐
0.00001 10000000000 -0.00001 10000000000
(𝟒𝒌+𝟏)𝝅
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 = −∞, for 𝒂 =
Notice that as x approaches 0, f(x) increases without bound. 𝒙→𝒂+ 𝟐

We can say that as x approaches 0, f(x) approaches positive (𝟒𝒌+𝟑)𝝅

infinity. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 = −∞, for 𝒂 =
𝒙→𝒂− 𝟐

INFINITE LIMITS (𝟒𝒌+𝟑)𝝅

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 = +∞, for 𝒂 =
𝒙→𝒂+ 𝟐
Let f be a function defined at every number in some
open interval l, including a, except possibly at the 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝒙 = −∞, for 𝒂 = 𝟐𝒌𝝅
𝒙→𝒂−
number a itself. As x approaches a, f(x)
increases/decreases without bound. In symbols, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝒙 = +∞, for 𝒂 = 𝟐𝒌𝝅
𝒙→𝒂+

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = +∞ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = −∞ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝒙 = +∞, for 𝒂 = (𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)𝝅
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
𝒙→𝒂−

EVALUATING INFINITE LIMITS ALGEBRAICALLY

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝒙 = −∞, for 𝒂 = (𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)𝝅
𝒙→𝒂+
If a is any real number and if 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒄 and
𝒙→𝒂
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟎, where c is a constant not equal to 0, then LIMITS AT INFINITY
𝒙→𝒂

c>0 c<0
Let f be a function that is defined at every number in
some interval (𝑎, +∞) or (𝑎, −∞). The limit of f(x) as x
lim g(x) = 0 through 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇(𝒙) increases/decreases without bound, is L. In symbols,
positive values 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = +∞ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = −∞
𝒙→𝒂 𝒈(𝒙) 𝒙→𝒂 𝒈(𝒙)
lim g(x) = 0 through 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = −∞ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = +∞ 𝒙→+∞ 𝒙→−∞
negative values 𝒙→𝒂 𝒈(𝒙) 𝒙→𝒂 𝒈(𝒙)
Theorems of Limits at Infinity

KExamplek ▪ If k is a constant, then

𝒙+𝟐 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒌 = 𝒌 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒌 = 𝒌

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙→+∞ 𝒙→−∞
𝒙→𝟏+ 𝟏 −𝒙
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙 + 𝟐 = (𝟏) + 𝟐 = 𝟑 ▪ If r is a positive integer, then
𝒙→𝟏−

𝟏 𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟏 − 𝒙 = 𝟎 through positive values* 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟎 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟎
𝒙→𝟏− 𝒙→+∞ 𝒙𝒓 𝒙→−∞ 𝒙𝒓

𝒙+𝟐 KExamplek
∴ 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ = +∞
𝒙→𝟏 𝟏−𝒙
𝟏
*Why through positive values? When you substitute any value to 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 𝒙
the left of 1, the result is always positive. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = ∙
𝒙→+∞ 𝒙 − 𝟐 𝒙−𝟐 𝟏
𝒙
INFINITE LIMITS OF TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS
𝟏 𝟏
𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 𝟐+𝒙 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐 + 𝐥𝐢𝐦
▪ Logarithmic Function | let b be a positive real 𝒙→+∞ 𝒙
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝒙→+∞
number, 𝒃 ≠ 𝟏 𝒙→+∞ 𝒙 − 𝟐 𝒙→+∞ 𝟐 𝟏
𝟏−𝒙 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟏 − 𝟐 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙
𝒙→+∞ 𝒙→+∞

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒙 = +∞ for 0 < b < 1 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 𝟐+𝟎

𝒙→𝟎+ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = =𝟐
𝒙→+∞ 𝒙−𝟐 𝟏 − 𝟐(𝟎)
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒙 = −∞ for b > 1
𝒙→𝟎+ CONTINUITY
▪ Trigonometric Function | let b be a positive real A function f is continuous at a number a is only if the
number and k an integer following conditions are satisfied.
(𝟐𝒌+𝟏)𝝅
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙 = +∞, for 𝒂 = I. f(a) exists.
𝒙→𝒂− 𝟐
II. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) exists.
𝒙→𝒂

𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙 = −∞, for 𝒂 =

(𝟐𝒌+𝟏)𝝅 III. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒂)
𝟐 𝒙→𝒂
𝒙→𝒂

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KExample 1k SLOPE OF A TANGENT LINE

𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟕𝒙 + 𝟔 If f is defined on an open interval containing c, and if

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 = 2 the limit
𝒙−𝟐
i. f(2) is undefined. 𝒇(𝒄 + 𝒉) − 𝒇(𝒄)
ii. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟏 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→𝟐 𝒉→𝟎 𝒉
iii. f(2) and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) are not comparable
𝒙→𝟐 exists, then the line passing through (c, f(c)) with slope
mtan is the tangent line to the graph of f at point (c,f(c)).
∴ 𝒇 𝒊𝒔 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝒂 = 𝟐.

KExample 2k DERIVATIVE

The derivative of a function f is that function f’, such

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎
𝒈(𝒙) = { } 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 = 0 that its value at a number x in the domain is given by
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 < 𝟎
either of the following limits:
i. g(0) = 0
ii. since 0 is a boundary for conditions 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉) − 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇(𝒙 + ∆𝒙) − 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
and 𝒙 < 𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 𝒉 ∆𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙
if it exists.
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟎 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 = 𝟎
𝒙→𝟎− 𝒙→𝟎+
DIFFERENTIATION | the process of computing the
∴ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟎 derivative; operation of deriving a function f’ from a
𝒙→𝟎
function f
iii. g(0) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙)
𝒙→𝟎
If a function has a derivative of c, the function is said to
∴ 𝒈 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝒂 = 𝟎. be differentiable at c. A function is differentiable on an
open interval if it is differentiable at every number in
TYPES OF DISCONTINUITIES the open interval.

Removable | the limit exists, however… NON-EXISTENCE OF A DERIVATIVE | since the

derivative of a function at a number c is defined in
▪ Missing Point/Hole | f(a) is undefined terms of a limit, it does not always exist, like when:
▪ Dislocated Point | 𝒇(𝒂) ≠ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒙→𝒂
▪ The graph is discontinuous at c
Essential | the limit does not exist because… ▪ The graph has a sharp corner at c
▪ The graph has a vertical tangent at c
▪ Jump | 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒇(𝒙) ≠ 𝐥𝐢𝐦− 𝒇(𝒙) ▪ The graph has a cusp at c
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
▪ Infinite/Asymptotic | 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = ±∞
𝒙→𝒂 RULES ON DIFFERENTIATION
▪ Alternating Point | values of f(x) oscillate
between two values Let f and g be differentiable functions at x
_______________________________________________ ▪ Constant Coefficient | a constant coefficient k can
be taken out of the derivative expression
The Tangent Line Problem
𝒅 𝒅
[𝒌 ∙ 𝒇(𝒙)] = 𝒌 ∙ 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
(c+h, f(c+h)) ▪ Distributive Property | a derivative expression can
(c, f(c)) y=f(x) be distributed among sum or difference of terms

𝒅 𝒅 𝒅
[𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒙)
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

h
𝒅 𝒅 𝒅
[𝒇(𝒙) − 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝒇(𝒙) − 𝒈(𝒙)
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Consider y=f(x), mtan the tangent of the graph at P(c,f(c)). We ▪ Product Rule | applies to differentiating factors
cannot find the slope of the tangent given only the tangent P.
Thus, we set a point Q(c+h,f(c+h)) such that a secant can be
formed by points P & Q. 𝒅
[𝒇(𝒙) ∙ 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝒇(𝒙)𝒈′ (𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒙)𝒇′(𝒙)
𝒅𝒙
Notice that as h, the distance between point P & Q, decreases
and approaches 0, the secant line slowly resembles the slope of
the tangent line; thus, we can make a better approximation of
the slope of the tangent line as h approaches 0.

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▪ Quotient Rule | applies to differentiating rational DERIVATIVES OF TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

expressions
▪ Exponential Functions
𝒅 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒈(𝒙)𝒇′(𝒙) − 𝒇(𝒙)𝒈′(𝒙)
[ ]= , 𝒈(𝒙) ≠ 𝟎 𝒅 𝒙 𝒅 𝒙
𝒅𝒙 𝒈(𝒙) [𝒈(𝒙)]𝟐 [𝒆 ] = 𝒆𝒙 [𝒂 ] = 𝒂𝒙 ∙ 𝒍𝒏(𝒂), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
KExamplek Differentiate.
▪ Logarithmic Functions
𝟒𝒙 + 𝟓
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒅 𝟏
𝟖𝒙
[𝒍𝒏(𝒙)] =
𝒅𝒙 𝒙
We know that
𝒅 𝟏
𝒅 𝒅 𝒅 [𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙] = , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1
𝟒𝒙 + 𝟓 = 𝟒 𝒙+ 𝟓=𝟒+𝟎=𝟒 𝒅𝒙 𝒙 ∙ 𝒍𝒏(𝒂)
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒅 𝒅 ▪ Trigonometric Functions
𝟖𝒙 = 𝟖 𝒙=𝟖
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒅 𝒅
By virtue of the quotient rule, 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝒙) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝒙) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝒙) = −𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝒙)
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
(𝟖𝒙)(𝟒) − (𝟒𝒙 + 𝟓)(𝟖) 𝒅 𝒅
𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 (𝒙) = 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 (𝒙) 𝒄𝒐𝒕 (𝒙) = −𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟐 (𝒙)
[𝟖𝒙]𝟐 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝟑𝟐𝒙 − (𝟑𝟐𝒙 + 𝟒𝟎) 𝒅
𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝒔𝒆𝒄 (𝒙) = 𝒔𝒆𝒄 (𝒙) ∙ 𝒕𝒂𝒏 (𝒙 )
𝟔𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙
−𝟒𝟎 𝟓
𝒇′ (𝒙) = =− 𝟐 𝒅
𝟔𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝟖𝒙 𝒄𝒔𝒄 (𝒙) = −𝒄𝒔𝒄 (𝒙) ∙ 𝒄𝒐𝒕 (𝒙)
𝒅𝒙
DERIVATIVES OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
▪ Inverse Trigonometric Functions
▪ Constant Term | the derivative of a constant k is 0
𝒅 𝟏 𝒅 𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝒙) = − 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝒙) = −
𝒅 𝒅𝒙 √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙 √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐
𝒌=𝟎
𝒅𝒙
𝒅 𝟏 𝒅 𝟏
▪ Derivative of X 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 (𝒙) = − 𝒄𝒐𝒕−𝟏 (𝒙) = −
𝒅𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐
𝒅
𝒙=𝟏
𝒅𝒙 𝒅 𝟏 𝒅 𝟏
𝒔𝒆𝒄−𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝒄𝒔𝒄−𝟏 (𝒙) = −
𝒅𝒙 𝒙√𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏 𝒅𝒙 𝒙√𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏
▪ Power Rule | consider 𝑛 𝜖 ℚ
KExamplek Differentiate.
𝒅 𝒏
𝒙 = 𝒏𝒙𝒏−𝟏 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟓𝒙 ∙ 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟓 𝒙 + 𝒄𝒐𝒕−𝟏 (𝒙)
𝒅𝒙
KExamplek Differentiate. We know that

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏𝟒𝒙 + 𝟏𝟕 𝒅 𝒙 𝒅 𝟏

𝟓 = 𝟓𝒙 ∙ 𝒍𝒏(𝟓) 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟓 𝒙 =
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒙 ∙ 𝒍𝒏(𝟓)
By the power rule,
By virtue of the product rule,
𝒅
𝟐𝒙𝟑 = 𝟐(𝟑𝒙𝟑−𝟏 ) = 𝟔𝒙𝟐 𝒅 𝒙 𝟏
𝒅𝒙 𝟓 ∙ 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟓 𝒙 = (𝟓𝒙 ) ( ) + (𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟓 𝒙)(𝟓𝒙 ∙ 𝒍𝒏(𝟓))
𝒅𝒙 𝒙 ∙ 𝐥 𝐧(𝟓)
By other properties of derivatives,
We also know that
𝒅 𝒅
− 𝟏𝟒𝒙 = −𝟏𝟒 𝒙 = −𝟏𝟒 𝒅 𝟏
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒄𝒐𝒕−𝟏 (𝒙) = −
𝒅𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐
By constant rule,
Thus,
𝒅
𝟏𝟕 = 𝟎 𝟓𝒙 𝟏
𝒅𝒙
𝒇′ (𝒙) = ( ) + (𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟓 𝒙)(𝟓𝒙 ∙ 𝒍𝒏(𝟓)) −
𝒙 ∙ 𝐥 𝐧(𝟓) 𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐
Thus,
_______________________________________________
𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝟔𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟒

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OPTIMIZATION USING CALCULUS
Since the derivative is associated with the slope of the
graph of a function at a point, we might expect that it
is also related to other properties of a graph. The
derivative can tell us a great deal about the shape of a
graph.
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
Given the interval (a,b), the function is:
▪ Increasing if 𝒇′ (𝒙) > 𝟎 ∀ 𝒙 𝝐 (𝒂, 𝒃)
▪ Decreasing if 𝒇′ (𝒙) < 𝟎 ∀ 𝒙 𝝐 (𝒂, 𝒃)
NOTE: What do the mean? These are indicators that tell
which factor is 0 at which critical value. That way, we can
easily tell the signs for each factor (automatically negative at
the left side of and automatically positive at the right side
of ).
S4. Make appropriate concluding statements
For where the graph is increasing/decreasing:
g is increasing on (−1,0) ∪ (2, +∞)
g is decreasing on (−∞, −1) ∪ (0,2)
For local extrema:

What about when 𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝟎? g(-1) = 0 is a local minimum value

▪ Critical Value | the value/s in the domain of f g(0) = 5 is a local maximum value
where f’(x)=0 or where f’(x) does not exist
g(2) = -27 is a local minimum value
LOCAL EXTREMA

Consider a function f. We call f(c) a: EXTREME VALUE THEOREM

▪ Local Maximum if there exists an interval (a,b)
containing c such that 𝒇(𝒙) ≤ 𝒇(𝒄) ∀ 𝒙 𝝐 (𝒂, 𝒃)
▪ Local Minimum if there exists an interval (a,b)
containing c such that 𝒇(𝒙) ≥ 𝒇(𝒄) ∀ 𝒙 𝝐 (𝒂, 𝒃)
Alternatively, if there is a sign change, then f(c) is a:
▪ Local Maximum if f’(x) changes sign at c
from (+) → (-)
▪ Local Minimum if f’(x) changes sign at c
from (-) → (+)
If the sign of f’(x) does not change at c, it is NOT a local
extremum.
FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST FOR LOCAL EXTREMA
KExamplek Find the critical numbers, intervals which
graph increases and decreases, and local extrema for
𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙𝟒 − 𝟒𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓
S1. Differentiate g(x)
If the function f is continuous of the closed interval
[a,b], then f has an absolute maximum value and
absolute minimum value on [a,b].
The minimum and maximum of a function at an
interval are the extreme values or extrema of the
function on the interval. They are called:
▪ Absolute Minimum Value | there exists a value c
in the closed interval [a,b] such that f(c)=m, where
m is less than or equal to f(x) for all x in the closed
interval [a,b]
∃ 𝒄 ∈ [𝒂, 𝒃] ∋ 𝒇(𝒄) = 𝒎; 𝒎 ≥ 𝒇(𝒙) ∀ 𝒙 ∈ [𝒂, 𝒃]
▪ Absolute Maximum Value | there exists a value d
in the closed interval [a,b] such that f(d)=M, where
M is greater than or equal to f(x) for all x in the
closed interval [a,b]
∃ 𝒅 ∈ [𝒂, 𝒃] ∋ 𝒇(𝒅) = 𝑴; 𝑴 ≥ 𝒇(𝒙) ∀ 𝒙 ∈ [𝒂, 𝒃]

𝒈′ (𝒙) = 𝟏𝟐𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝟒𝒙 Solving Extrema Algebraically

CLOSED INTERVAL METHOD
S2. Assume a number c where g’(c)=0, then solve for the
critical numbers KExamplek 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏; [−𝟏/𝟐 , 𝟒]

𝒈′ (𝒄) = 𝟏𝟐𝒄𝟑 − 𝟏𝟐𝒄𝟐 − 𝟐𝟒𝒄 = 𝟎 S1. Differentiate f(x)

= (𝟏𝟐𝒄)(𝒄𝟐 − 𝒄 − 𝟐) = 𝟎 𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙
= (𝟏𝟐𝒄)(𝒄 − 𝟐)(𝒄 + 𝟏) = 𝟎 S2. Assume a number c where f’(c)=0, then solve for the
Critical numbers: c=0 c=2 c=-1 critical numbers

S3. Create a sign chart like the following 𝒇′ (𝒄) = 𝟑𝒄𝟐 − 𝟔𝒄 = 𝟎

−1 0 2 = (𝟑𝒄)(𝒄 − 𝟐) = 𝟎
𝟏𝟐𝒙 - - + + Critical numbers: c=0 c=2
𝒙−𝟐 - - - +
𝒙+𝟏 - + + + S3. Evaluate f(x) at the endpoints of the closed interval
- + - + and at the critical numbers

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At the critical numbers f(0) = 1 f(2) = -3 𝟑 𝟐

𝟐𝟕 = 𝒄
𝟒
At the endpoints f(-1/2) = 1/8 f(4) = 7
𝟏𝟎𝟖 = 𝟑𝒄𝟐
Identify the lowest and highest values of f(x).
𝟑𝟔 = 𝒄𝟐
S4. Make appropriate concluding statements
±𝟔 = 𝒄
f(2) = 3 is an absolute minimum value on [-1/2, 4]
Once again, we can neglect -6 as a critical number because
f(4) = 17 is an absolute maximum value on [-1/2, 4] there are no negative dimensions; thus,

WORD PROBLEMS INVOLVING OPTIMIZATION Critical number: 6

KExamplek S5. Evaluate V(x) at the endpoints of the interval and

at the critical values
A manufacturer wants to design an open box having a
square base and surface area of 108 in2. What At the critical numbers V(6) = 108
dimensions will produce a box with maximum
At the endpoints V(0) = 0 V(6√3) = 0
volume?
Since we want to maximize the volume, we identify
S1. Express the surface area in terms of x and y, then
the maximum value.
solve for y
∴ 𝑽(𝟔) = 𝟏𝟎𝟖 is an absolute maximum value
Let x be the measure of the sides of an open box (in inches)
S6. Construct the appropriate concluding statement
Let y be the measure of the height of an open box (in inches)

𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖 ∴ the dimensions of the box that will produce a maximum
volume are 6 in. by 6 in. by 3 in.
𝟒𝒙𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖 − 𝒙𝟐 END OF REVIEWER.

𝟐𝟕 𝟏
𝒚= − 𝒙
𝒙 𝟒
S2. Model the volume function

𝟐𝟕 𝟏 𝟏
𝑽(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 ( − 𝒙) = 𝟐𝟕𝒙 − 𝒙𝟑
𝒙 𝟒 𝟒

S3. Find the interval where V(x) can be, in this case,
maximized

𝑽(𝒙) = 𝟎

𝟏
𝟐𝟕𝒙 − 𝒙𝟑 = 𝟎
𝟒
𝟏 𝟑
𝟐𝟕𝒙 = 𝒙
𝟒
𝟏𝟎𝟖𝒙 = 𝒙𝟑

𝟏𝟎𝟖𝒙 − 𝒙𝟑 = 𝟎

(𝒙)(𝟏𝟎𝟖 − 𝒙𝟐 ) = 𝟎

x=0 x=±𝟔√𝟑

We can neglect negative values because there are no negative

dimensions, thus, we will maximize V(x) in the closed interval
[0, ±𝟔√𝟑].

S4. Differentiate V(x) and solve for its critical values

𝟑
𝑽′ (𝒙) = 𝟐𝟕 − 𝒙𝟐
𝟒
𝟑
𝑽′ (𝒄) = 𝟐𝟕 − 𝒄𝟐 = 𝟎
𝟒

7
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