Chapter 9

MULTICHANNEL ANALYZERS
Wallace A. Ross
Hewlett-Packard
Santa Clara, California

9.1. INTRODUCTION
The multichannel analyzer is an important, perhaps the universal,
instrument for nuclear chemistry. It can measure complex relationships
among radioisotopes, such as relative energy, activity (Sect. 3.2), half-life
(Sect. 3.10), abundance (natural isotopic composition), etc., and can present
the relationships to the chemist in a variety of ways, depending upon his
needs. The measurement results can be displayed as curves on an oscilloscope
or recorder, printed as numbers on a digital printer or typewriter, stored on
and retrieved from a variety of storage media such as paper or magnetic tape,
manipulated arithmetically by an internal calculator, or transferred to a
computer for data reduction and report generation (Sect. 12.6.2). Despite this
power and versatility, it is an instrument which can be used and understood
with little training. For these reasons, multichannel analyzers are found in
nearly all nuclear chemistry laboratories and are used for both routine
chemical analysis and fundamental research.
In this chapter some of the applications for multichannel analyzers
will be explored. The hardware will be described to provide an understanding
of how multichannel analyzers work and to aid the reader in applying them
to his particular measurement needs. Finally, important specifications,
their value to the user, and the current state of the art of commercially
available multichannel analyzers will be discussed. New techniques that are
still in the experimental or development state are not within the scope of this
chapter.

263

J. Krugers (ed.), Instrumentation in Applied Nuclear Chemistry

© Plenum Press, New York 1973
264 Chapter 9

9.2. APPLICATIONS
Multichannel analyzers have been used since the 1940s. Their earliest
application was as pulse-height analyzers used to measure particle energies
via the energy spectrum. This is still the primary application, although a
number of others have become important.

9.2.1. y-Ray Energy Spectrometry

The radioactive decay of a radioisotope is usually accompanied by
the emission of one or more y-rays. Different isotopes emit y-rays of different
energies. Therefore, measurement of the y-ray energies being emitted by a
radioactive isotope can be used to identify the isotope. Further, measurement
of the rate of emission of y-rays from a sample allows one to determine the
quantity of radioactive material in the sample. Thus, a y-ray spectrum, a plot
of radiation intensity as a function of energy (Fig. 9-1), provides a means for
qualitative and quantitative analysis. This technique is widely used for the
analysis of naturally occurring radioisotopes and of artificially induced
e
radioactivity, as in activation analysis ,2) and neutron activation analysis
(see Sect. 3.2).
Used as a pulse-height analyzer, a train of voltage pulses from a radiation
detector is applied to the input of the multichannel analyzer. The height of
each pulse is proportional to the absorbed energy of the y-ray that produced
it (see Sect. 1.6.1.4). Each height is measured and a channel in the analyzer
memory, corresponding to the measured height, is incremented by one (see
Sect. 9.3.2.1 for a more detailed description). In this manner a histogram is
accumulated, representing count rate or activity as a function of energy.
Frequently, y-ray spectra are relatively complex. For each y-ray present
there will be a photo peak and the number of these peaks may be large.

Fig. 9-1. A high-resolution )I-ray spectrum of 137CS.

Multichannel Analyzers 265

Fig. 9-2. A high-resolution complex )I-ray spectrum of fission products from a nuclear reactor.
Only a portion of the complete energy range is shown.

Interference between the peaks is possible. In addition, each y-ray will give
rise to a Compton scatter spectrum (see Sect. 1.6.1.2) and these contribute a
background spectrum which can obscure low count-rate photopeaks.
Figure 9-2 shows what might be measured. As the spectra become more
complex, specialized techniques using calculators or computers are necessary
to interpret them (Sect. 12.8).

9.2.2. Radioactive Decay Measurement

All radioactivity, whether naturally occurring or artificially induced,
decays exponentially to zero with time (see Sect. 1.5.5). If in a complex y
spectrum the decay rates of some of the peaks can be measured, then this
provides another means of identification. This is particularly valuable in
activation analysis, where many short-lived isotopes are produced.
To take advantage of half-life and peak energy measurement simul-
taneously, a succession of spectra are measured at known time intervals.
Comparisons are made on relative peak amplitudes in these spectra, and
the half-lives of some of the isotopes can be determined. If the half-life
information permits identification of some of the peaks, analysis of the
remaining unknown spectrum is simplified. For measurements like this,
involving the spectrum of rapidly decaying isotopes, a multichannel analyzer
is the only instrument usable because of its fast response and simultaneous
measurement of all energies.
Multichannel analyzers may also be used to measure radioactive decay
curves directly. Here they are used not as pulse-height analyzers, but as
multichannel scalers (see Sect. 9.3.2.3). In this mode of operation, each
channel sequentially measures the gross count rate during a preset time
interval. If the radioactivity is decaying at a rate similar to the speed of
266 Cbapter9

advancing channels, each channel will record fewer counts than the preceding
one. The result will be a decay curve from which the half-lives of the measured
isotopes may be determined.

9.2.3. Mossbauer Spectroscopy

In 1958, Rudolph Mossbauer discovered what is now known as the
Mossbauer effect e)
(see Sect. 3.4). From about 1962, Mossbauer spectro-
scopy has been increasingly used by chemists as a tool for studying chemical
bonding, crystal structure, electron density, ionic states, and magnetic and
other properties of materials. A Mossbauer spectrometer (Fig. 9-3) relies on
a multichannel analyzer for data collection.
The most common usage of the multichannel analyzer for this applica-
tion is as a multichannel scaler. Count rate is recorded as a function of
velocity. As the velocity of the Mossbauer drive is varied over its range, the
address of the multichannel analyzer is advanced in synchronism. At each
address, or incremental velocity, the count rate is recorded. The result is a
Mossbauer spectrum (Fig. 9-4).

9.2.4. Other Applications

Some other common applications of multichannel analyzers, though
not as important in nuclear chemistry, are worthy of note. They may, for
example, be used in the measurement of neutron energy spectra. This is done

SOURCE

-1-
ABSORBER
LINEAR
AMPLIFIER

VELOCITY DRIVE SINGLE CHANNEL

ELECTRONICS ANALYZER

ADDRESS· VE LOCITV
SYCHRONIZATION SIGNAL

••••
.111111
-••
•
MULTICHANNEL
AHALYUM

PULSE nU,IN

Fig. 9-3. A simplified Miissbauer spectrometer block diagram.

Multichannel Analyzers 267

I ICC

- 0..8 -0..6 -0..4 -0.2 0. 0..2 0..4 0..6

VELOCITY,cm/uc
.. 0..8

Fig. 9-4. A M6ssbauer absorption spectrum of Fe 2 0 3 . Velocity is plotted horizontally, with

oem/sec in the center. Relative absorption is plotted vertically.

by measuring the time of flight of a neutron over a known distance which is

inversely proportional to its velocity and hence its energy. Time-to-pulse-
amplitude converters are available which provide pulses that may be
analyzed in the pulse-height analysis mode of operation.
Another application of multichannel analyzers is as signal averagers
to improve the signal-to-noise ratio of noisy time wave forms. A typical
use is with an NMR spectrometer where many sweeps must be averaged
together to recover very weak resonant peaks from the background noise.
The time wave form is digitized by the analog-to-digital converter and
stored in the memory in which each channel corresponds to a time interval.
The averaged wave form may, of course, be displayed or read out in the
normal way.

9.3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION

9.3.1. Functions ofthe Major Components
Figure 9-5 shows the block diagram of a multichannel analyzer. The
major components are the ADC, memory, input/output, and timing and
control. A brief description of the functions of each of these follows.
9.3.1.1. Analog-to-Digital Converter. An analog-to-digital converter,
or ADC, is a device used to measure a voltage: that is, it accepts a voltage as
an input and provides as output a digital code, or number, proportional to
the input voltage. For example, an ADC might convert input voltages in the
range of 0 to 1 V to numbers in the range of 0 to 1000. In this case, 750 m V
in would provide 750 as the number out.
All multichannel analyzers have ADCs as their inputs. It is the ADC
which converts the input pulse amplitude to a memory channel number
268 Chapter 9

CHANNEL NUMBER

/["""-------,
III CRT DISPLAY
AND ANALOG
I Y OUTPUT
X OUTPUT
OUTPUTS
I Z OUTPUT

I
I
I INPUT/OUTPUT II
I
I DIGITAL
I SERIAL
OUTPUT
MCS
INPUT I INPUT / SERIAL
H--,r-I...J....;~ OUTPUT INPUT
~ I CIRCUITS I PARALLEL
MCS
L _______I OUTPUT

Fig. 9-5. Simplified block diagram of a multichannel analyzer.

when doing pulse-height analysis. Again, using the example above, a 750-m V
pulse would cause channel number 750 to be addressed and incremented by
one.
There are two important types of ADCs available today for multi-
channel analyzers. The most common is the so-called ramp type, or
Wilkinson ADC (8), after the inventor. * In this type ADC, the voltage
stored on a capacitor is "run down" to 0 V by removing a constant current
from the capacitor. This results in a voltage ramp (Fig. 9-9a); hence the name
ramp-type ADC. During the voltage run down, a constant frequency clock
is gated into a scaler. When the run down reaches 0 V, the scaler is gated off
and the number stored in the scaler is a measure of the run-down time, and
hence the initial capacitor voltage or pulse height.
The other common ADC type is known by the name "successive
approximation." The principle of this type ADC is as follows (Fig. 9-6).
Assume the ADC range is 0 to 10 V. As a first approximation, the unknown

*In addition to the references used in the text, there is a vast amount of literature concerning
multichannel analyzers. References 6-13 are a selection of books and papers for the reader who
wishes to research the subject further. References 8-10 provide historical perspective on MCA
development. The others deal in more depth than this chapter with some specific aspects of
the subject, and themselves contain bibliographies including more of the literature.
Multichannel Analyzers 269

capacitor voltage is compared to a 5 V reference. If it is above the reference,

the reference is stored and the first bit is set to "1" ; otherwise, it is discarded
2t-
and the bit set to "0." A V reference is then added and compared, then a
Ii-V reference, and so on, in successively decreasing binary steps. For an
8 V input, as shown, the 5 V reference would be stored, the 2t
V would be
added giving 7t, and the Ii would exceed 8 V and be rejected as would the
0.625 V. The 0.3125 V reference would add to the 7.5 to give 7.8125 which
would be saved and so on until all the voltages had been tested. A register
would store a binary 1 for each reference that was saved and a binary 0 for
each that was rejected. At the end of the measurement, a binary code in the
register would be a measure of the input voltage. There are a number of
variations of the successive approximation-type ADC, but they all reduce
to the same principle described above.
Although strictly speaking an ADC just converts voltages to numbers,
most multichannel analyzer ADCs perform several other functions. First,
they have provision for gating a pulse in and storing its peak amplitude;
this is necessary for pulse-height analysis. The gating, or linear switching,
can be performed in any of several ways. A group of diodes, controlled by a

10.00 _
f COMPARISON
VOLTAGE

8.7~ -
e.1 2~ _ 8 VOLT
INPUT
7.eI2~ _
7.~0 -

6.25 _

5.00 _

3.75 _

2.50 _

1.25 _

o _
I 100 I ____ _
BINARY CODE TIME

Fig. 9-6. Successive-approximation ADC-principle of operation. A series of comparisons

between the input and reference voltages generates a binary code as the comparison voltage
approaches the input voltage.
270 Chapter 9

switching current, can be made to pass or block a signal. Alternatively, a

bipolar or field effect transistor can be used as a switch. Still another type of
linear gate can be made from a linear amplifier which is switched off by a
control signal.
Frequently, ADCs contain two pulse-height discriminators used as a
single-channel analyzer (see Chapter 8) to allow selection of a restricted
range of pulse heights for analysis. They usually contain coincidence inputs
(Sect. 11.2.2) which allow the ADC to reject all pulses which do not arrive in
coincidence with a timing pulse. In addition, they have various means of
adjusting such things as sensitivity, conversion gain (channels out per volt in),
dc offset (channels out for zero volts in), etc.
Though it is theoretically possible for the ADC to make an absolute
voltage measurement, for most multichannel-analyzer applications a
relative measure is satisfactory. Calibration therefore consists of adjusting
the ADC controls and external electronics such that a reference spectrum
e 37 Cs is widely used) has its prominent photopeaks in convenient channels

and a hypothetical zero-energy pulse in channel zero. This last criterion is

satisfied by extrapolating peak energies and peak channels to zero.
9.3.1.2. Memory. It is in the multichannel analyzer's memory that the
measurement result is accumulated and stored. The memory is divided
into channels. The maximum number in typical single-parameter analyzers
ranges from 128 to 8192. Each channel is used as an independently address-
able counter. The count capacity is usually either 10 5 or 106 . Associated with
the memory are two registers, an address register, and an accumulator.
The function of the address register is to select one of the memory channels.
The contents of that channel are then read into the accumulator. Here they
may be modified, e.g., incremented by one, as the accumulator is designed to
be able to count. After modification, the new value is returned to the memory.
9.3.1.3. Input/Output and Display. Once the measured data are stored
in memory, there are a variety of ways to use them. The most common are to
display them on an oscilloscope or to make an X - Y plot. The display is
presented with the channel number along the horizontal axis and the
channel contents (counts) along the vertical axis. For example, a pulse-
height spectrum is displayed with pulse height horizontally and counts
vertically.
The data may also be read out digitally to a variety of devices, depending
on the device interfaces available as accessories for the multichannel analyzer
being used. Some common forms of digital output include punched paper
tape, magnetic tape, digital printer, typewriter, and output to a remote
calculator or computer. Figure 9-7 shows an example of some data recorded
on a typewriter. In addition to the output capability, it is frequently important
Multichannel Analyzers 271

13"10 6117 611~ 60"12 6122 6123 6238 6366 6"191 62~9 6"128
13~1l 6~1~ 6~37 6603 6682 6936 701"1 7389 8276 II "12"1 22666
1360 ~443" 12391~ 22"1291 312068 323"11"1 2~1324 14b061 68"12"1 267~4 10887
1370 600~ 4~81 3939 3861 3696 3896 31 17 38"17 38"13 3701
1380 3717

Fig. 9-7. Teletype printout of multichannel-analyzer data. Data are the photopeak of the 137CS
peak from Fig. 9-1.

to be able to read data back into the multichannel-analyzer memory. For

example, an experimenter may want to store data on some medium such as
paper tape and read them back into memory later for subsequent analysis.
Therefore, most multichannel analyzers have provision for data input as
well as data output.
Interfacing between a multichannel analyzer and a digital computer
is quite natural. Both are high-speed digital devices, with internal memory
for data storage, and typically each has a powerful digital input-output
capability. The actual interface can take a number of forms. The Hewlett-
Packard 5401B, for example, interfaces to the Hewlett-Packard 2100
series computer using 8 lines for data from the analyzer, 8 for data to the
analyzer, and 2 timing/control lines, ENCODE and FLAG. The data lines
transmit one AScII-coded digit at a time. The ENCODE line from the computer
is a signal to the analyzer to send or receive a digit. The FLAG from the
analyzer signals the computer that the digit has been sent or received. Data
transfer rates are limited by the speed of the computer software, typically,
as it is not unusual for the interface electronics to be capable of rates of
greater than 100 kHz. Modern interfaces use integrated-circuit electronics,
TTL being the most common.
Interfaces with other devices are typically less straightforward. A
magnetic tape interface, for example, requires fairly elaborate electronics to
perform such operations as tag-word inspection and search, rewind, back-
space, gapping, error checking, etc. Even the interface to a simple teletype!;
which requires two-wire bit-serial communication at a precisely controlled
rate, is not as simple as the computer interface.
9.3.1.4. Timing and Control. In the block diagram (Fig. 9-5), the block
labeled "Timing/Control" is a catchall for the multitude of logic circuits
which control the operations of the other functional blocks. In an actual
multichannel analyzer there might be no easily identifiable separate group
of circuits that fall in this category. The control logic may be distributed
throughout the analyzer, parts of it located in closest proximity to the
functions they control. Nevertheless, it is convenient to think of the timing
and control logic as being a distinct entity. It controls the various modes
of data accumulation, data input/output and display, data manipulation,
functional block interaction, experiment timing and control, etc. These
272 Chapter 9

operations are so extensive and diverse that the conceptual simplification of

grouping them together is quite useful.

9.3.1.5. Other Components. In addition to the above, some multi-

channel analyzers have one or more other components of the measurement
system built in. These are primarily elements associated with analog signal
processing, such as linear amplifiers, baseline restorers, detector high-
voltage power supplies, and spectrum stabilizers. Of these, the one uniquely
associated with use of a multichannel analyzer is the spectrum stabilizer (4).
A spectrum stabilizer can be used to compensate for analog drifts in
any elements in the signal path. Errors both in gain and baseline can be
caused by drifts in the detector, preamplifier, amplifier, AOC, or high-
voltage power supply. If the combined error of all of these, due to the effects
of time, temperature, and line voltage, add up to 1 X 10- 4 , this will cause a
i-channel uncertainty for many measurements, in spite of the fact that
stability ofthis order is nearly impossible to achieve. In these cases, use of the
spectrum stabilizer is necessary.
The principle of a stabilizer is simple. It is connected to the digital
output of the AOC and monitors each analysis of either a selected spectral
peak or a stable reference pulser. Its controls are set to a certain channel in
which the peak should fall. If the peak begins to drift out of that channel,
the stabilizer provides an analog correction to compensate for it. The
correction may be directly to the ADC or it may be to a linear amplifier in
the signal path before the AOC. One channel of stabilization can correct for
either gain or baseline drifts. Two channels can correct for both.

9.3.2. Measurement Modes

To get a good understanding of how to make measurements with the
multichannel analyzer, three of the main measurement modes will be dis-
cussed in detail in this section. Some of the internal operations will be
discussed and the front-panel control settings of a typical multichannel
analyzer will be shown for each mode.

9.3.2.1. Pulse-Height Analysis. In the pulse-height analysis mode, a

train of pulses from a nuclear detector is applied to the input of the AOC.
These pulses have similar shapes, but amplitudes which vary in proportion
to the energy of the ')i-ray that was absorbed by the detector. By counting
the number of occurrences of pulses of each height and forming a histogram,
the multichannel analyzer measures the energy spectrum seen by the de-
tector. Figure 9-8a shows the front panel of a Hewlett-Packard 540lB
multichannel analyzer with the controls set to make a pulse-height analysis
measurement. The important controls are highlighted. Looking at the ADC,
Multichannel Analyzers 273

Fig.9-8a. Pulse-height analysis front-panel settings on HP 54018 multichannel analyzer.

·"'.1"'"

Fig. 9-8b. Sampled voltage analysis front-panel settings on HP 54018 multichannel analyzer.
274 Chapter 9

a 4096-channel spectrum is being accumulated, so the OUTPUT CHANNEL

RANGE is set to 4096. All the other ADC controls are set to their nominal
or inactive settings in this particular measurement for simplicity. On the
digital processor, the middle box, the FUNCTION switch is set to ACCUMULATE,
and the PHA ACCUMULATE MODE is selected. A PRESET TIME of I min is selected
for analysis. A spectrum will be stored in quarters one through four as set
on GROUP SELECTOR. On the display, the switches are set to view all four
quarters of the spectrum on the screen with a' vertical sensitivity of 5000
counts/division. The display settings do not affect the measurement, but
only what is shown on the oscilloscope screen.
Figure 9-9a shows a timing diagram for the analysis of a single input
pulse. The accumulation of an entire spectrum is a sequence of such operations.
The pulse to be measured goes into the ADC where its peak value is stored on
a capacitor. This peak value is then measured by the ADC, the result being a
number in the range 0 to 4096. When the measurement is complete, the
resultant number is transferred into the memory address register in the
processor. The selected channel is read from memory into the accumulator
where its content is incremented by 1. The new accumulator content is then
stored back in the same channel of memory. The result of this operation has
been to count the occurrence of the input pulse in the memory channel
corresponding to the energy absorbed by the detector. Typically, the address
and memory contents which are now stored in the address register and
accumulator are at this point transferred to the display where they are
momentarily displayed on the screen. This gives the experimenter a visual
presentation of how his measurement is going.
The pulse-height analysis mode just described is the fundamental mode
of the multichannel analyzer. It is for this measurement that multichannel
analyzers were first invented.

9.3.2.2. Sampled Voltage Analysis. The sampled voltage analysis mode

is a very simple outgrowth of the pulse-height analysis mode. The only
difference is that in this mode a continuous voltage instead of a pulse train
is applied to the ADC input and this voltage is sampled by a fast sampling
gate in the ADC. The resultant voltage is stored on the capacitor and
analyzed as was the pulse peak height. The timing diagram is shown in
Fig.9-9b.
There are several important applications for this sampled voltage
analysis mode. The first was probably for Mossbauer spectrometry (see
Sect. 3.4). In a Mossbauer spectrometer, a detector monitors absorbed
radiation as the relative velocity between the source and the absorber is
swept over a range of values. To measure a Mossbauer spectrum using
sampled voltage analysis, the sampling process is triggered each time a y-ray
Multichannel Analyzers 275

TRIGGER
LEVEL . . . . A. I NPUT PULSE

BASELINE f::=::~-:
LEADING
EDGE
TRIGGER SLOPE OF DISC HARGE
STRETCHER
CAPACITOR
VOLTAGE
ADDRESS
SCALER
GATE
a) CLOCK
ADC
DONE
+----r~---------~----~n-
CLOSE
INPUT GATE OPE N:t:=l...
LOAD
ADDRESS
REGISTER ------------------~"--
MEMORY
READ ------------------~~
MEMORY
WRITE --------------------------~
______________________
INCREMENT ~nL____

ACCUMU-
LATOR

SAMPLE
PULSE

STRETCHER
CAPACITOR
VOLTAGE

b)

ADDRESS
SCALER
GATE

CLOCK
+----ofW------~
ADC DONE

INPUT GATE
CLOSE j 1 _________ -oPEN- &:.:l..
_____________________n_
LOAD
ADDRESS
REGISTER
MEMORY
READ --------------------~~
MEMORY
WRITE ----------------------~~
INCREMENT
ACCUMU-
lATOR
-------------------------"----
Fig. 9-9. (a) Timing diagram of pulse-height analysis mode, analysis of a single input pulse.
(b) Timing diagram of sampled voltage analysis mode, analysis of a single voltage sample.
276 Chapter 9

is absorbed by a detector. The voltage sampled is the Mossbauer drive

velocity. Therefore, the multichannel analyzer records a histogram of counts
as a function of velocity. This is a Mossbauer spectrum.
Another very useful application of this sampled voltage analysis mode
is for checking the noise on the ADC input before a pulse-height analysis
is made. With the radiation source removed from the detector and no pulses
being analyzed, the input to the ADC should be zero volts. However, because
of preamplifier and amplifier noise or ground loops due to improper equip-
ment grounding, it is possible to get a noise signal at this point. Such a noise
signal would degrade the resolution of the pulse-height measurement.
The sampled voltage analysis mode can be used to measure this noise signal
and corrections in the measurement equipment can be made to reduce it to an
acceptable level.
Figure 9-8b shows the front-panel setting changes for sampled voltage
analysis. The only change in the ADC setting is to insert an INPUT OFFSET
voltage of - 5 V. This shifts the measurement baseline so that voltages in
the range - 5 V to + 5 V will be measured. In the digital processor, the
ACCUMULATE MODE has been changed from PHA to SVA. In addition, the
SAMPLE TIME control has been set so that the ADC will sample its input
every 100 Jisec. All the other control settings are the same as for pulse-
height analysis.

9.3.2.3. Multichannel Scaling. In the multichannel scaling mode, no

ADC is used. Rather, the address register is incremented automatically at
preset time intervals and during each interval a pulse train applied to the
multiscale input is counted into the current memory channel. An important
application for this mode is the measurement of radioactive decay curves.
Figure 9-10 shows the important front-panel setting changes. The
multichannel scale (MCS) ACCUMULATE MODE has been selected. The memory
address will be swept through all its values and therefore the up-up sweep
mode has been selected. By this is meant the addresses will be swept from
o to 4095 and then reset to 0 and swept up again to 4095. A SAMPLE TIME of
100 Jisec has been selected, meaning that the input will be counted into
each channel 100 Jisec at a time. A total measurement of 1000 sweeps has
been preset. Again, the accumulation will be into all four quarters.
Figure 9-11 is a timing diagram for the multichannel scale mode.
It begins when the channel number is advanced. The content of the new
channel is read into the accumulator and the input pulse train is counted
for the preselected sample time. At the end of this time the accumulated
contents are written back into memory, the channel is advanced, and the
process is repeated. The sequence is performed once on each channel in
every sweep for the preset number of sweeps.
Multichannel Analyzers 277

a: a 0 0 I • 0 . : ~

.0 .0 .. c:;) c;; •

Fig. 9-10. Multichannel scaling front-panel settings on HP 540lB multichannel analyzer.

INCREMENT
~g~~:;s
----l'
,. INCREMENT MEMORY ADDRESS
CHANGES MEMORY ADDRESS TO NEXT CHANNEL
"---
/ READ COMMAND READS NEXT
MEMORY -J""1 MEMORY CHANNEL ~
READ
WRITE COMMAND WRITES ACCUMULATOR
MEMORY DATA INTO MEMORY ......11....-
WRITE
MEMORY STROBE PULSE TRANSFERS
LOAD --JI/ MEMORY CONTENTS TO ACCUMULATOR '\....-
ACCUMU-
LATOR

~c~t~1 GATE ..... ' _J!!!..!!.!.!!li...!!.s..J!!!ll!!.L.!...uo.loJ....._ _......._ _ _~.

o 456 8 9 10 II 12

Fig. 9-11. Timing diagram of multichannel scale mode. Timing is shown for a single channel.
278 Chapter 9

In the 5401 multichannel analyzer, sample time intervals between

lO Jl.sec and 5 sec can be selected. Other analyzers cover a similar range.
For the shortest intervals, the memory cycle time, typically in the range of
2 to 5 Jl.secs, becomes a significant factor in counting losses since during the
memory cycle the accumulator cannot be counting. Recently some analyzers
have added buffer logic to reduce or eliminate this counting dead time due
to the memory cycle. The need for this is a function of the count rates and
measurement intervals to be expected.
9.3.2.4. Automatic Cycles. For convenience, most multichannel analy-
zers provide some amount of automatic measuring capability. A typical
automatic operation would be to (a) erase a memory segment, (b) accumulate
a spectrum in that memory segment, (c) read out the memory segment onto
a digital recorder, and (d) repeat steps (a) through (c) continuously. This
capability allows the user to make successive measurements on a sample as a
function of time, or, in conjunction with an automatic sample changer, to
make the same measurement on a number of samples automatically.
9.3.2.5. Multiparameter Analysis. A single-parameter multichannel
analyzer measures the energy spectrum from one detector. Often, however,
physicists and chemists will want to know the correlations among two or
more simultaneous radioactive decays. Multiparameter analyzers are used
for this type of measurement. The simplest case involves the use of two
detectors and two ADCs. When y-rays are simultaneously absorbed by each
detector, the two ADCs measure the two pulses. The two resulting numbers
may be thought of as the coordinates of a single point in an X - Y energy
plane. For each such point, there is a channel of memory assigned. The
content of that channel is incremented each time it is addressed, as in the
case ofthe single-parameter analyzer. The result is a two-parameter spectrum
which may be viewed on an oscilloscope as a three-dimensional surface as
shown in Fig. 9-12.
In complicated multiparameter measurements, more than two ADCs
may be used. At some point it becomes impractical to have a core memory
channel assigned to every possible coordinate. An approach frequently used
is to record the address groups received from all the ADCs directly onto
digital magnetic tape as they are measured. For example, if 4 ADCs are used,
each with lO-bit resolution, each event would result in 40 bits of data stored
on the tape. If a 9-track tape, capable of 800 bits/in. data density and 75
in./sec tape speed were used, data rates of approximately 12,000 events/sec
would be possible. As any of these numbers change the speeds change
proportionally.
When all the data have been accumulated the tape may be played back
for analysis. At this time partial spectra, using reduced ADC resolution
Multichannel Analyzers 279

Fig. 9-12. Multiparameter spectrum. An isometric view of one quarter of a 60Co coincidence
spectrum showing the two photopeaks.

and/or smaller groups of ADCs, would be constructed and analyzed. The

advantage of this technique over taking the partial spectra initially is that the
full information is still available on tape. Extensive off-line analysis is possible
based on one set of measurements. This could be particularly important
when using an accelerator, where measurement time is quite expensive (see
also Sects. 12.4.3 and 11.3.5). A similar technique, capable of higher data rates
but a smaller amount of total data, uses a magnetic disk or drum for storage.

9.4. CHARACTERISTICS
9.4.1. Analog-to-Digital Converter
The ADC is the single most important factor in measurement capability
of a pulse-height analyzer. It is the thing which determines both the speed
and accuracy of the measurement. The ability of an ADC to make an accurate
measurement is usually described by its differential and integral linearities
(Fig. 9-13). Differential linearity is a measure of how nearly all the channels
have the same incremental voltage width, ~ V. Typical ADCs today have
differential linearities of 1 % or better, that is, all channels are within ± 1 %
of being the same width. Integral linearity is a measure of the deviation, ~y,
of the worst-case channel position from a theoretical straight line fit to all the
channels. The ADC conversion function should be linear, but in most ADCs
280 Chapter 9

4096

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Z

:I:
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x VOLTS 10

Fig. 9-13. Integral and differential linearity are a measure of the quality of the transfer function
of the ADC, channels output vs volts in.

there will be some curvature, especially at the bottom and top channels.
Typical ADCs today have integrallinearities of much better than ±0.1 % of
full scale. See also Figs. 8-3 and 8-4, and Eqs. (8-1) and (8-2).
Another important measure of an ADCs performance is the speed of
making a conversion. For a ramp-type ADC, the conversion time (or dead
time) is proportional to the number of channels and inversely proportional
to the clock frequency that is counted during rundown. ADCs are com-
mercially available today with clock rates of up to 200 MHz. This gives a
conversion time for 8192 channels of less than 50 f.1.sec. The primary benefit
offered by the successive approximation-type ADC is that it can be made to
go faster than a ramp ADC because the conversion time is proportional to
the number of bits rather than the number of channels. Successive approxi-
mation ADCs are available with conversion times ofless than 5 f.1.sec for 2048
channels (11 bits). Although the successive approximation ADC is faster than
the ramp, it is typically more complicated and requires correction circuitry
to attain the differentiallinearities which are provided directly by the ramp-
type ADC. For this reason, the ramp ADC is still much more widely used in
multichannel analyzers than the successive approximation.
Measurement resolution is a function of several characteristics of an
ADC. These include input noise, dc stability, and count-rate shift. Typical
ADCs are capable of putting at least two-thirds of the pulses from a noise-
free pulser into one channel out of 4096. Their stability is such that in a
normal operating environment in the course of a twenty-four hour measure-
ment, the drift should not be more than about ± 1 channel out of 4096.
Count-rate shifts of less than one channel between 0 and 90 % dead time are
available.
Since differential linearity is such an important specification of an ADC
in a multichannel analyzer, special hardware has been developed and is
commercially available for measuring it. It is variously referred to as a
Multichannel Analyzers 281

sliding pulser or ramp pulser.1t provides a train of pulses with controlled and
slowly changing amplitudes. This pulse train is typically obtained by chopping
a slow voltage ramp, hence the name ramp pulser. If the pulse train is
analyzed by a pulse-height analyzer with perfect differential linearity, a flat
spectrum will result (though only after a sufficient number of counts and
ramp sweeps have been made to average out statistical effects). A small
amount of study will prove that the percent deviation from flatness of this
spectrum is exactly equal to the percent differential nonlinearity of the ADC,
assuming a perfect pulser system, of course.

9.4.2. Memories
Most multichannel analyzers use ferrite core memories. This is because
they offer the best compromise for a multichannel analyzer between cost and
speed. Memory cycle times in commercially available multichannel analyzers
run from about 2 to 5 J1.sec. Speeds faster than this would not offer any
particular benefit for pulse-height analysis because the ADC conversion
times exceed this by a good margin. Multichannel-analyzer memories have
anywhere from 128 words up to 8192 words and some multichannel analyzers
have been built with much more for multiparameter analysis. The most
commonly used size for low-resolution spectrometry with scintillators is
1024 words, and most common sizes for high-resolution spectrometry with
solid-state detectors are either 4096 or 8192 words.
All analyzers are capable of storing at least 10 5 and usually 106 counts
per channel. If the memory is organized to count on a binary basis, 106 counts
require 20 bits, since 2 20 is approximately equal to 1 million. When counting
is done on a decimal basis, 4 bits are required to count to 10. This implies the
need for 24 bits to count to 106 ,4 for each decade.

9.4.3. Display and Input/Output

Since the oscilloscope display is the primary device for viewing multi-
channel-analyzer data, a high-quality display is a real benefit. The main
shortcoming of most displays is that as the number of channels being
displayed increases they begin to flicker. The human eye is capable of
resolving flicker when the pattern on the screen is being refreshed at a rate of
less than about thirty repetitions per second. Since typical display circuitry
requires at least 5 to 10 J1.sec per point, and sometimes much more, displays
of 4096 or 8192 point spectra usually begin to exhibit appreciable flicker
unless some provision is made for avoiding it. Several means have been used
in analyzers to overcome this problem. One is known as interleaving the
display; that is, rather than displaying all points in sequence, alternate points
are displayed on alternate sweeps. For example, the first sweep would display
points 1,5,9, etc., the second sweep 2, 6,10, etc. This has the effect oflocalizing
282 Chapter 9

Fig. 9-14. A logarithmic display of two identical spectra measured for different counting
intervals. Note that in a logarithmic display the difference in counts causes a vertical offset but
no shape change.

the flicker and letting the eye integrate the spectrum. Another approach is the
use of a long persistence or storage oscilloscope. With this the CRT phosphor
retains its glow long after the signal has gone away, thus eliminating flicker.
Some common, flexible display features available include horizontal
and vertical expansion of the spectrum for detailed examination, distinctive
marking of a memory subgroup (region of interest), intensification of every
eighth or tenth channel to ease channel identification, and overlap of
memory segments for spectral comparison.
A display feature available with many multichannel analyzers is a
logarithmic presentation (Figs. 9-14 and 7-24). This has two benefits. First,
it compresses the entire five or six decades of information into the displayable
range. Second, the spectral shape is independent of the number of counts so
that two spectra accumulated for different counting times can be compared
directly.
A multichannel-analyzer's input/output capabilities are best described
in terms of the number and variety of devices to which it is interfaced.
Almost all analyzers are interfaced to punched tape, typewriter, and parallel
printer. Many, in addition, can read in or out from magnetic tape. The
prospective multichannel-analyzer user should decide what type of input/
output medium is convenient for him and then choose an analyzer which has
that capability. He should also investigate the cost of adding an interface.
With some analyzers the input/output function is designed such that much
of the logic is built in. In these it is possible to interface to a new device
simply by the addition of some inexpensive circuit cards and cables. In others
each device may require an expensive dedicated driver. The redundancy in
that approach becomes an important cost factor when mUltiple devices are
interfaced.
Multichannel Analyzers 283

An increasingly important capability offered by multichannel analyzers

today is the ability to interface directly to digital computers and calcula-
tors C). This allows the use of the computer or calculator to perform
operations on the data such as integration, smoothing, spectrum stripping,
peak location, etc. In addition, with some multichannel analyzers, the
measurement can be controlled directly from the computer or from a
programmable calculator. The current availability of simple user pro-
gramming languages such as BASIC has moved computer programming out
of the realm of the professional programmer and into the everyday set of
tools of the nuclear chemist.
9.4.4. The Overall System
In choosing a multichannel analyzer, there is another dimension which
cannot easily be reduced to numerical specifications. This is the overall
system capability and it has some very important aspects.
First, how flexible is the multichannel analyzer? Although today a
particular measurement may be all that is needed, the needs may change
tomorrow. What other modes, therefore, are available, either standard or as
options? This gets into the area of expandability. Can the multichannel
analyzer obtained today be expanded tomorrow as your needs increase?
How easy is the analyzer to use? Is it something that can be used conveniently
by the nuclear chemist himself, or by a technician with a relatively small
amount of training? What data reduction capability is available for the
analyzer? Can it be interfaced easily to a calculator or computer or hard-
wired data reduction unit for performing operations such as integration and
peak location?
These are aspects of the overall system capability which can be as
important in some applications as the linearity of the ADC or the size of the
memory.
9.4.5. What Can Go Wrong
There are some common errors that can occur in using a multichannel
analyzer. They are easy to avoid if one understands them, however. The
following are the most important ones.
9.4.5.1. ADC Triggering on Noise. If the lower level discriminator of
the ADC is set at too Iowa voltage, input noise will exceed the discriminator
level and trigger the ADC. Analysis of these useless noise pulses will greatly
increase the ADC dead time.
9.4.5.2. Noise and Ground Loops. Any noise at the ADC input during
pulse-height analysis will degrade the spectral resolution. Most noise
orginates in the detector and preamplifier. A subtle but potentially important
noise source, particularly with dc-coupled ADCs which are susceptible to
284 Chapter 9

the low power-line frequencies, is improper equipment grounding. The

problem is caused by power-line currents flowing through the signal grounds.
This induces a voltage drop, adding a noise component to the signal. Much
has been written on the subject of proper grounding. A simple rule is to
connect all power grounds in the measurement setup as close as possible to
the same point. Beyond this, some experimenting with signal and power
grounding may be necessary to achieve the best results. As pointed out in
Sect. 9.3.2.2, the sampled voltage analysis measurement is extremely helpful
in determining the amount of noise present at the ADC output.

9.4.5.3. Pulse Pile-Up. As count rates get high and pulses occur closer
together, the probability increases that two pulses will overlap (Fig. 7-2).
This overlap will cause an erroneous measure of peak amplitude, thus
distorting the spectrum. To avoid this, a monitor oscilloscope should be
used to insure adequate pulse separation before the measurement. Addition-
ally, some ADCs include circuits, such as the baseline monitor in the 540lB,
which prevent the ADC from accepting a pulse until the tails of previous
pulses have returned to the baseline. When available, these monitors should
be used (see, e.g., Fig. 7-26).

9.4.5.4. Count-Rate Shift. Any ADC will experience a dc shift as the

count rate changes. In an ac-coupled ADC this is primarily due to a charge
developing across the coupling capacitor, the amount of the charge being
proportional to count rate. Baseline restorers (see Sect. 7.6) are included in
some ADCs to reduce this effect. The dc-coupled ADC does not experience
this problem, but some count-rate shift still occurs due to such subtle
effects as differential junction heating in the internal amplifiers. This differ-
ential is proportional to count rate and causes offset voltage changes. The
only solution to the count-rate shift problem is to pick an ADC with good
count-rate shift performance and then limit the count rate to an acceptable
level.

9.4.5.5. Drift. Electronics drift with time, temperature, line voltage,

etc. In a good ADC these effects are held to very low levels. Nevertheless,
in a high-resolution measurement over a long time period they can have an
effect. To eliminate the resulting error, a spectrum stabilizer should be used.

9.4.5.6. Overload. If a pulse amplitude exceeds the dynamic range of

an amplifier it will be clipped. This will cause an apparent peak in the
spectrum at that level. This is easily avoided by checking the signal with a
monitor scope and looking for clipping. This would not show clipping in the
ADC, but good ADCs will not store pulses which overflow their internal
dynamic range.
Multichannel Analyzers 285

9.4.5.7. Channel Overflow. The number of counts in a channel is limited

to 10 5 or 106 . If an experiment runs long enough to exceed that amount
the channel will overflow, that is, start up from zero again (see also Sect.
12.4.3). A peak in which this happens will show as having its top cut off
and coming up from zero. The data are still accurate, as long as care is taken
in interpretation.
The list of potential problems above is representative of the errors that
may occur. Virtually 100 %of such troubles may be avoided by understanding
the equipment, by being careful in setting up the measurement, and by knowing
approximately what to expect so that errors may be quickly recognized.
Equipping the user with this knowledge and understanding is one of the
primary objectives of this chapter.
9.4.5.8. Production Figures. As a measure of the reliability of ADC
differential linearity, the measured linearities of newly manufactured
Hewlett-Packard 5416B ADCs may be of interest. From a representative
sample of 50, the mean value was 0.115 %, the standard deviation was 0.042 %,
and the worst case value was 0.177 %.

9.5. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE

The multichannel analyzer is the fundamental tool for nuclear measure-
ment. This chapter has described some of the applications and the principles
of operation. It has also pointed out some of the important features and
specifications to be considered in comparing multichannel analyzers.
It is always fun to speculate about what the future holds. The trend in
multichannel analyzers will probably be more affected by computers than
by anything else. As computers continue to get cheaper and more powerful,
they will be used more and more directly in multichannel analysis. They will
be coupled to modular ADCs and displays directly, and where this is not
done they will be optionally able to interact quite intimately with the MCA
to control it and analyze its data. The elaborate, expensive, hard-wired MCAs
with built-in data reduction and format control are probably a thing of the
past. They can't compete in flexibility or price with the computer.
With memory and IC prices dropping, the current trend toward higher-
resolution MCAs will continue. Advances in the state of the detection art
have created the need, and price reduction is making the higher-resolution
MCA economical.
ADC speed, which increased dramatically over the last five years, seems
adequate. The market is not demanding further improvements, so the
suppliers are not likely to invest in providing it. A possible exception would
be the use of analog mUltiplexing of many inputs through one very fast ADC.
286 Chapter 9

At least one manufacturer provides this capability now, and it provides

economic benefit in the multiple-input counting situation. This will always be
somewhat esoteric, however.
In summary, nothing dramatically new appears to be on the horizon.
The changes will be evolutionary, adapting to improvements in components
and computers as they become available.

9.6. REFERENCES
I. 1. Krugers and Q. Reifenschweiler, Practical Instrumental Analysis, pp. 117-129, Elsevier
Publishing Co., Amsterdam (1965).
2. D. Taylor, Neutron Irradiation and Activation Analysis, D. Van Nostrand, Princeton, N.J.
(1964).
3. R. Gould, The Mossbauer Effect and Its Application in Chemistry, American Chemical
Society, Washington, D.C. (1967).
4. S. Upshinsky, How to make a nuclear spectrum hold still, Hewlett-Packard Journal, 22,
No.8 (April 1971).
5. 1. Cross, 1. Doub, and 1. Stedman, On-line data reduction for nuclear analyzers, Hewlett-
Packard Journal, 22, No.7 (March 1971).
6. W. Ross, A multichannel pulse height analyzer with a very fast analog-digital convertor,
Hewlett-Packard Journal, 19, No.7 (March 1968).
7. G. Stanford, An Introduction to Multichannel Analyzers, Argonne National Laboratory,
ANL-6881 (April 1964).
8. D. H. Wilkinson, A stable ninety-nine channel pulse amplitude analyzer for slow counting,
Cambridge Phil. Soc., 46:508 (1950).
9. G. W. Hutchinson and G. G. Scarrot, A high precision pulse-height analyzer of moderately
high speed, Phil. Mag., 42:792 (1951).
10. R. Schumann and 1. McMahon, Argonne 256-channel pulse height analyzer, Rev. Sci.
Instr., 27 :675 (1956).
II. R. L. Chase, Nuclear Pulse Spectrometry, McGraw-Hill, New York (1961).
12. R. L. Chase, A servo stabilized analogue-to-digital converter for high resolution pulse-
height analysis, IRE Trans. Nuc!. Sci., NS-9:119 (1962).
13. D. Cronch and R. Heath, Routine Testing and Calibration Procedure for Multichannel
Analyzers, AEC R&D Report-Physics, IDO-16923 (Nov. 1963).