2080 Ecological Engineering | Lake Restoration
Håkanson L (2004) Break-through in predictive modelling opens new
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Hamilton DP and Schladow DP (1997) Prediciton of water quality in
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Imberger J, Patterson JC, Hebbert B, and Loh I (1978) Dynamics of
reservoirs of medium size. Journal of the Hydraulics Division-ASCE
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Mieleitner J and Reichert P (2006) Analysis of the transferability of a
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Lake Restoration
M Hupfer and S Hilt, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Berlin, Germany
ª 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Introduction: Main Water-Quality Problems
Eutrophication Control
Control of Acidification
Introduction: Main Water-Quality
Problems
Inland waters are exposed to numerous natural and
anthropogenic stress factors. The impact of human activ-
ities on the aquatic environment increased during the past
centuries resulting in the degradation of many aquatic
ecosystems. Chemical pollutants increased in number
and concentration due to rising population densities,
farming, and industrialization. The response of lakes to
changes in loading mainly depends on the type of water
and the water-retention time as well as the size, structure,
and use of the catchment area. Threats to water quality do
not only result from the cultivation and use of waters and
their respective catchments, but can also originate in
distant areas. The atmosphere may act as a carrier for
chemical emissions (e.g., nitrogen and sulfur oxides) or
certain physical impact factors (e.g., UV radiation and
temperature). Major problems of inland waters are eutro-
phication, atmospheric and geogenic acidification,
salinization, and contamination by a large number of
xenobiotics.
Reynolds CS, Irish AE, and Elliott JA (2001) The ecological basis for
simulating phytoplankton responses to environmental change
(PROTECH). Ecological Modelling 140: 271–291.
Romero JR, Antenucci JP, and Imberger J (2004) One- and three-
dimensional biogeochemical simulations of two differing reservoirs.
Ecological Modelling 174: 143–160.
Vollenweider RA (1969) Possibilities and limits of elementary models
concerning budget of substances in lakes (in German). Archiv für
Hydrobiologie 66(1): 1–36.
Zhang J, Jorgensen SE, Tan CO, and Beklioglu M (2003) A structurally
dynamic modelling – Lake Mogan, Turkey as a case study.
Ecological Modelling 164(2): 103–120.
Relevant Website
http://www.cwr.uwa.edu.au – CAEDYM – Center for Water
Research, University of Western Australia.
Summary
Further Reading
Eutrophication
Eutrophication is the increased primary productivity
(trophy) in a water body due to enhanced availability or
usage of nutrients. It is one of the most common water-
quality management problems of lakes and reservoirs all
over the world. About 30–40% of lakes and reservoirs
worldwide are affected by unnaturally high nutrient con-
centrations. Due to the discharge of insufficiently purified
municipal waste water and drainage from agriculturally
fertilized areas, the extent of eutrophication processes has
significantly increased since the middle of the last cen-
tury. These dramatic changes in the trophic state are
termed cultural eutrophication, which can clearly be
separated from the natural eutrophication that occurs
during the aging of a lake over thousands of years.
Visible indications of eutrophication are high turbidity
caused by algal blooms, dense macrophyte growth, mass
development of harmful cyanobacteria (blue green algae),
reduced species diversity, oxygen depletion, formation of
hydrogen sulfide, fish kills, and smell nuisance. As a con-
sequence, eutrophication has a strong influence on

anthropogenic water uses such as drinking water supply,
fishery, and recreation. In most lakes and reservoirs the
nutrient phosphorus (P) is the minimum factor controlling
the degree of eutrophication. The P input originates from
point (e.g., municipal treatment plants, industrial waste
water) or nonpoint sources (e.g., erosion, atmospheric
deposition, surface runoff, ground water). Although nitro-
gen or carbon may also become limiting nutrients, most
eutrophication control measures are directed towards the
reduction of P, because limiting concentrations of this
element can more easily be reached in most cases.
Acidification
A second important problem comes from the emissions
of sulfur- and nitrogen-containing gases that lead to
acid rain and an acidification of waters and soils in
areas deficient in lime and with a low buffer capacity.
The enrichment of sulfur and nitrogen oxides in the
atmosphere mainly results from burning of fossil fuels,
exhaust emissions, and agriculture. Additionally, natural
sources contribute to the emissions (e.g., dimethylsul-
fide by marine algae, volcanisms, oxidation of pyrite,
NOx emissions from soils and wetlands). The decrease
in pH may cause extreme changes in the biocoenoses,
as fish and many other higher organisms cannot survive
or cannot reproduce in acidic environments. Biota is
also influenced by indirect consequences of acidifica-
tion such as the increased release of toxic metal ions (in
particular, aluminum, copper, cadmium, zinc, and lead)
from soils and sediments. Acid deposition has changed
the natural water chemistry and, thus, the biological
structure in 50 000–100 000 lakes and watercourses in
Europe and North America. Lakes created by mining
activities are often geogenically acidified in their initial
period since sulfur-containing minerals (pyrite, marca-
site) have been oxidized leading to the formation of
acids. Declining groundwater levels, enhanced nitrate
concentrations in the groundwater, the artificial drai-
nage of wetlands, or long-lasting droughts in soils due
to global warming can also lead to the oxidation of
reduced sulfur compounds, whereby the acid input into
surface waters is increased. Additionally, increased sul-
fate concentration catalyzes the internal P loading by
the precipitation of insoluble iron sulfide and causes
hydrogen sulfide accumulation above toxic levels in
iron-poor systems. Globally the sulfate concentration
in surface waters has increased by a factor of 1.7 within
the last 100 years.
Other Harmful Substances
Other harmful substances comprise a variety of organic and
inorganic substances, such as toxic metals, pesticides, organic
surfactants, pharmaceuticals, and mineral oils. Metals
Ecological Engineering | Lake Restoration 2081
and organic compounds, for example, polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs), are accumulated in sediments or in
food chains and can build up toxic concentrations.
Salinization
Also salinization leads to strong changes in the biocoenoses,
since freshwater organisms usually only have a small tol-
erance for enhanced salt concentrations. Causes of
salinization are changes in the hydrological regime, which
may be due to enhanced evaporation or discharge of salt-
rich water from mining, oil production, and agriculture.
The different kinds and causes of stress have resulted in
the development of different strategies to restore the func-
tioning of degraded lakes. Lakes are able to compensate part
of the pollution by biological self-purification and buffer
mechanisms or by chemical/physical reactions. Ecological
engineering, or ecotechnology, in lake management involves
several ecological approaches or applications to optimize the
structure of lake ecosystems and their catchments to achieve
specific targets. Modern concepts try to combine the reduc-
tion of external loadings with in-lake measures.
Eutrophication Control
Principles
Due to the strong relationship between total P concentra-
tions and chlorophyll in lake water, reducing the P
concentrations in the lake water is the most important
strategy for eutrophication control. The high variance
between one specific P concentration and the resulting
chlorophyll concentration (Figure 1a) illustrates that other
environmental factors and different feedbacks can also affect
100
hyper
Chlorophyll a (mg m–3)
B
eu
10
A
meso
oligo
1
10 100 1000
Total phosphorus (mg m–3)
Figure 1 Principle strategies to reduce the algae biomass
based on the relationship between mean total P concentration
and chlorophyll a (logarithmic scaling) in lakes. A indicates
reduction of P concentration in the lake water, and B indicates
changes of internal structure without reduction of
P concentration.
2082 Ecological Engineering | Lake Restoration

the primary production (multiple control). This nonlinear

relationship implies an alternative strategy (Figure 1b) (a) Start of measures
without or with little reduction of P concentration by con-
trolling the physical, chemical, or biological structure.
Tolerance time
Restoration measures can be classified into two groups:
External measures aim at reducing the load from the catch- Only external measures

Phosphorus (lake)
ment area, whereas in-lake measures influence the + P inactivation Po
properties within the lake. In-lake measures should be part + Hypolimnetic withdrawal

of the restoration strategy in the following cases (Figure 2):

1. The time required to reach the new steady state (adap-
tation time) after reduction of the external nutrient
load is longer than the time available, for example, Pstat
due to political and economic reasons (tolerance Adaptation time
time). The adaptation time increases with water resi-
dence time and with high internal loading of P that has Years
accumulated in the sediment during eutrophication. (b)
Internal measures can help to shorten the time to ication
Re-oligotroph
reach the target P concentration after abrupt external

Turbitity, phytoplankton
P load reduction (Figure 2a).
2. The response of a lake to changes in the nutrient level Dominance of
is nonlinear. In shallow lakes two alternative stable phytoplankton
states exist over a certain range of nutrient concentra-
tions. Increasing nutrient loading in shallow lakes
results in a shift from the clear (macrophyte-domi-
ication Dominance of
nated) state to the turbid (phytoplankton-dominated) Eutroph macrophytes
state (Figure 3). The hysteretic curve in Figure 2b
PB PF
shows that the nutrient level needed for recovery can
be much lower than the nutrient level at which the lake Phosphorus (lake)
originally switched from clear to turbid. This is due to
stabilizing mechanisms that cause resilience. Internal (c)
measures may either decrease the P value temporarily
below the necessary threshold level or perturb the
biological structure that stabilizes the turbid state.
3. The necessary external load reduction cannot be rea-
lized or only at very high economic costs. This is often External
Costs

the case when nonpoint sources dominate the loading.

A combination of external and in-lake measures leads
to a better cost–benefit ratio, and the efficiency of in-
lake measures increases when the external P loading is External
+ internal
substantially decreased (Figure 2c).

The target P concentration and the acceptable P loading Water quality

can be estimated by empirical eutrophication models and by
mass-balance approaches. The P availability in the lake
water can be decreased by reducing P input, increasing P
retention in the sediment, or increasing P export (Figure 4).
Phosphorus in the sediment is allocated in temporary and
permanent P pools. The P release potential depends on the
temporary P pool, which is of high importance for the lake’s
response after external loading reduction and for the effi-
ciency of some in-lake measures. Therefore, the temporary
P pool in the sediment needs to be taken into consideration
in prediction models and during the selection of appropriate
restoration measures.
Figure 2 Schematic illustration of the main reasons for the
application of in-lake measures to control eutrophication in
lakes and reservoirs. (a) The tolerance time is shorter than the
adaptation time to obtain the new steady-state P
concentration (Pstat) after abruptly decreased external P
loading. The three scenarios based on mass-balance
calculations show that additional in-lake measures such as
P inactivation and hypolimnetic withdrawal shorten the time for
reaching the target P concentration. (b) Temporary decrease of
P concentration below a threshold level (PB) or perturbing the
biological structure to break the resilience of an undesired
stable state. (c) Combination of internal and external measures
increases the benefit–cost ratio (see text). H indicates target of
measures.
 Ecological Engineering | Lake Restoration 2083

Sabine Hilt Sabine Hilt

Sabine Hilt Sabine Hilt

Figure 3 Macrophyte-dominated clear-water conditions (left) and phytoplankton-dominated turbid conditions (right) in shallow
lakes.

l E
Decreasing of P emissions
Import Export
This includes measures such as treatment plants for
municipal and industrial sewages plants, extensifying
WAT

PLake S agricultural land use, and recycling P in industrial

Sedimentation
wastes. The nutrient reduction can be achieved by
Release S so-called ring canalization that collects sewage and
RL Temporary P storm water for treatment in a central plant downstream
SED

Retention R Permanent P of the protected lake. Land management procedures,

R
Figure 4 Phosphorus balance and main P fluxes in a lake,
with potential possibilities to control the P concentration in the
lake water (PLake). I indicates reduction of P load; R indicates
increase of P retention, and E indicates increase of P export.
Reduction of Phosphorus Concentration
Phosphorus load reduction
Phosphorus load can be reduced by (1) decreasing P
emissions, (2) increasing the P retention capacity in the
catchment, or (3) purification of inlet water immediately
before it enters the lake.
generally known as ‘best management practice’, are the
primary method for protecting surface waters from non-
point loading.
Increasing P retention capacity
Increasing P retention capacity in the landscape is a
strategy that takes advantage of the ability of structural
landscape elements to retain phosphorus by reestablishing
effective former sinks (e.g., fens and bogs) or constructing
similar systems (constructed wetlands).
Purification of inlet water
Purification of inlet water includes measures that act as
buffer systems between highly productive agricultural
areas and the water. Such systems using ecological
2084 Ecological Engineering | Lake Restoration

principles are, for example, pre-dams, macrophyte belts, (a)

and ponds. A phosphorus elimination plant (PEP) at the
main inflow of a lake is the costlier technical alternative.

Increasing phosphorus retention

Phosphorus retention can be increased by enhancing P
sedimentation into the sediment (P inactivation) or by
reducing P release from the sediment (aeration and
oxygenation, nitrate addition, or sediment capping).

Phosphorus inactivation
Phosphorus inactivation aims at P removal in the water
body by addition of P-binding substances with subsequent
sedimentation to the sediment. IGB-Berlin
Scientific background. Depending on the chemical sub-
stance used (iron, aluminum, or calcium compounds), (b)
soluble P is precipitated as a salt with very low solu-
bility or it is sorbed by colloidal aggregates, whereas
the particulate P (e.g., P incorporated in biomass) can
coagulate. High doses of chemicals remove not only the
P from the water but also increase the P-binding capa-
city in the sediment so that P release from sediments is
decreased for a longer period. The use of iron and
aluminum salts results in the formation of hydroxides
with a simultaneous release of Hþ ions. This can lead
to a complete loss of the buffering capacity and, ulti-
mately, to an ecologically unacceptable low pH value.
Dissolved Al3þ compounds or Al(OH)2þ formed at pH
below 6.0 are toxic in varying degrees. The deficiency
of alkalinity can be ameliorated by adding lime. In IGB-Berlin
contrast to Al salts, the efficiency of Fe salts depends
on the redox conditions in the water and in the sedi- Figure 5 Equipment for the addition of chemicals to induce
P inactivation combined with hypolimnetic aeration.
ments. Under strongly reductive conditions, a portion
of Fe(III) hydroxides can be reduced to Fe(II) and the
sorbed P is released again. Al salts are stable under the
reductive conditions in deeper sediment layers.
Different calcium compounds naturally or artificially
induce the process of calcite precipitation that leads
to sorption of P at the calcite surface, to co-crystal-
lization of soluble and particulate P, and to flocculation
and coagulation processes. Algae and other P-contain-
ing particles act as condensation nuclei and are a
precondition for crystallization. Phosphorus removal
by calcium may also occur due to the formation of
hydroxyapatite or other calcium phosphates in the
water body. However, this process only takes place at
high pH values, with high concentrations of Ca and P.
The lowest solubility of hydroxyapatite is reached Figure 6 Phosphorus inactivation by alum treatment.
above pH 9.5. With increasing CO2 concentration and
lower pH values the solubility of calcite and hydro- ice cover, by airplane or boats, or by aeration devices
xyapatite increases strongly. Therefore, calcium (Figure 5). Aluminum is generally used as aluminum
carbonate can be dissolved in the hypolimnetic water sulfate (Al2(SO4)3), sodium aluminate (Na2Al2O4), or as
and in the sediment, losing its P-binding capacity. aluminum chloride (AlCl3), at a dosage between 3 and
Techniques. Depending on the lake size and chemicals 30 g m3 Al (Figure 6). Iron is applied as iron sulfate
the distribution is realized by piping, by distribution on the (FeSO4), iron(II)-chloride (FeCl2), iron(III)-chloride

(FeCl3), or iron chloride sulfate (FeClSO4), with a dosage
between 1 and 150 g m3 Fe. Calcium carbonate or calcium
hydroxides are added once or repeatedly with a dosage
between 10 and 250 g m3 Ca. Ca(OH)2 addition may
cause an immediate eradication of submerged macrophytes
due to a short-term rise in pH. The addition of iron is often
combined with oxidation measures such as destratification,
hypolimnetic aeration, and nitrate addition. In shallow
lakes with high pH values during summer, the resuspen-
sion of Fe and Al precipitates can lead to P release by
exchange with OH-ions. The efficiency of addition of P-
binding chemicals is high when (1) the water residence
time is long and (2) a delayed response to measures
decreasing the external P loading is expected. The in-
lake P inactivation was successfully performed in many
stratified and nonstratified lakes in North America and
Europe, but only short-term effects were observed in
cases of continued external loading that quickly substituted
the eliminated P.
Aeration and oxygenation
Aeration and oxygenation (introduction of oxygen as air
or liquid oxygen) are applied to stabilize or recover a
disturbed oxygen regime in lakes. These methods are
suitable as an expeditious measure against acute oxygen
depletion or as an interim solution until external meas-
ures are effective. They may also be used to improve
conditions for coldwater fish and other fauna in the hypo-
limnion. Additionally, the enrichment of dissolved iron,
manganese, ammonium, hydrogen sulfide, and free car-
bonic acid in the hypolimnetic water is prevented and
internal P loading may be reduced.
Scientific background. Oxygen depletion occurs when
the equilibrium between oxygen production and oxy-
gen demand for decomposition of organic matter is
disturbed. At low oxygen concentrations, oxygen-con-
suming organisms are endangered and the anaerobic
decomposition of organic matter leads to the formation
and accumulation of toxic metabolism products (e.g.,
hydrogen sulfide, ammonium, nitrite) and other
reduced substances (Fe2þ and Mn2þ) in the water.
The improved oxygen supply accelerates the decom-
position of organic matter and therefore prevents an
accumulation of organic-rich sediments. Due to the
oxidation of sulfides, sulfur-bound trace metals can be
dissolved. Increased oxygen availability increases the P
sorption capacity of oxidized iron, especially in iron-
rich sediments.
Techniques. Numerous technical possibilities for aera-
tion/oxygenation have been developed during the last
decades. In deep stratified lakes, aeration of deep water
is possible with or without destroying the thermal
stratification. The most common technique is a deep-
water aerator (Figure 7) placed at the deepest point of
Ecological Engineering | Lake Restoration 2085
IGB-Berlin
Figure 7 Aerator developed for oxygen supply of hypolimnion
without disturbing thermal stratification.
the lake with oxygen supplied from a storage tank
containing liquid oxygen on the shore. The oxygen is
carefully introduced by injectors or diffusers to avoid
disturbing the stratification. Deep-water may also be
brought to the surface via a full-lift reactor where it
is aerated and returned to the bottom. Hypolimnetic
oxygenation during the summer can be supplemented
with complete mixing in autumn by introducing com-
pressed air. Additionally, deep-water aeration can also
be realized in a plant outside the lake, where the
process can be combined with external P elimination.
Hydropneumatic pumps, turbines, rollers, or fountains
are mainly used to aerate the water of shallow lakes.
Aeration may also be combined with the addition of
iron salt (see section titled ‘P inactivation’) to facilitate
P precipitation and P retention in the sediment.
Without the addition of iron, the effects on the P
balance in the lake are restricted to the period imme-
diately after the onset of aeration.
Nitrate addition
Nitrate addition is used for in situ oxidation of biodegrad-
able organic substances and reduced substances. Nitrate
improves the redox conditions in the deep water and
at the sediment surface and can enhance the P fixation
on iron.
Scientific background. For thermodynamic reasons the
decomposition of organic matter is mainly realized by
denitrifying bacteria and not by iron and sulfate reduc-
tion as long as high concentrations of nitrate are
available. Boosting the rates of decomposition of
organic matter by denitrifying bacteria can limit the
availability of organic matter for iron and sulfate reduc-
tion so that P mobilization of iron-bound P is
restricted. Additionally, some genera of denitrifying
bacteria oxidize reduced iron species leading to an
enhanced P-binding capacity.
2086 Ecological Engineering | Lake Restoration

Techniques. A solution of calcium nitrate can be added

directly into the deep water by a mixing apparatus or
injected into the sediment with a harrow-like device, at
dosages between 19 and 170 g m2 NO3-N. In some cases
nitrate was added in granular form, which permits a more
gradual release of nitrate and extends the time of nitrate
availability. Nitrate addition is often supported by the
addition of an iron salt. Simultaneous addition of calcium
hydroxide as a buffer prevents the increase of pH from the
hydrolysis of iron salts. A one-time addition of nitrate is
not expected to lead to long-lasting effects, due to the fast
consumption of nitrate resulting from the large pool of
degradable organic matter in the sediment and its con-
tinuous supply by sedimentation. A positive effect on the
P binding in the sediment of shallow lakes was observed
when nitrate continuously entered the lake from external
sources.

Sediment capping
During sediment capping, an artificial barrier is inserted
between the sediment and the water (Figure 8). The
barrier minimizes the transport of nutrients and other
harmful substances from the sediment or the groundwater
into the lake water. Another use of sediment capping is to
prevent the growth of rooted macrophytes (see section
titled ‘Macrophyte biomass control’).
Scientific background. The material for capping can prin-
cipally act as a physical or chemical barrier. The
mechanical stabilization of the sediment surface decreases
the transport of substances by resuspension, gas emission,
or bioturbation. The efficiency of the barrier depends on
its physical properties (specific density, porosity, settling
behavior, and resuspension capability) as well as its chemi-
cal reactivity (stability, P-binding capacity). Materials
with sufficient physical properties are more efficient if
they can additionally bind phosphorus in high quantities
(active barrier systems). A physical capping should only
be included in the management strategy when (1) the
sediment has a high P mobilization potential and (2) the
external loading has been decreased.
Techniques. The capping material can be distributed at
the lake surface or near the sediment. In the past, mainly
fine-grain materials such as fly ash, sand, clay minerals,
and autochthonous calcite were used. Currently, natural
and artificial calcites, zeolites, and clay minerals are being
investigated. The specific weight of the capping material
should not exceed 1.2–1.3 g cm2 to prevent its penetra-
tion into organic rich sediments. Chemicals can be used as
a barrier when they are added in surplus (see section titled
‘P inactivation’). In shallow lakes capping is ineffective due
to resuspension and transportation of materials. Attempts
at decreasing macrophytes have been carried out using
polyethylene, fiberglass, and nylon sheets as a barrier.
M. Beyer
Figure 8 Distribution of calcareous mud for sediment capping.
Increasing of P export
Phosphorus export can be increased by (1) hypolimnetic
withdrawal, (2) external P elimination plants, or (3) sedi-
ment dredging.
Hypolimnetic withdrawal
Hypolimnetic withdrawal increases the P export since
nutrient-rich hypolimnetic water instead P-poor epilim-
netic water is removed from the lake. Continuous
application leads to a new steady state at a lower P
value, and the adaptation time following external P-load
reduction is shortened. Hypolimnetic withdrawal
improves the redox conditions in the lake, as the hypo-
limnetic water shows a high oxygen deficiency and an
accumulation of reduced substances (e.g., Mn2þ, NHþ 4,
Fe2þ, H2S).
Scientific background. The main preconditions for the
application of this method are a stable stratification dur-
ing summer and an enrichment of P in the hypolimnion
caused by release from the sediment or by sedimentation
of particles from the epilimnion. The efficiency depends
on the water-retention time and the differences in P

concentration between the epilimnion and hypolimnion.
Hypolimnetic withdrawal can force the P release from
sediments so that temporarily stored P is exhausted
sooner.
Techniques. A withdrawal pipe is installed near the
deepest point of the lake. The outlet is usually situated
below the lake level, so that the device acts as a siphon.
Pumping stations are necessary when the outlet is higher
than the lake water level or when the pumped water is
used for irrigation or is processed in a treatment plant.
The introduction of the nutrient-rich, oxygen-depleted,
and strong-smelling water into downstream waters has to
be considered carefully. In reservoirs the hypolimnetic
withdrawal can be achieved with a variable deep-water
outlet in the dam.
External P elimination
For external P elimination, the P-rich lake water is trea-
ted in a plant at the shore of the lake before being
returned to the lake. The treatment also improves the
oxygen conditions and simultaneously removes toxic or
reduced substances. P elimination in the lake water can
shorten the adaptation time required to reach a lower P
level after reducing external P loading.
Scientific background. In contrast to conventional hypo-
limnetic withdrawal, the combination with treatment
cannot lead to hydrological imbalances, because the
water is returned to the lake. The selective withdrawal
and treatment of P-rich deep water is more efficient than
the chemical treatment of the surface or inlet water. It is
advantageous because it can be applied continuously and
because only a small portion of chemicals enter the lake,
which minimizes the risk for the biocoenoses.
Techniques. External P elimination is realized by pre-
cipitation, flocculation, flotation, adsorption, or filtration
in stationary or transportable devices. Alternatively, algal
biomass and P can also be removed from the lake water in
constructed wetlands or in gravel bed reactors. The trea-
ted water is returned to the lake by a pipe. External P
elimination can be an alternative for cases in which the
deep-water export is not appropriate due to long water-
retention time or potential problems in downstream
waters.
Sediment dredging
Sediment dredging is the partial or complete removal of
sediment layers rich in nutrient and organic matter. This
technique can be multipurpose, resulting in control of
both phytoplankton and macrophytes. Dredging aims at
(1) deepening of shallow lakes, (2) eliminating accumu-
lated toxic substances, (3) reducing the release rate of P,
and (4) controlling rooted macrophytes. Additionally,
dredging serves to sustain several technical functions of
lakes or reservoirs (pre-dams, flood protection, shipping
lane).
Ecological Engineering | Lake Restoration 2087
Scientific background. The accelerated deposition of
sediments in lakes is explained by high input of eroded
material or by intensified primary production and leads
to undesired effects on the water quality. At a certain P
loading, shallow lakes are more productive than deeper
lakes. The enrichment of organic sediments and the
lower volume of lake water have a negative impact
on the oxygen budget. The accumulated nutrients and
harmful substances in the sediments can be mobilized
either by resuspension or due to changed chemical
conditions. Especially, the mobilization of accumulated
P can lead to a delayed response to external P load
reduction. The development of macrophytes may be
positively or negatively influenced by dredging due to
an increased stability of the sediment, reduction of the
sludge layer above a viable seed bank, or removal of
the seed bank. Dredging may also have adverse effects
on the lake and surrounding area. Sediment removal
can, for example, create considerable turbidity and lead
to the mobilization of heavy metals by oxidation, which
can also negatively affect downstream areas. Dredging
represents a major re-engineering of a lake, and should
not be undertaken without clear recognition of its full
impact.
Techniques. A lake can be dredged by dry or wet exca-
vation, hydraulic and pneumatic dredging. For dry
excavation, the lake is drained and the sediments are
dewatered before they are removed with conventional
excavation equipment such as backhoes, bulldozers, or
draglines. For wet excavation, amphibious excavators or
bucket dredges mounted on cranes are used. Hydraulic
dredges are typically equipped with a cutter head to
loosen sediments that are then mixed with water and
pumped as slurry through a pipeline extending to the
disposal area (e.g., polder). Polymer addition and mecha-
nical dewatering allow transport and further utilization.
Pneumatic dredging is a new technique that uses air
pressure to pump sediment out of the lake. Dredging is
a very expensive method to remove the phosphorus from
a lake. In many cases it did not successfully lower eutro-
phication by P control because the pool of temporary
stored P in the sediment was low or the internal P cycle
was determined by newly settled P.
Control of Physical and Biological Structure
Physical manipulation
Light and nutrient availability for phytoplankton growth
can be influenced by changes in the physical structure,
such as destratification.
Destratification
Destratification destroys or prevents the creation of the
density stratification of a water body and thus increases
the oxygen supply from the atmosphere. Artificial
2088 Ecological Engineering | Lake Restoration
destratification aims at reducing algae production and
other symptoms of eutrophication (e.g., fish kill, accumu-
lation of hydrogen sulfide). Mixing of P-rich deep water
with epilimnetic waters increases the P export with the
outflow at the surface, so that the mean lake P concentra-
tion declines.
Scientific background. Destratification may influence the
trophic state and the planktonic structure of a lake in a
complex way: Algal biomass concentration is expected to
be reduced by decreased light availability, by dilution, or
by higher abundances of zooplankton. The introduction
of carbon dioxide-rich bottom water, changes of hydro-
static pressure, and lower light availability may cause a
shift from noxious cyanobacteria to green algae or dia-
toms. More zooplankters may survive as their mixing
throughout the water column makes them less vulnerable
to visually feeding fish. Introducing dissolved oxygen to
the lake bottom may prevent P release, if the main P
release mechanism is due to iron reduction.
Destratification, however, also enhances nutrient avail-
ability in the euphotic zone and therefore phytoplankton
biomass has often failed to be reduced or was even
increased following circulation.
Techniques. Introduction of compressed air through
diffusers, perforated pipe, or filters located at depth
employs the air-lift methods of circulating lakes and
reservoirs, in which the water is welled up by a rising
plume of air bubbles. Other mixing technologies include
(1) pumping oxygen-oversaturated water from the surface
down to the layer with the highest deficit near the sedi-
ment, (2) jet stream pumps leading to water displacement,
and (3) introduction of warmer surface water to the
hypolimnion, inducing a convection flux. The destratifi-
cation should take place intermittently because some
algae species are adapted to permanent circulation.
Biomanipulation
Biomanipulation influences the biological structure
within a lake to improve the water quality. The main
applications for lake restoration are the (1) food web
manipulation and (2) macrophyte biomass control.
Food web manipulations
Food web manipulations in lakes are man-made altera-
tions of the lake biota and their habitats to facilitate
certain interactions that lake users consider beneficial,
namely reduction of algal (phytoplankton) biomass. In
most cases, food web manipulation refers to the reduction
of planktivorous fish that leads to a cascade effect on
phytoplankton (Figure 9) and, ultimately, clearer water
of lakes.
Scientific background. Food webs are either regulated by
resources (‘bottom-up’) or by predation (‘top-down’). A
strong reduction of the biomass of zooplanktivorous fish
such as roach (Rutilus rutilus L.) is often followed by an
Biomanipulation
Piscivorous fish
High Low
biomass biomass
Zooplanktivorous fish
Low High
biomass biomass
Zooplankton
High Low
biomass, biomass,
large small
species species
Algae
Low High
biomass, biomass,
large small
species species
Figure 9 Schematic view of top-down control of phytoplankton
abundance in eutrophic lakes. Effect of manipulation of
zooplanktivorous fish biomass (left) as compared to an
unmanipulated food web.
increase in the abundance and size of zooplankton (pre-
dominantly Daphnia species). This increases the grazing
pressure on phytoplankton and potentially leads to the
top-down control of phytoplankton biomass, in which
case the water becomes clear and extreme values of oxy-
gen and pH are avoided (Figure 9). A reduced biomass of
planktivorous fish may also reduce nutrient recycling
rates. The success of food web manipulation may there-
fore also be triggered by bottom-up forces. Benthivorous
fish such as bream (Abramis brama L.) or common carp
(Cyprinus carpio L.) exert bottom-up effects on water
quality as they increase sediment resuspension, water
turbidity, and internal nutrient loading. The removal of
benthivorous fish may therefore also strongly determine
the success of a food web manipulation. Top-down con-
trol of phytoplankton biomass was found to occur in
shallow lakes and in deep lakes of slightly eutrophic or
mesotrophic state. It is unlikely in eutrophic or hyper-
trophic deep lakes. The substantially higher success rates
of food web manipulations in shallow – as opposed to
stratified – lakes can be attributed to positive feedback
mechanisms triggered by the recovery of submerged
macrophytes (Figure 2).
Techniques. A reduction of the biomass of zooplankti-
vorous and benthivorous fish can be reached by stocking
with piscivorous fish such as pike (Esox lucius L.), pike-
perch (Sander lucioperca L.), or perch (Perca fluviatilis L.).
A direct reduction can also be achieved by poisoning, fish
removal by conventional fishery techniques, or a tempor-
ary drainage of the lake. An appropriate balance between
piscivorous, planktivorous, and benthivorous fishes is

required for long-lasting success of food web manipula-
tions. The average success rate is 60%. Strongest effects of
food web manipulations are predicted when both fish and
nutrients are altered. Experience has shown that lake
water quality can only be improved by food web manipu-
lation if annual loading is lower than 0.6–0.8 g of total
P m2 of lake surface area, or the in-lake P concentration
is lower than 100 mg l1 in shallow lakes. The complexity
of lake food webs, however, makes scientifically sound
predictions of success rather difficult.
Macrophyte biomass control
Macrophyte biomass control includes measures to restore
aquatic plant communities in order to take advantage of
the beneficial aspects of plants in lakes, as well as meas-
ures to control excessive growth that results in conflicts
with certain lake uses or to eradicate exotic species.
Scientific background. Aquatic macrophytes, especially
submerged species, are of significant importance for the
food web interactions and environmental quality of lakes,
as they affect the interactions between predacious, plank-
tivorous, and benthivorous fish, and between fish and
invertebrates. Submerged macrophytes play a crucial
role in shallow lakes due to the vegetation-turbidity
feedback (Figure 1). They stabilize the clear, vegeta-
tion-dominated state due to the reduction of nutrient
availability to phytoplankton, enhancement of top-down
control of algae by providing refuge for zooplankton,
suppression of phytoplankton by the excretion of
allelopathic substances, facilitation of phytoplankton
sedimentation, and prevention of sediment resuspension.
Loss of submerged macrophytes in shallow lakes results in
a switch to the turbid, phytoplankton-dominated state
(Figure 3). In shallow lakes, the successful establishment
of submerged macrophytes is therefore a prerequisite for
the long-term success of other restoration measures such
as food web manipulations. Excessive macrophyte growth
can be a result of eutrophication or of increasing water
transparency after the application of restoration measures
to eutrophic lakes. Control measures are only needed
when macrophytes hinder certain lake uses (e.g., recrea-
tion). As nutrient demands of rooted macrophytes are
largely supplied from the sediment, reduced in-lake
nutrient concentrations will not result in reduced macro-
phyte growth in most cases.
Techniques. Submerged vegetation will develop natu-
rally in most cases when light and sediment conditions in
the lake are suitable, for example, after the application of
another restoration method. Artificial support by planting
or seeding of submerged plants might be useful if viable
propagules are lacking in the sediment and no macro-
phyte stands are present in the vicinity of the lake, if the
restoration method applied only decreased turbidity for a
period too short for natural colonization, if submerged
macrophytes are immediately needed for the successful
Ecological Engineering | Lake Restoration 2089
Figure 10 Macrophyte harvesting in one of the Ruhr reservoirs
(Germany).
development of introduced pike, or if the promotion of
specific (e.g., low-growing) macrophyte species in parti-
cular areas of the lake is required to enable recreational
use. Methods to control or eradicate aquatic macrophytes
include water-level drawdown for a period sufficient to
kill the plants and their reproductive structures, mecha-
nical harvesting (Figure 10), sediment covers, aquatic
herbicides, and biological control such as phytophagous
insects and fish and plant pathogens. In shallow lakes,
macrophyte control measures should be applied with
caution due to the risk of a switch back to the turbid,
phytoplankton-dominated state.
Table 1 summarizes the available options provided by
ecological engineering for controlling excessive phyto-
plankton growth due to eutrophication as well as for
reducing other undesired symptoms of a high trophic
state.
Control of Acidification
External Measures
External measures include the (1) reduction of emissions,
(2) neutralization measures in the catchment, and (3) the
treatment of inflows.
The most important way to abate atmogenic acidifica-
tion is the ‘reduction of emissions’ of sulfur and nitrogen
into the atmosphere. International agreements aim at redu-
cing sulfur emissions by reducing combustion of fossils
fuels and using modern technology to minimize emissions.
For example, many European countries have agreed on a
reduction target for sulfur emissions of 70–80% by the
year 2010 relative to 1980. The geogenic acidification due
to mining activities can be influenced by reducing the
exposure of sulfur-containing minerals (pyrite, marcasite)
to atmospheric oxygen. Groundwater for filling the mining
lake should be gained from regions where the soil is not, or
is only minimally, oxidized. In regions without mining
Table 1 External and internal measures for decreasing the primary production and for abatement of negative symptoms of eutrophication in lakes and reservoirs

Influenced parameters/processes Possible measures No. Potential problems/adverse effects Example

A. Parameters controlling phytoplankton growth

External phosphorus load # Elimination of P emissions 1 Identification of nonpoint sources, delay of Lake Constance (D)
improvements Lake Washington (USA)
Increase of P retention in the landscape 2 Conflicts with land users Lake Okeechobee/
Everglades (USA)
Purification of inlet water 3 High costs Wahnbach Reservoir (D)

Phosphorus export " Hypolimnetic withdrawal 4 Negative impacts on downstream waters, Lake Piburger (A)
destruction of stratification, drawdown of
water level
External P elimination 5 Low efficiency Lake Apopka (USA)
Dredging 6 Increase of turbidity, release of harmful Lake Finjasjön (S)
substances, deposition of toxic sediments, Lake Trummen (S)
space required for dewatering and
treatment, high costs
Destratification 7 Increase of nutrient availability in the euphotic Lake Nieuwe Meer (NL)
zone, negative downstream effects, increase Biesbosch Reservoirs (NL)
of oxygen demand at greater depths
Biomass harvesting 8 Low effectiveness Chemung Lake (CA)
Dilution and flushing 9 Water consumption, negative downstream Moses Lake (USA)
impacts Lake Veluwe (NL)

Phosphorus sedimentation " P inactivation 10 Toxicity of Al to fish and benthos at low pH, Lake Groß-Glienicker (D)
phosphorus release under anoxia or Lake Sønderby (DK)
extreme pH
Food web manipulation 11 Shifts in algal composition to less desired Lake Haussee (D)
species
Promotion of macrophytes 12 Interference of excessive macrophyte growth Alte Donau (A)
with recreational use
Phosphorus release # Aeration and oxygenation 13 No effects on P cycle, N2 oversaturation Lake Sempach (CH)
Nitrate addition leading to gas bubble disease in fish
14 Only short-term effects on internal P cycle Lake Lyng (DK)
Sediment capping 15 Low effectiveness due to low temporary P in Lake Arendsee (D)
sediment
P inactivation 16 See 10
Dredging 17 See 6

Phytoplankton mortality " Food web manipulation 18 See 11 Bautzen Reservoir (D)
Lake Zwemlust (NL)
Destratification 19 See 7
Compartmentation 20 Interferences with water uses Blelham Tarn (GB)

B. Undesired eutrophication symptoms

Excessive development of macrophytes # Sediment capping 21 Mechanical instability, mortality of Long Lake (USA)
invertebrates
Manual and mechanical harvesting 22 Destruction of habitats Halverson Lake (USA)
Herbicides 23 Prohibited by law in many countries due to Mason Lake (USA)
negative effects on other biota
Biological control 24 Complete eradication and switch to turbid Lake Baldwin (USA)
conditions
Water-level drawdown 25 Algal blooms after reflooding Blue Lake (USA)

Fish kills # Destratification 26 See 7, warming of deep water endangers

coldwater fish species
Aeration and oxygenation 27 See 13

Accumulation of reduced and toxic # Oxidation measures (nitrate additions, 28 See 13, 14
substances destratification, oxygenation, and
aeration)
2092 Ecological Engineering | Lake Restoration
activity, the desiccation of wetlands and changing
groundwater levels should be prevented.
‘Neutralization in the catchment’, achieved, for exam-
ple, by liming with calcium carbonate, magnesium, or
alkali carbonate (e.g., sodium carbonate), is one way to
counteract the acidification. An alternative way is to
stimulate alkalinity-producing processes such as micro-
bial sulfate reduction and microbial denitrification in the
soils of the catchment, provided that sufficient supply of
organic substance and N fertilizers can be guaranteed.
This can be realized by adding these substances to the
recultivated mining waste heaps (e.g., as liquid manure) or
by establishing reactive systems with increased decom-
position of organic matter (e.g., fish ponds with feeding,
constructed wetlands). For mining lakes, a number of
measures aim at minimizing the groundwater influx.
These include the installation of underground bulkheads,
the draining of acidic water from the mining waste heaps,
or afforestation, whereby water-bound transport of acid is
lowered by evaporation. Another possibility is to fill the
mining lake with well-buffered river water to avoid the
influx of groundwater. In mining lake areas, the input of
acids can also be decreased by the addition of basic
materials to the heaps. This measure also introduces P
which induces positive feedbacks for alkalinization by
increased primary production (see the section titled
‘Biological neutralization’).
The acid waters can also be neutralized by ‘treatment
of inflows’ in anaerobic systems such as ditches filled with
straw bales, constructed wetlands, and anoxic limestone
drains.
In Situ Technologies
In-lake measures against acidification include (1) chemi-
cal and (2) biological neutralization.
Chemical neutralization
Chemical neutralization can be achieved by liming or the
addition of other bases. The aims are (1) to detoxify the
water to allow the survival or reestablishment of natural
flora and fauna and (2) to raise the pH above 6 for several
water uses (drinking water, fishery, recreation).
Scientific background. Basic chemicals react with Hþ ions
to form H2O. Raising pH values reduces toxic Al species
and dissolved heavy metals. The success and duration of
the effects depend on the subsequent delivery of acids.
Techniques. Many different deacidifying bases, such as
carbonates, oxides, hydroxides, and alkaline industrial
waters, have been used to neutralize acid waters.
Common agents include dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2),
sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), olivine (Mg2SiO4), and
hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2). Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
as dry, finely grained powder is most widely used and is
dispersed from boats, pontoon vessels, or helicopters, or
distributed on the ice cover in winter. The extent of the
impact depends on the retention time and mean depth of
the lake and the acidity of the inlet stream water. The
liming of large lakes with continuous input of acids and of
strongly acidified mining lakes is very expensive.
Biological neutralization
Biological neutralization aims at an increase of biological
processes, such as denitrification, sulfate reduction, and
primary production, which can lead to neutralization.
Scientific background. When all molecular oxygen in the
water has been consumed, oxygen bound in NO 2
3 , SO4 ,
or other electron acceptors is used for respiration pro-
cesses. During these processes the acid anions are
eliminated and basic cations (e.g., NHþ 2þ
4 , Fe ) are formed.
Alkalinity production by these processes demands large
amounts of biodegradable organic matter as electron
donator.
Techniques. An increase in reductive processes can be
achieved by saprobization. Ethanol, methanol, and glu-
cose, as well as straw, potato peels, and cow dung have
been tested as organic sources. Alternatively, the required
organic material may also be formed by a stimulation of
primary production within the lake by the addition of P.
The increase in alkalinity is compensated when reduced
compounds such as H2S or Fe2þ are oxidized. Therefore,
only a permanent deposition of iron sulfide under strong
reductive conditions can lead to long-term deacidifica-
tion. The stratification of the water body should be stable
to ensure oxygen-free conditions in the hypolimnion for
at least some months each year or, in case of meromictic
lakes, in the monimolimnion. Planting trees on the shore,
deploying floating barriers on the water, and installing of
bulkheads in the lake are measures against wind and wave
action that can help prevent full circulation. The combi-
nation of chemical and biological neutralization could
prove to be an efficient solution. After establishing neutral
pH values by liming, the primary production is no longer
limited by bicarbonate and the microbial neutralization
works more efficiently. Biological measures as new eco-
technologies are still in the development stage, so that
only a few examples of whole-lake application exist.
Summary
The various problems of freshwater pollution can be
reduced by a wide spectrum of ecological engineering
methods. Using the examples eutrophication and acidifi-
cation, it was shown that water quality can, in principle,
be controlled by (1) the reduction of external load and
(2) lake-internal ecological processes and structures. The
coupling of both strategies may accelerate the recovery of
a lake or reservoir and reduce the costs. External techni-
ques aim at the reduction of sources from the catchment
 Ecological Engineering | Lake Restoration Methods
by reduction of emissions and the establishment or reac-
tivation of buffer systems, as well as chemical and
biological purification of inflows. Internal measures
reduce undesired symptoms or optimize the biological,
chemical, or physical structure to make the system more
resistant against pollution. Measures of ecological engi-
neering can be defined as the large-scale utilization of
ecological principles via controlled intervention that
changes the ecosystem towards a certain management
target. The nutrient concentration of eutrophied lakes
can be decreased by chemical inactivation and increasing
export of nutrients. Alternatively, the biomass of algae can
be reduced by food web manipulation and by artificial
destratification controlling the underwater light climate.
Abatement of acidification is realized by the application
of chemical and biological in-lake measures. Before
selecting a lake-restoration measure, the main problems
of the lake need to be identified, the goal of the measure
should be defined, and the probability of success must be
estimated. The development of sustainable targets for
lakes and reservoirs should consider the present anthro-
pogenic use and colonization of the landscape, the current
knowledge of ecology, and ongoing technical progress.
See also: Acidification; Anthropospheric and
Anthropogenic Impact on the Biosphere; Atmospheric
Deposition; Bifurcation; Biological Wastewater Treatment
Systems; Food Chains and Food Webs; Hysteresis;
Constructed Wetlands, Subsurface Flow; Lake Models;
Resilience; Sediment Retention and Release.
Lake Restoration Methods
S E Jørgensen, Copenhagen University, Copenhagen, Denmark
ª 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Introduction
Lake Restoration Methods
Selection of Restoration Methods
Introduction
Lake restoration is obviously more applicable when the
pollutants are threshold rather than nonthreshold agents,
although it has also been applied for nonthreshold pollu-
tants. Development of methods to restore lakes which are
eutrophied has been of particular interest because eutrophi-
cation is a very general and widely distributed lake problem.
2093
Further Reading
Commission on Geosciences, Environment and Resources (1992)
Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems: Science, Technology, and
Public Policy. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Cooke GD, Welch EB, Peterson SA, and Nichols SA (2005) Restoration
and Management of Lakes and Reservoirs. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor
and Francis.
Gulati R and Van Donk E (2005) Restoration of freshwater lakes.
In: Van Andel J and Aronson J (eds.) Restoration Ecology: The New
Frontier, pp 158–173. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Holdren C, Jones W, and Taggart J (2001) Managing Lakes and
Reservoirs. Madison, WI: North American Lake Management Society
and Terrene Institute, in cooperation with Office of Water,
Assessment and Watershed Protection Division – US Environmental
Protection Agency, EPA 841-B-01-006.
Joye SB, Smith VH, and Howarth RW (eds.) (2005) Eutrophication of
freshwater and marine ecosystems. Limnology and Oceanography
51: 351–800.
Kasprzak P, Benndorf J, Mehner T, and Koschel R (guest eds.) (2002)
Biomanipulation of lake ecosystems - research progress, water
quality and fishery management. Freshwater Biology
47: 2277–2473.
Moss B, Madgwick J, and Phillips G (1996) A Guide to the Restoration of
Nutrient-Enriched Shallow Lakes. Norwich (GB): Broads Authority,
Environment Agency & EU Life Programme.
Mudroch A, Stottmeister U, Kennedy C, and Klapper H (eds.) (2002)
Remediation of Abandoned Surface Coal Mining Sites. Berlin,
Germany: Springer.
O’Sullivan PE and Reynolds CS (eds.) (2005) The Lakes Handbook,
Vol. 2: Lake Restoration and Rehabilitation. Malden, MA: Blackwell
Publishing.
Perrow MR and Davy AJ (2006) Handbook of Ecological Restoration,
Vol 1: Principles of Restoration. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
Sas H (1989) Lake Restoration by Reduction of Nutrient Loading:
Expectations, Experiences, Extrapolation. St. Augustin: Academia.
Scheffer M (1998) Ecology of Shallow Lakes. London: Chapman and
Hall.
Welch EB and Cooke GD (1999) Effectiveness and longevity of
phosphorus inactivation with alum. Lake and Reservoir
Management 15: 5–27.
Conclusions
Further Reading
It is therefore not surprising that many lake and reservoir
restoration methods focusing on the eutrophication of lakes
and reservoirs have been developed. In addition, it is in most
cases not possible to solve the eutrophication problem
completely without application of ecological engineering
methods, including restoration methods.
The selection of a lake restoration method requires
quantification of the problem. We are unable to measure