Soran University

Faculty of Engineering
Department of chemical Engineering

Final Assessment of mass transfer

Prepared by:
Ismail Idris Abdulaziz

Module Leader:
Dr. Arkan Jasm Hadi

Date :
30/6/2020

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Part 1 Report

Types of Distillation
 Simple distillation.
 Fractional distillation.
 Steam distillation.
 Vacuum distillation.
 Air-sensitive vacuum distillation.
 Short path distillation.
 Zone distillation.
Simple Distillation
Simple distillation involves heating the liquid mixture to the boiling point and immediately
condensing the resulting vapors.This method is only effective for mixtures wherein the boiling
points of the liquids are considerably different (a minimum difference of 25oC).The purity of the
distillate (the purified liquid) is governed by Raoult’s law.
Example of a simple distillation mixture involving water is the separation of a sugar water
blend. Since sugar and water have different boiling points, the water will begin to evaporate first,
and then cool to turn into pure water. Sugar will be left behind in the original container

Fractional distillation.
Fractional distillation is the separation of a mixture into its component parts, or fractions.
Chemical compounds are separated by heating them to a temperature at which one or more
fractions of the mixture will vaporize. It uses distillation to fractionate. Generally the component
parts have boiling points that differ by less than 25 °C (45 °F) from each other under a pressure
of one atmosphere .
Example, fractional distillation is used in oil refineries to separate crude oil into useful
substances (or fractions) having different hydrocarbons of different boiling points.
Steam distillation
Steam distillation is a separation process used to purify or isolate temperature-sensitive
materials, such as natural aromatic compounds. Steam or water is added to the distillation
apparatus, lowering the boiling points of the compounds. The goal is to heat and separate the
components at temperatures below their decomposition point.

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Example Steam distillation is often employed in the isolation of essential oils, for use in
perfumes, for example. In this method, steam is passed through the plant material containing the
desired oils. Eucalyptus oil, camphor oil and orange oil are obtained by this method on an
industrial scale.

Vacuum distillation.
is distillation performed under reduced pressure, which allows the purification of compounds not
readily distilled at ambient pressures or simply to save time or energy. This technique separates
compounds based on differences in boiling points.

Example Vacuum distillation is often used in large industrial plants as an efficient way to
remove salt from ocean water, in order to produce fresh water. This is known as desalination.
Air-sensitive vacuum distillation.
For compounds that are sensitive to air and readily react with it, the vacuum distillation process
is carried out but the vacuum must be replaced with an inert gas once the process is complete.
Such a process is often referred to as air-sensitive vacuum distillation.
Example A Perkin triangle is a specialized apparatus for the distillation of air-sensitive materials.
It is named after William Henry Perkin Jr.; whose design was approximately triangular in shape.
[citation needed] The diagram shows a more modern version, in which the glass taps have been
replaced with more air-tight Teflon taps. Some compounds have high boiling points and are
sensitive to air.
Short path distillation.
Short path distillation is used to purify a small quantity of a compound that is unstable at high
temperatures. This is done under lowered pressure levels and generally involves the distillate
traveling a very small distance before being collected (hence the name ‘short path’). The reduced
distance traveled by the distillate in this method also reduces the wastage along the walls of the
apparatus.
Example A classic example would be a distillation involving the distillate travelling from one
glass bulb to another, without the need for a condenser separating the two chambers. This
technique is often used for compounds which are unstable at high temperatures or to purify small
amounts of compound
Zone distillation.
The process of zone distillation involves the partial melting of a substance and the condensation
of the resulting vapors to obtain a pure distillate. This is carried out in a long container with the
help of a zone heater.

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Example steady-state fractional distillation are in petroleum refineries, petrochemical and
chemical plants and natural gas processing plants.
. Minimum reflux ratio. As the reflux ratio is reduced, the distance between the operating line
and the equilibrium curve becomes smaller. The minimum reflux ratio Rm is the limiting reflux
where the operating line either touches the equilibrium curve or intersects the equilibrium curve
at the q-line. The minimum reflux ratio will require an infinite number of trays to attain the
specified separation of xD and xB. Figure 1 shows an equilibrium plate n with streams Ln-1 and
Vn+1 entering and streams Ln and Vn leave the plate. If the two steams Ln-1 and Vn+1 are at
equilibrium there will be no net mass transfer between the liquid and vapor streams. The
equilibrium curve will touch or intersect the operating line at this point.

Figure 1Equilibrium plate n with vapor and liquid streams.

Given q, xD and xF, the feed line is fixed and the upper operating line depends
on the reflux ratio R. At total reflux, the operating line coincides with the 45o line. As R is
decreased, the slope of the enriching operating line R/(R + 1) is decreased. The operating line
will rotate clockwise around the point (x = xD, y = xD ) until it is tangent to the equilibrium
curve or it intersects the q-line at the equilibrium point whichever comes first. The location
where the operating line touches or intersects the equilibrium curve is called the pinch point. The
enriching operating line at minimum reflux is then defined. The minimum reflux Rm can be
obtained from either the intercept of the slope of the enriching operating line. The operating flux
ratio is between the minimum Rm and total reflux. Usual value is between 1.2Rm to 1.5Rm.
Figure 4.4-11 shows the pinch points for case 1 where the operating line intersects the
equilibrium curve and case 2 where the operating line touches the equilibrium curve. The number
of theoretical stages depends on the reflux ratio R = L0/D. As R increases, the products from the
column will reduce. There will be fewer equilibrium stages needed since the operating line will
be further away from the equilibrium curve. The upper limit of the reflux ratio is total reflux, or
R = ∞. The number of trays required for the specified separation is the minimum which can be
obtained by stepping off the trays from the distillate to the bottoms.

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Side-stream distillation columns can provide an interesting choice for the separation of ternary
mixtures. Potential advantages include a lower number of reboilers, condensers and distillation
shells than sequences based on conventional distillation columns.
multiple component distillation is another topic that chemical engineers are chemically
introduced to in a mass transfer class and it involves an incoming stream that has more than two
components.
Example for Side-stream distillation

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 Example for multiple component distillation

Leaching is the process of a solute becoming detached or extracted from its carrier substance by
way of a solvent. Leaching is a naturally occurring process which scientists have adapted for a
variety of applications with a variety of methods. Specific extraction methods depend on the
soluble characteristics relative to the sorbent material such as concentration, distribution, nature,
and size. Leaching can occur naturally seen from plant substances (inorganic and organic), solute
leaching in soil, and in the decomposition of organic materials. Leaching can also be applied

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affectedly to enhance water quality and contaminant removal, as well as for disposal of
hazardous waste products such as fly ash, or rare earth elements (REEs). Understanding leaching
characteristics is important in preventing or encouraging the leaching process and preparing for it
in the case where it is inevitable. In an ideal leaching equilibrium stage, all the solute is dissolved
by the solvent, leaving the carrier of the solute unchanged. The process of leaching however is
not always ideal, and can be quite complex to understand and replicate, and often different
methodologies will produce different results. Indeed, as every morning billions of people
unwittingly use this extraction technique to enjoy the organoleptic properties of tea and coffee, at
the same time many industries greatly benefit from the vast number of leaching applications. For
example, leaching is widely used in the biological and food processing industries for the
separation of sugar from sugar beets with hot water, or for the extraction of oil from peanuts,
soybeans and sunflower seeds. Likewise, many pharmaceutical products are obtained by
leaching plant roots, leaves and stems.
Most importantly, leaching is applied in the metals processing industry to remove the desired
metals from their ores, which are usually formed by many unwanted components. Gold, for
instance, is leached from its ore using an aqueous cyanide solution. Chromium (Cr), vanadium
(V), molybdenum (Mo) and niobium (Nb) – the valuable metals for the CHROMIC project –
need to be extracted by leaching too.

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