Interpretive Aspects of Human Figure Drawings of Abused

Children

Peejay D. Bengwasan
Saint Louis University

I. INTRODUCTION
Art is an expression of one’s subjective and innermost state. As creative beings,
people learn to express motives and urges through different forms such as music,
literature and other media. These forms express and involve a deep connection to
passion and most especially one’s inner feelings and emotions. For children, the
simplest expression of such is through their drawings. The mere scribbles and lines
on a sheet of paper convey what seems invisible in normal conversations and
behavior.

Drawings can be a means of establishing a rapid, easy, pleasant rapport with

the child (Di Leo 1983). Children who are shy, quiet, impulsive, have speech and
language difficulties or speak a different language from the counselor usually
respond well to drawing activities (Klepsch & Logie, 1982). When working with
children from other cultures, drawings may also be useful because they allow
children to communicate with others across barriers of language and culture and
helps to establish understanding between themselves and adults (Cochran, 1996;
Gil & Drewes, 2005).

Because of the countless factors involved in drawings, it is postulated that such

simple representations could be a potential source of children’s psyche. Children’s
drawings can provide a valuable assessment tool because they are a common and
frequent mode of inner expression for children. Most children love to draw and,
given the opportunity, they will do so (Van Hutton, 1994).

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 Many believe that all people convey something of their emotional state when
they draw pictures. Hence, it would be beneficial to bring and draw out even
covert feelings such that these pieces of information can be used in counseling and
therapy. Drawings can also be used in school settings with students who are
struggling with normal developmental issues. These are potential indicators of
emotions, self-esteem, and social competence, as well as other aspects of
personality (Di Leo, 1973; Malchiodi, 1998). In the same way, drawings are a way
for children to call attention to topics that are personally important or emotionally
significant (Thomas & Silk, 1990).

Projective drawings are particularly useful for children, and particularly those
who have been abused. Children who have been in these experiences, for instance,
typically may have a high level of inhibition and may be especially defensive,
oppositional or resistant in response to more direct measures and lines of
questioning. Hence, through the Draw A Person (DAP) test, professionals are able
to evaluate children in a less threatening manner and provide an enjoyable activity
in which children are able to express themselves (Van Hutton, 1994). In addition,
the use of projective drawings as diagnostic aids could help determine emotional
problems in children. Children’s drawings will tend to be imbued with symbolic
elements expressive of disorders (Di Leo, 1973).

Many young children lack the cognition to acknowledge and successfully

process traumatic events. They are internally conflicted and may be unable to
verbally communicate the traumatic events they have experienced (Miller,
Veltkamp, & Janson, 1987). When investigating possible abuse in children, art
functions as a nonthreatening tool for communication between client and clinician
(Stember, 1980). Variations of art communication serve as therapeutic tools
through encouraging symbolic interaction in creative form (Naumberg, 1987). For
these children, art allows processing and healing to occur on the level of the child
(Stember, 1980). Such techniques integrate thoughts and feelings with artistic
expression, rather than developmentally dependent oral or written forms of
communication (Naumberg, 1987).

In other studies such as in the unpublished work of Batongbacal (2000), the use
of projective drawings has proven to be a tool to diagnose and identify sexual
abuse. Moreover, specific patterns and manners of drawing human figures on
paper emerged from analyses of drawings made by several children around the
globe, as well as in the Philippines (Carandang, 1996).

It is also notable that certain differences lie between the drawings of males and
females. Based on previous research findings, males were expected to include

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significantly more anxiety indicators and less detail than their female counterparts.
In addition, males were expected to draw a same sex figure first significantly more
often than females (Cox et al., 2000; Machover, 1951, 1960).

Although the previously mentioned studies show valid explanations as to why,

despite replication and repetition of studies on projective tests are potent sources
of children’s psyche, no graphic representation has yet to prove the use of human
figure drawings to detect sexual or physical abuse (Allen & Tussey, 2012).

Given the use of the Draw A Person test and its potential to uncover underlying
and unconscious symbols in the child’s psyche, the objective of this research is not
only to contribute to existing data affirming the use of projective drawings in
identifying conflicts within the children’s psyche but also to provide a springboard
to establishing the use of human figure drawings as a diagnostic tool for abuse
through a non-intrusive and less threatening method.

This study also validates and solidifies the numerous studies abroad that have
used the Draw A Person test in clinical studies. By applying the same technique in
the Philippine context it diminishes the gaps among local studies and contributes
to the results found on human figure drawings.

Furthermore, this study aims to improve on the existing projective techniques

in the Saint Louis University-Sunflower Children’s Center/Child and Youth Wellness
Center. Through the findings and results, the psychotherapeutic center may
appraise the existing knowledge on projective drawings and insert them in
significant dealings and cases, especially when interpreting human figure drawings
of children.

Symbolisms in Children’s Drawings

Children often attempt to draw much before they acquire writing skills. It is
possible to say that drawing belongs to the primal mechanism of expression of a
child, the same unconscious mechanisms which are found in dream expression.
Accordingly, it can be said that projective drawings, like dreams, use symbolic
language to express the innermost structure of the child (Piaget, 1951).

A symbol, in its broadest meaning, is a motivated signifier. In other words,

there is at least for the individual a resemblance of some kind between the object
and what is signified. A symbol calls for a relationship, which is not due to a social
convention, but is directly experienced by the individual. The symbol will be used

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in affective language to express feelings and concrete experiences rather than in
intellectual language to express impersonal thoughts (Piaget, 1951).

As cited in the unpublished work of Costa (2002), Freud’s psychoanalytical

point of view defines a symbol as an idea in the unconscious of the psyche that
takes the place of a mental process in the unconscious. The conscious idea
becomes the object of the unconscious idea’s instinctual motivation. Thus, a
symbol may be considered a wish or desire, which includes not only the idea but
also the instinctual motive, the manifestation of the libido that goes with it.

Amplifying the psychoanalytic meaning, a symbol always stands for something

more than its obvious and immediate meaning. Even at such a young age, children
are able to have a complex use of symbols in an attempt to express themselves. It
is, moreover, a natural and spontaneous product, which occurs in all kinds of
psychic manifestation. Man uses several media as symbolic expression. Hence,
children too utilize symbolic drawings to catch up with the demands of their
environment (Jung, 1972; Freud, as cited in Costa, 2002).

As cited in Costa (2002), symbolic elaboration has a strong cognitive aspect.

The use of symbolism is important in the developmental cognitive theory. It is
divided into primary and secondary symbolism. Primary symbolism is a conscious
representation of something by the use of any other thing, as when a child uses a
drawing of a tadpole to represent his father. Secondary or unconscious symbolism
happens when a child himself does not understand the symbolism, as when he
draws a picture of a boy near his mother figure touching her body juxtaposed with
a smaller boy, thinner and weak, near the dog as an unconscious expression of
jealousy toward his younger brother. The affective content of development will be
greater in the secondary symbolism. It is among the affective symbols that
secondary assimilations will occur. Here, affection and interest play a role in the
assimilation of the ego. These interests are a matter of intimate, permanent
concerns, of secret and often inexpressive desires. Hence, the attention for
secondary symbolism is more important for an in-depth analysis of the psychic life
of a child (Piaget, 1973).

Costa (2002) concluded that using these definitions of symbol, it could be said
that when a child is engaged in the task of drawing, there is a compelling
movement from a deep psychic life to surface outer reality. The child projects
symbolically his desires, preoccupations, fears, and perceptions on the paper via
the use of pencils, crayons, watercolor or any other means. Drawings give the child
an opportunity to bring to surface, to his conscious, things, which were not
perceived before. They help the child to make use of symbolism to confront and
play with his most enjoyable wishes as well as with his most horrendous fears.

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 Children’s Drawings as Projective Tests

Children’s drawings are considered projective in the sense that they help the
child project with the use of symbols, his innermost unconscious aspects of self, his
personality traits, ways to solve conflicts, and approaches to particular situations
in the environment (Van Hutton, 1994).

Early researches have focused on the use of projective drawings as a manner of

examining children. Children are given a blank sheet of paper and a pencil with the
instructions to “draw a person”. The drawing is then scored for mental age, based
on the details found in the figures drawn. Most practitioners consider such a
technique as a test of intellectual development only and not a measure of
underlying emotional conflicts or personality characteristics (Goodenough, 1926).

Strong emotions emerge in the form of images instead of words (Kramer, 1979;
Naumburg, 1973). Drawing allows children to experience rather than verbalize
feelings, and, therefore, may be more effective in helping them accomplish goals
(Withrow, 2004). Children tend to be receptive to art therapy, because art is one
of a child's natural ways to engage in creative self-expression, to explore conflicts,
and exercise control over perceived realities without actually reliving even the
most traumatizing or strongest of emotions (Coleman & Farris-Dufrene, 1996;
Kramer, 1979).

Furthermore, art activities provide a safe and enjoyable means that encourage
children to explore, make decisions, and solve problems (Allen, 1987). These also
provide a way for them to portray their inner world without having to rely on words
(Gil, 2006). Others suggest that although research on art-based assessments is
inconsistent, drawings can help increase understanding of the client in therapy or
in counseling (Kaplan, 2003; Gil, 2006). Drawings are frequently used as informal
assessments for understanding children's struggles and their internal world
(Carandang, 1996; Carmichael, 2006). They also can be used to help children gain
insight and review progress through drawing records (Withrow, 2004). They also
help comprehend a child’s inner wounds and from there, help overcome painful
experiences (Van Hutton, 1994).

When children transfer the pictures in their mind onto a piece of paper, the
drawing becomes an external object that they can use to gain control and mastery
of their world (Webb, 2004). Processing the meaning of the drawing may reinforce
the child's self-exploration and motivation to change (Riley, 1994). An effective
interpretation helps the child to accept the painful thoughts and feelings and

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resolve internal conflicts (Whitmont, 1969). This allows professionals such as
therapists to tentatively generate hypotheses for working with the child, and
facilitates collaboration between therapist and child in exploring and
understanding the meaning of the drawing (Furth, 2002; Crenshaw, 2006).

In times when children are referred to school counselors or therapists because

they are struggling academically, personally or socially, therapists and counselors
must quickly determine what students are experiencing and decide how best to
intervene. When the specific issues underlying concerns are difficult to assess,
children's drawings can be helpful in providing hypotheses (Anatasi & Urbina, 1997;
Gil, 2006; Gregory, 2000). Projective indicators such as drawings serve best in
sequential decisions by suggesting leads for further exploration or hypotheses
about the individual for subsequent verification, as in cases of vague or
complicated cases (Thomas & Silk, 1990).

In addition to the practice of using drawing as an icebreaker, drawings may

facilitate the discussion of their thoughts and feelings, particularly for children who
have moderate learning difficulties (Lewis, 1995). This can be especially useful
where the child provides information about a traumatic event experienced.
Indeed, several studies have mentioned the extensive use of drawings to assess
maltreatment and neglect of children and to help them to recall important events
as well as a tool for assessing and accessing traumatic memories (Veltman &
Browne, 2002; Burgess & Hartman, 1993). Drawings have been found to cue more
accurate recall of an event compared with a standard interview in which drawings
are not made (Butler, Gross, & Hayne, 1995).

Although many school counselors have little or no training in art interpretation,

they can learn basic guidelines for hypothesizing possible meanings behind what
the student draws. A general understanding of the child's situation, affective
expressions, and verbalizations, as well as the actual drawing, assist in making an
interpretation (Leonore, 1993).

However, as more and more employ projective drawings in their work with
children, qualitative interpretations have proven to be optimal sources that
provide insight into a child’s inner state. Based on psychoanalytic theories, many
hypotheses were made regarding signs in human figure drawings (Machover, 1949,
1953, 1960). Through an analysis of the drawing of a person, clinicians could obtain
information concerning a child’s sensitivity, maturity, flexibility and degree of
personality integration (Buck, 1948).

Essential to the drawing of a human person is the manner of how children look
at themselves. Body image is sensitively reactive to influences that disturb the

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emotional life of children. Insofar as human figure drawings represent a concept
of body image as experienced at the time, it will tend to express, unconsciously
and symbolically, the hurt that is making the child painfully aware of his feelings.
Depending on the degree of turmoil, the body image and its graphic representation
may be sweepingly or focally affected, thoroughly disrupted or different from the
usual in only a particular, and in any gradient between these two extremes (Di Leo,
1973).

When making interpretations about a child’s artwork, the overall quality of the
drawing must also be considered. A child who is artistic might add picture elements
that would ordinarily signal a concern to be explored. For example, a student might
erase and redo some parts of the drawing and or use shading and a variety of line
types. In some children, this could indicate insecurities or conflicts. For students
with drawing talent, such details might not indicate a problem at all (Thomas & Silk,
1990).

Interpreting Children’s Human Figure Drawings

The line between anxiety and norm regarding children’s drawings is based on
the different factors examined in human figure drawings. Thus, when making
hypotheses about children's human figure drawings, there are three areas to
consider: the developmental level; talent for drawing; and common interpretations
of elements in a drawing. The drawings described for each developmental level are
examples of what children who are at par with what is expected of their peers
would draw. It is good to note though that the developmental levels may overlap
with regard to age range and that children tend to fluctuate between the stages
(Malchiodi, 1998).

All children go through a pre-conventional stage where their drawings are

simple and expressive, although artistically gifted children use fewer simple shapes
and more fluid contours. After age six, all children move to a conventional drawing
style. Most children do not advance beyond this stage; however, artistically
talented children, continue to improve their drawing quality, usually achieving a
unique style by the early adolescence stage (Thomas & Silk, 1990).

Several researchers have suggested interpretations associated with particular

body parts. In general, children typically over- or under-emphasize a body part that
is of concern to them. Drawings indicate that a body part has significance for the
child if it is overemphasized through enlargement, more detail, or the use of heavy
lines, or if it is underemphasized by a reduction in size, little detail, or the use of
faint lines (Machover, 1949).

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 A list of emotional indicators was developed for the analysis of human figure
drawings (as seen in the unpublished work of Costa, 2002). A series of studies were
conducted showing that these indicators differentiated between normal children,
and on the other hand, emotionally disturbed, organically impaired, learning
disable children and even children referred because of behavioral reasons
(Koppitz, 1966).

Emotional indicators are specific details omitted, exaggerated, or included in a

human figure drawing that vary from the drawings of those considered normal
individuals. These emotional indicators rarely occur in the drawings of well-
adjusted individuals. While this system for analyzing human figure drawings
centers on the presence or absence of these emotional indicators, they are not
scores, but rather signs that may indicate underlying attitudes and characteristics
of the drawer (Koppitz, 1968).

However, the mere presence of a single emotional indicator should not be

construed as clinically significant, simply reflective of a tendency or attitude. For
example, three or more of these indicators present in a drawing, such as big hands,
gross asymmetry of limbs, the absence of a neck, is highly suggestive of emotional
difficulties (Koppitz, 1984).

Individuals who include different emotional indicators in their drawings can

have the same attitude. For example, anxiety may be represented by shading of
the body, as well as by omitting the nose. In the same way, a single emotional
indicator may have different meanings in different situations or when drawn by
different individuals. In summary, the true meaning of a given emotional indicator
can only be determined in the context of the Human Figure Drawing as a whole, in
addition to other personality assessment information (Koppitz, 1984).

Further validation was later provided by other studies that showed the
effectiveness of these indicators in differentiating the drawings of normal children
from those of disturbed children (Fuller, Preuss & Hawkins, 1970; Van Hutton,
1994).

Gender Differences

A factor in understanding and interpreting children’s drawings would be

gender. It is undeniable that boys and girls are different in many aspects, even in
their manner of drawing. Qualitatively, differences are found when specific traits
are present only in the drawings of one sex or considerably more frequently in the

8
drawings of one sex than in those of the other, without any connection with
development (Mortensen, 1991).

Masculine and feminine features in human figure drawings bear significance,

and as such, studies and theories have centered on the qualitative differences
characterizing the drawings of boys and girls. Contentions hypothesize that a
greater interest in physical activity might be the reason for boys to exaggerate the
size of feet and the length or arms and legs. Appropriate proportions of the feet
and well-defined heels were evident in the drawings of boys. As cited in the
unpublished work of Batongbacal (2000), this may suggest a security in one’s
footing, a sense of balance, growth and accomplishment, and an overall good level
of adjustment in life (Machover, 1960). Legs are also drawn at a distinct angle. In
general, boys were also found to show a better sense of proportion than girls
(Goodenough 1926; Mortensen, 1991; Harris, 1963). Similar findings were observed
in other studies. Boys surpassed girls in depiction of proportion, perspective, and
sense of form. Furthermore, boys showed more imagination, humor, and
originality, while girls were often better at drawing details (Burt 1921, as cited in
Mortensen, 1991).

Boys also often show figures in action. The encouragement to participate in

physical activities may draw attention for boys to body movements and to limbs
and knees (Koppitz, 1968; Goodenough 1926; Mortensen, 1991). Movements and
action in drawings may connote a willingness to work through problems (Urban,
1967). The tendency to draw figures in activity might lead to the change from full-
face drawings to profile drawings, which happens more often in boys
(Goodenough 1926; Mortensen, 1991). This difference in perspective may point to
a degree of evasiveness, turning away from others, defensiveness, and striving
toward independence (Batongbacal, 2000; Koppitz, 1968; Machover 1960).
Furthermore, boys are expected to be more independent and outgoing. Thus, their
frequent profile drawings are associated with turning away from others and
striving toward independence.

Because of shorter hair, ears are likewise more conspicuous and may therefore
appear more in boys’ drawings (Koppitz, 1968). Boys also depict the nose in two
dimensions, depicting the nose bridge and nostrils. Batongbacal (2000) contended
that the nose is considerably a sexual symbol (Harris, 1963).

On the other hand, girls were found to often exaggerate the size of the head
and trunk and particularly the eyes. On the whole, girls excelled in a number of
details in their drawings (Goodenough 1926; Mortensen, 1991). An emphasized
head is indicative of strong intellectual strivings. Sometimes, it may signal
aggressive and expansive tendencies or an inflated ego, dependency, display and

9
social communication. Others even believe that this may indicate anxiety,
repressions and inhibitions. In addition, emphasized eyes may be a sign of hostility
and aggression. In girls, it may as well indicate exhibitionistic trends. As
Batongbacal (2000) reiterates, suspiciousness, ideas of reference or other
paranoid characteristics may also be embedded in emphasized eyes (Urban 1967;
Machover, 1951; Ogdon et. al., 1967; Hammer, 1958).

Girls often drew in detail most facial features, hair and hair styling (Harris, 1963).
This may indicate excessive sexuality, and an imminent possibility of moving into
delinquent sexuality (Urban, 1967; Machover 1951). Often depicted in their
drawings are jewelry, neckline and a flare to skirts, such that the clothes generally
look like costumes (Harris, 1963). These generally point to a concern of social
acceptance and an imitation of mother figures that are seen interested in clothes
and makeup (Koppitz, 1966). Furthermore, the use of elaborate clothing and
accessories show a relative weakness through cosmetization and display. Flowers
and designs may also represent sexual preoccupation in the child (Machover,
1960).

Bodily contours are also ascribed to girls, with the addition of secondary sex
characteristics such as breasts, hips, and calves of the leg (Harris, 1963). These
indicate a strong identification with production and a dominant mother figure.
Dependency, sexuality may also be related concepts, such that belts represent the
navel (Machover, 1951; Urban, 1967). With regard to aggression, girls are seen as
subtle and covert, such that drawings of persons result to mittened or compressed
finger arrangements or left fingers missing altogether (Machover, 1951).

Other feminine traits include hair, pupils, eyebrows, both lips, and clothing.
These features reflect attitudes in children that have been learned unconsciously
in early life from the social and cultural environment they live in. The value that
culture places feminine attire and beauty will tend to strengthen girls’ interests in
wishes to imitate mothers whom they see interested in clothes and makeup
(Koppitz, 1968).

These differences cited are attributed to a cultural factor embedded in gender.

It is hypothesized that girls show more perseverance, are more docile and careful
about details (Goodenough 1926; Mortensen 1991). This connotation makes girls
greater practice for drawing and other finely coordinated work, creating greater
interest in and attention to people in clothing. In addition, girls exceed boys in
social interests and skills and very possibly in certain intellectual abilities (Harris,
1963). Generally, most conflicts regarding these concepts are found in boys’
drawings more than in those of girls (Machover 1953, 1960).

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 On the contrary, it was found that girls lack the ability to organize perceived
details into wholes-a form of synthesizing considered easier for males. This ability
to incorporate spatial relationships in drawings allowed boys to surpass girls in
nearly all aspects of drawings. It was only in decorations that girls surpassed boys,
giving off a sense of rhythm (Kerschensteiner, as cited in Mortensen, 1991).

In human figure drawings, boys tended to direct attention away from the
human figure itself and toward objects or persons in the environment. If carried
out to the extreme, boys’ drawings indicated the lack of contact with feelings, in
abstraction, and lack of interest in other human beings. Meanwhile, this tendency
in females would suggest narcissism and over concern with the body or in
hysterical symptoms (Mortensen, 1991).

A more elaborate explanation of patterns found in children’s drawings is

dependent on the differences in present models for boys and girls. Boys have
soldiers, cowboys, spacemen and gangsters as male figures to look up to. Despite
their future role, where dominance, competitiveness, and aggression are expected
and rewarded, obedience and compliance are valued at an early age. Thus, boys’
main childhood conflict is mastering aggression. For girls, the opposite is
observed. Passivity, docility and dependency are rewarded, while powers to
achieve and create are held back from them. Thus, an implied task for girls
becomes the mastery of sexual feelings and impulses which are repressed by a
sense of obedience and learning to put aside their own desires and wishes
(Machover, 1951; Mortensen, 1991).

Child Abuse

According to the Republic Act 7610 in the Philippine Constitution, a child refers
to a person below eighteen (18) years of age or those over but is unable to fully
take care of themselves or protect themselves. Child abuse refers to the
maltreatment, whether habitual or not, of the child which includes psychological
and physical abuse, neglect, cruelty, sexual abuse and emotional maltreatment or
any act by deeds or words which debases, degrades or demeans the intrinsic worth
and dignity of a child as a human being. This includes the unreasonable deprivation
of his basic needs for survival, such as food and shelter as well as failure to
immediately give medical treatment to an injured child resulting in serious
impairment of his growth and development or in his permanent incapacity or
death.

As noted in the unpublished work of Garcia (2009), studies of physically abused

and neglected children show that physically abused children are particularly

11
avoidant (Crittenden & Ainsworth, 1989). Most neglected children are classified as
anxious and ambivalent (Youngblade & Belsky, 1990). Children, who have been
neglected, rejected or abused or those who have not experienced love and
cooperation learn to be inferior because they are told and shown everyday that
they are of no value. They learn selfishness because they are taught to trust no one
and feel suspicious of and isolated from others (Adler, 1968). Physically abused
children are described as more aggressive. Their interaction with peers is
characterized by more verbal and physical aggression. They are less compliant and
more impulsive than neglected children, with acting-out behavior and lack of
empathy (Wodarski et al., 1990).

Abused and maltreated children tend to develop brains that are attuned to
dangers. At the slightest threat, the children will anxiously look for any signals that
indicate further abusive attacks. These early experiences of stress form templates
in the brains in which the fear responses become fixed. The brain becomes
organized just for the purpose of survival. The results are that the child victims are
constantly in states of high alert that could assist them to avoid further
maltreatment but costly to their optimal development. These children are at great
risk for not only learning but also emotional, behavioral, and physical difficulties
(Herman, 1992; Terr, 1990).

Many children who suffered sexual abuse have experiences of pain, shame,
fear, and confusion. Sexual abuse impairs children’s ability to understand emotions
and regulate them. They may manifest post-traumatic symptoms such as
hypervigilance, intrusive thoughts, feelings of helplessness, and flashbacks of
traumatic experiences (Kendall-Tacket, 2002). Thus, they tend to manifest
emotional outbursts, low levels of emotional awareness, and an emotionally
disengaged stature. Dissociation occurs more evidently as a defense mechanism,
as they tend to feel disconnected from their bodies to avoid being overwhelmed
by the traumatic experience (Wickham & West, 2002). As such, social interaction
and undergoing dealings that require a relatively more intimate relationship and
somehow relive their experiences are very difficult for sexually abused children
(Howe, 2005).

Some people, such as abused or neglected as children, suffer from neuroses,

which are attempts to make life bearable, as a way of interpersonal control and
coping. Ten particular patterns of neurotic needs were discerned and summarized
in three broad coping strategies. The first is Compliance (also called the Moving-
Toward Strategy or the Self-effacing Solution), which encompasses the neurotic
need for affection and approval, the indiscriminate need to please and be liked by
others; the neurotic need for a partner, someone who will take over one's life; and
the neurotic need to restrict one's life to narrow borders. Second is Aggression

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(also called the Moving-Against Strategy or the Expansive Solution), which includes
the neurotic need for power or control over others; the neurotic need to exploit
others and get the better of them; the neurotic need for social recognition or
prestige; the neurotic need for personal admiration; and the neurotic need for
personal achievement. The third broad category is Withdrawal (also known as the
Moving-Away-From or the Resigning Solution), which involves the neurotic need
for self-sufficiency and independence; and the neurotic need for perfection and
unassailability (Horney, as cited in Boeree, 1997).

The use of human figure drawings successfully allows unconscious motivations

to present themselves in safe ways for client processing. Consequently, belief in
unconscious motivations is vital to the administering and interpreting of human
figure drawings (Miller & Veltkamp, 1989). When administered and analyzed,
differences between the artwork of abused and nonabused children were found
(Hjorth & Harway, 1981). The finding of such distinctions indicates that human
figure drawings have the potential to provide helpful information in assessing the
functioning of a child (Goodenough, 1926). Specifically, projective drawing
techniques allow for the evaluation of relationships and interactions in the child’s
life (Koppitz, 1968). Ethically speaking, when evaluating such clientele, only
clinicians carefully trained and knowledgeable in analysis should interpret
projective drawings (Miller & Veltkamp, 1989).

The use of projective drawing techniques is supported by results from various

studies. Another study grouped selected children into the following three groups:
those who reported being abused, those having no history of reported abuse, and
the normative sample consisting of children selected at random, without regard to
abuse history. After analyzing the illustrations, results indicated that the scores of
abused children differ significantly from those of children in the nonabused and
normative categories. Abused children depicted the size of legs and/or arms as
disproportional when compared with those drawn by nonabused children. They
tended to omit feet from human figures and to depict the size of a figure’s head
disproportionately in relation to the remainder of the figure; whereas nonabused
children did not. Additionally, the abused children who were evaluated composed
the human body of a series of geometric figures such as triangles, squares and
short lines. These are suggestive of cognitive delays and limitations (Blain et. al.,
1981).

A study done on body image of physically abused and normal adolescents,

human figure drawings of the two groups differed significantly in six of eight
hypothesized aspects: erasure, clothing, detail, fingers, symmetry, and arm
position. Size and environment did not differentiate significantly between the two
groups of adolescents. The drawings of physically abused adolescents were

13
characterized by less erasure, absence of clothing, fingers and detail. Their
drawings were also less symmetrical and sometimes displayed rigid horizontal
position of the arms. In comparison, the drawings of the normal adolescents
contained more erasure and presence of the items absent in the drawings of
physically abused adolescents. These findings are supportive of clinical
descriptions of abused adolescents as having poor interpersonal relationships,
introversive tendencies, insecurity, anxiety, poor body image, poor adjustment,
poor self-concept, and sex-role confusion (Hjorth & Harway, 1981).

A study found that abused children’s figures to be less symmetrical than those
of children who had not encountered abuse. When comparing drawings of
sexually abused and non-abused children, it was found that sexually abused
children were more likely to draw sexually explicit features than those who were
not abused. Anxiety was also evident in the drawings of sexually abused children
more than non-abused children. This may be indicative of distress or uneasiness of
mind regarding the body, actions, or future events, or as troubled, unsettled,
worried or as a prolonged state of apprehension (Hibbard et al., 1980). Sexual
themes appear to inundate the artwork of sexually traumatized children (Hjorth &
Harway, 1981).

When 120 drawings of sexually abused children were analyzed, 40% placed
added emphasis on the pelvic region and 20% portrayed defined genitalia (Kelley,
1984). Human figure drawings of children ages 5–12 who had not encountered
sexual abuse included genitalia rarely, with less than a 1% prevalence of defined
genitalia (Koppitz, 1968). When additionally prevalent manifestations in figure
drawings were investigated, abused children were more likely to draw the legs of
a figure pressed together, possibly indicating an attempt to control sexual desires
or to prohibit sexual attack from others (Koppitz, 1968). An awareness of
anatomical concepts and figures, which is considered to be beyond a child’s age-
expected knowledge, may be evident through emphasized genital or breast areas,
or the depiction of sexual contact between figure drawings. When determining
what falls within an acceptable range of sexual knowledge, one must take into
account both socialization and developmental norms (Miller et al., 1987).
Emotionally speaking, drawings from children who were sexually abused depict
significantly more anxiety than do drawings of non-abused children (Hibbard and
Harman, 1990).

Another study on human figure drawings reported that when sexually abused
children were evaluated, each child focused on genitalia in his or her drawings
(Sturner & Rothbaum, 1980). Sexual anatomy in these drawings was often
depicted in great detail (Thomas, 1980). Drawings done by children who were
victims of incest tended to minimize or exaggerate features of a sexual nature

14
(Yates, Beutler, & Crago, 1985). Sexually abused children, as an umbrella
categorization, have been found to draw perpetrators with obvious phallic
symbols (Goodwin, 1982), while young children with experiences of sexual abuse
often depicted anatomically correct male genitalia (Hagood, 1992).

In a comparative study, sexually abused children were significantly more likely

to draw explicit sexual features on their drawings of persons (Hibbard, Roghman
& Hoekelman, 1980). These results suggested that the drawings of genitalia by
children should alert clinicians to explore the possibility of sexual abuse because
drawing explicit sexual features may reflect not only sexual knowledge beyond
expected age-appropriate levels, but also preoccupation with sexually explicit
material (Van Hutton, 1994).

In a study on child victims of incest, there is a tendency to either exaggerate or

to minimize sexual features in their drawings. Conclusions point to poor impulse
control and greater defensive structure that emphasizes regression, which is a
defensive mechanism characterized as moving back or returning to earlier stages
of development or previously satisfying situations (Yates, Beutler & Crago, 1985).
Furthermore, there are suggested specific indicators in drawings of abused
children. These indicators include signs of tension, hostility and aggression, and
signs of withdrawal (Schornstein & Derr, 1978).

Emotional signs of distress were also found in Human Figure Drawings

gathered from street children in a study done in Columbia. These children were
subjected to live on the streets, exposed to violence due to neglect and being
abandoned by their biological parents. Although testing conditions were found to
be the main source of emotional indicators, anxiety was likely found in most
drawings. The children mostly drew pictures of masculine, aggressive males as the
result of their self-perceived relationships to guerillas. Accordingly, the street
children’s drawings have two to three emotional indicators, which are indicative of
emotional problems and unsatisfactory interpersonal relationships (Aptekar,
1989).

In the Philippines, children’s drawings reflect valuable data regarding human

figure drawings as an assessment tool. Just looking at the drawings of abused
children, practitioners get a feel of the sexually abused victims’ sense of
powerlessness and the feeling of their being broken and damaged, coupled with
helpless stances. These two are main traumatic effects of sexual abuse.
Furthermore, poor quality of the drawings was observed, which could reflect their
undeveloped mental abilities and constricting effect of the recent trauma they
have experienced. A glimpse of their resilience is seen in the drawings (Carandang,
1996).

15
 Statement of the Problem

The study focuses on the analysis of interpretive aspects of human figure

drawings obtained from abused children through the use of the Draw A Person
(DAP) test. It also aims to identify common themes of interpretations based on
gender and type of abuse. Specifically, the study seeks to answer the following
problems:

1. What are the common interpretive aspects of human figure drawings of

children with experience of abuse?

2. How do these interpretive aspects of the human figure drawings differ

according to gender?

3. How do these interpretive aspects of the human figure drawings differ

according to the type of abuse experienced?

II. METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Research Design and Methodology

The study is qualitative in nature, since the aim is to discover significant themes
and aspects in the interpretations of children’s drawings. The focus is on
confirming the possibility that the Draw A Person (DAP) test helps to detect child
abuse. Moreover, this comparative study categorizes the difference of emotional
aspects according to gender and according to variability due to the effects of abuse
expressed in children’s drawings.

Population and Locale of the Study

A total of 175 cases with projective drawing tests, specifically the Draw A Person
Test, were included in this study. The number of cases per gender and type of
abuse are presented in the table below.

16
 Type of Abuse
Gender Total
Neglect and
Sexual Abuse Physical Abuse
Abandonment
Male 17 32 33 82
Female 65 12 16 93
Total 82 44 49 175

Table 1. Distribution of cases per gender and type of abuse.

These cases were referred to the Saint Louis University-Sunflower Children’s

Center/Child and Youth Wellness Center in Baguio City and Sunflower on the Hill at
Bukal ng Tipan, Maryhill Mission Center, Taytay, Rizal, due to incidences of any form
of abuse from the year 2001 until September 2013.

Significant interpretations of human figure drawings on which this study was

based were created by child clients from ages four (4) to eighteen (18). The
distribution of number of cases per age is displayed in the table below.

Type of Abuse
Age Total
Neglect and
Sexual Abuse Physical Abuse
Abandonment
4 2 1 2 5
5 4 1 2 7
6 5 2 2 9
7 5 1 3 9
8 4 1 2 7
9 6 4 2 12
10 5 4 3 12
11 8 4 3 15
12 8 5 5 18
13 9 3 5 17
14 15 5 7 25
15 5 3 5 13
16 3 5 4 12
17 3 3 2 8
18 2 2 2 6
Total 82 44 49 175

Table 2. Distribution of number of cases per age and type of abuse.

Referral information and case background as stated in the individual

psychological reports provide the different demographic data (educational status,

17
status of perpetrators of abuse, and living status) on the 175 cases in Table 3.

Attending Formal Not attending Formal

Educational Status School School
136 39
Relatives/Family Neighbors, Strangers, Non-
Status of Perpetrators Members Family Members
Of Abuse
146 29
Living in Living with Parents/Legal
Living Status Institutions Guardians
96 79

Table 3. Status of Children

All cases were referred by parents, guardians or caregivers who recognized the
children’s need for psychological evaluation and assistance. Some of these cases
were referred by principals, teachers, counselors, pediatricians, neurologists,
psychiatrists, and other helping professionals. Most cases were referred by
institutions and agencies serving Children in Need of Special Protection or CNSPs
(SLU-Sunflower Children’s Center/Child and Youth Wellness Center – Manual of
Operating Procedures and Guidelines, 2013).

Data Gathering Tool

Only one type of drawing was asked from the participants - that of a human
figure, which was obtained via the Draw A Person test. The participants of the
study were given a sheet of paper and a pencil, with the instruction “Draw a
Person”. They were given all the time they needed to accomplish their drawings.
The drawings were interpreted by the children’s respective therapists using
existing criteria and procedures on drawing interpretation. Data for this study,
hence, came from the individual psychological reports that contained the formal
presentations of interpretations of the children’s human figure drawings.

A list of possible interpretations presented in Appendices A (as cited in Costa,

2002) and B (as cited in Batongbacal, 2000) was utilized by the child therapists to
interpret the different human figure drawings. These were based on the works of
several authors, clinicians and researchers who have attained considerable
experience in administering and interpreting children’s drawings (Goodenough,
Buck, Machover, Hammer, Harris, Ogdon, Urban, Koppitz, Di Leo, Mortensen, and
Jolles).

The psychological reports are made up of four main parts. The first is the Case

18
Background, which includes a chronological statement of life events, concerns, and
questions relevant to the referral of the child. It is followed by the second part, the
Diagnostic Evaluation, which is divided into the Psychometric Assessment and the
Therapeutic Assessment. The Psychometric Assessment section presents the
results of the child clients’ psychological tests, while the Therapeutic Assessment
gives the interpretations based on behaviors of the child client gathered in intake
interview, home visit, general perceptions of the therapists, and intuitions. The
third part is the Summary and Conclusions, which integrates the psychometric and
therapeutic assessments. It is in this section that the interpretations of human
figure drawings relevant to the child clients’ cases are indicated. Questions
identified in the previous parts are answered here. The last part of the
psychological report is the Recommendations section, which lists possible
suggestions, which would benefit the child client, parents, caregivers, and other
professionals dealing with the case (SLU-Sunflower Children’s Center/Child and
Youth Wellness Center – Manual of Operating Procedures and Guidelines, 2013).

Data Gathering Procedure

To obtain the necessary data, a letter of intent was given to the Director of the
Saint Louis University-Sunflower Children’s Center, to request access to the
psychological reports of at least sixty (60) cases of child abuse. Once given
permission to handle the individual psychological reports of children with
experiences of abuse, consent was obtained from the parents and guardians of the
participants.

An initial survey of individual psychological reports was done, revealing

inadequate available data up until March 2013. The researcher and other members
of the staff of Saint Louis University-Sunflower Children’s Center and Sunflower on
the Hill administered the Draw A Person Test to additional clients undergoing the
therapeutic process. Sixteen (16) cases from March 2013 to September 2013 were,
thus, included in the study.

Documentary analysis was done on the individual psychological reports of the

child abuse cases included in the study. The researcher identified the common
interpretive aspects and later factored in gender and type of abuse experienced.

Confidentiality was considered, as all data were handled exclusively within the
Saint Louis University-Sunflower Children’s Center/Child and Youth Wellness
Center and Sunflower on the Hill. Most of the drawings of human figures were
involved in legal cases and court hearings; thus, only their interpretations were
used in the study.

19
 Treatment of Data

The interpretations of the human figure drawings gathered from the 175
individual psychological reports of the cases included in the study were analyzed
using the thematic approach. Once the reports revealed significant interpretations
from the child clients’ human figure drawings, these were sorted and grouped
according to emergent themes and aspects. These themes and aspects were
identified by the researcher from the analysis of the interpretations of human
figure drawings embedded in the individual psychological reports.

Once the themes and aspects were identified, they were analyzed with respect
to gender. Boys’ drawings were grouped together, and the same was done for
girls’ drawings. Significant themes and aspects were likewise grouped using type
of abuse, specifically physical abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect/abandonment.
Based on the analyses, a simplified list of common aspects and possible
interpretations pertinent to child abuse was made.

Note on SLU-Sunflower Children’s Center and Sunflower on the Hill

The Saint Louis University-Sunflower Children’s Center/Child and Youth

Wellness Center in Baguio City and Sunflower on the Hill at Taytay, Rizal offer
psychotherapeutic intervention and psychological assessment as primary services.
The entire therapeutic process is clinical and diagnostic in nature and findings as
well as recommendations are contained in a psychological report. Furthermore,
there is an emphasis on helping parents and caregivers in coping with difficulties in
dealing with their children who are in need of special attention (SLU-Sunflower
Children’s Center/Child and Youth Wellness Center – Manual of Operating
Procedures and Guidelines, 2013).
Child therapists whether regular staff or volunteer, are graduates of
Psychology and are holders or candidates for a degree in the graduate program of
Psychology. They have also finished a year’s worth of training on Clinical
Interventions and Psychotherapy for Children. They are under the supervision of
the Director of Saint Louis University-Sunflower Children’s Center, who cliniques,
supervises and reviews psychological reports, which includes the interpretations
of Projective tests, particularly human figure drawings (SLU-Sunflower Children’s
Center/Child and Youth Wellness Center – Manual of Operating Procedures and
Guidelines, 2013).
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
20
Common Interpretive Aspects

After analyzing and grouping together the interpretations incorporated in the

individual psychological reports, ten common interpretive aspects were identified:
Self and Bodily Uncertainty, Cognitive Limitation, Social Inhibition, Sexual
Preoccupation, Anxiety, Aggression, Restriction, Guilt, Suspicion, and Resilience.

From the interpretations of human figure drawings of children with

experiences of abuse, the most prominent aspect was that of the self, involving
projected feelings of insecurity, inadequacy, and uncertainty. Featured in the
human figure drawings of children with experiences of abuse were aspects
pertaining to anxiety and fear of impending danger, being an effect of the
traumatizing experience of having been abused. The sexual aspects, including
sexual preoccupation, excessive sexuality, and possible exposure to sexual
content, have likewise presented themselves in their drawings as outright
representations of genitalia to numerous accessories, nude figures and emphasis
on clothing and accessories. Inadequate self-monitoring skills and regulation of
emotions were also seen in the aggressive aspects incorporated in their drawings.
The concerns of control and freeing the self from restrictive and abusive
environments were similarly projected in their human figure drawings,
accompanied by aspects of rigidity and control. An overall sense of helplessness
was found in their human figure drawings. Guilt and suspicion aspects also
inundated the works of these children, as post-traumatic symptoms of children
with experience of abuse.

Cognitive aspects included delays and limitations in the manners of thinking

and performing tasks of an intellectual nature of children with experience of abuse.
Simultaneously, strong desires for ambition and acquisition were noted in their
drawings, in response to possessing deficiencies in this area. With regard to the
social aspects, withdrawal, inhibition and difficulties related to interacting with
others were noted in their drawings. On the other hand, there were also signs of
trying to establish positive relations and maintaining open lines of communication
with peers and other individuals in the environment.

The positive findings reflected in the different aspects seem to represent

another significant aspect-that of resilience. Strong desires to cope with
intellectual, emotional, social, and sexual concerns were found in the drawings of
children with experience of abuse. Optimism and the need to possess power,
whether through physical strength or overcoming abusive structures in the
environment were likewise seen in their drawings of human figures.

21
 These ten themes or aspects were consolidated under two broad themes:
Helplessness, which encompasses the first nine aspects (Self and Bodily
Uncertainty, Cognitive Limitation, Social Inhibition, Sexual Preoccupation, Anxiety,
Aggression, Restriction, Guilt, and Suspicion) and Resilience, which was retained
from the original ten.

I. Helplessness

Limitations, delays, and poor skills in the different aspects were inferred
from the different human figure drawings interpretations, representing the
current states of children with experiences of abuse. These are evident under five
aspects or themes. Self and Bodily Uncertainty, Cognitive Limitation, Social
Inhibition, and Sexual Preoccupation were retained; whereas, Anxiety, Aggression,
Restriction, Guilt, and Suspicion were synthesized under Poor Affect Regulation.

A. Self and Bodily Uncertainty

In almost all cases analyzed, interpretive aspects related to the self proved to
be the most prominent. Children with experiences of abuse projected feelings of
insecurity in their drawings of human figures. Inadequacy and a low perception of
the self accompanied a general sense of uncertainty and self-doubt. This result was
displayed by human figure drawings that were stick-like in nature (Urban, 1967).

There were also signs of uncertainty about the body, as shown by shadings on
the trunk and transparencies in the drawings of human figures (Koppitz, 1968).
These uncertainties, in turn, led to much worry, feelings of not being accepted, and
a sense of immaturity in their drawings of human figures. Big figures,
transparencies, and the absence of the neck were indicators of these (Koppitz,
1966).

With low self-esteem, children with experiences of abuse depicted human

figure drawings with much feelings of inferiority. Such depictions were suggested
by relatively more tiny human figures and reinforced lines (Urban, 1967; Ogdon et.
al, 1967).
These perceptions about the self projected in the human figure drawings were
likely to be attributed to being deprived of sufficient nourishment and loving care,
as brought about by neglect and abuse (Horney, as cited in Boeree, 1997).

22
 B. Cognitive Limitations

Delays and limitations in cognitive ability were noted in the human figure
drawings of children with experiences of abuse. Overall, their drawings depicted a
sense of cognitive ability very much likened to what is expected of children who
are younger and below their current age. This sense of cognitive immaturity was
indicated by poorly coordinated drawings, which lack in detail and are hazy,
disproportionate, and disorganized. Similarly, asymmetry, distortion, and
exaggeration of specific parts of the human figure drawings denoted limitations in
cognitive ability. These problems in relationship of parts include a disproportioned
head and body, as well as elongated limbs (Koppitz, 1966; Urban, 1967; Machover,
1951, 1960). Some details such as the nose, eyes, mouth, ears, and neck were
omitted in cases where these items indicating a more complete conceptualization
of a human person would have been expected. These were often expected of
human figures drawings of children with experiences of abuse (Blain et. al., 1981).

Uncertainties about intellectual capacity and achieving success were also

identified. These uncertainties in intellectual capacity were portrayed by tiny heads
in drawn on human figures (Koppitz, 1966; Urban, 1967; Machover, 1951, 1960).
Much of the drawings of children with experiences of abuse suggested a lack of
achievement. This is implied by drawings with absent bodies (Koppitz, 1966;
Ogdon et. al, 1967).

Children with experiences of child abuse, through their drawings of human

figures, likewise projected difficulties in coming up with complete perceptions of
the environment and expressing themselves in symbolic-graphic and illustrative
manner. The poor quality of the drawings was observed, which reflect their
undeveloped mental abilities and constricting effect of the recent trauma they
have experienced (Carandang, 1996).

These results are validated by other studies that found that the minds of abused
and maltreated children become organized just for the purpose of survival. Hence,
constant states of high alertness assist them to avoid further maltreatment but are
detrimental to intellectual development (Herman, 1992; Terr, 1990).

C. Social Inhibition

Another significant interpretive aspect found in the drawings of children with

experiences of abuse was social inhibition. This was manifested in a reluctance to
reach out to others, coupled with feelings of social inadequacy. As indicated by
stiffness and rigidity in body posture as well as omissions or glanced presentation

23
of the eyes, there were possible concerns in the social area. Children with
experiences of abuse projected setting up barriers against socialization and having
limited peer relationships. These were related to a general sense of social
inadequacy and certain fear relating to others, especially to the opposite gender.
These concerns include difficulties in social interaction, social anxiety, and a strong
tendency to avoid social contacts (Koppitz, 1968; Batongbacal, 2000).

The children with experiences of abuse assumed a defensive and detached

attitude toward others in their human figure drawings, which further suggests
evasion and unwillingness to deal with other individuals. Their drawings likewise
exhibited a stubborn attitude, as characterized by refusal to listen to criticism,
denying concerns about others’ opinions, and adopting a stifling manner of
handling and maintaining relationships with other individuals. Tiny figures
characterized by broken or sketch lines would imply such results (Urban, 1967;
Ogdon et. al, 1967). Moreover, the needs to control social interaction and maintain
limited social relationships were found. Clinging arms would suggest such
limitations in social interaction (Koppitz, 1968).

There were also strong needs for firm foundation, support, much approval
from loved ones and re-affirmation from others. These were indicated by human
figure drawings with feet that were too big (Urban, 1967; Machover, 1951, 1960;
Ogdon et. al, 1967).

Of significance were aspects rooted in evasion and withdrawal in the drawings

of human figures of children with experiences of abuse. Tendencies to turn inward
and withdraw from the environment were depicted in the drawings. There were
signs of apprehension and unwillingness to deal with situations that existed
alongside the desire for privacy and tendencies to be shy and reserved. This
defense mechanism was mostly related to shame. Tiny figures and broken or
sketch lines are indicative of these tendencies to withdraw and turn inward (Urban,
1967; Koppitz, 1968; Machover, 1951, 1960).

The effects of experiencing abuse have, to a great extent, situated maltreated

children to a level of suspicion, distrust, and ultimately, avoidance of other people.
This leads to heightened social weaknesses (Adler, 1968; Crittenden & Ainsworth,
1989).

D. Sexual Preoccupation

Weighing in as a significant interpretive aspect in the human figure drawings of

children with experiences of abuse was sexual preoccupation. Items such as big

24
hands, elaborate clothes, emphasized waist, and hands near the genitalia often
depicted such an aspect, especially for cases of sexual abuse. These reflect overt
sexual interest and excessive sexuality (Buck, 1948; Di Leo, 1973; Hammer, 1958;
Ogdon et. al, 1967; Koppitz, 1968; Batongbacal, 2000).

Female figures with long and dark hair with reinforced lines around them, which
have clothing filled with accessories reflected excessive sexuality. There were also
human figure drawings, which imply overly conscious and emphasized interest in
sexual content, manifested by completely naked drawings and persons clad in only
underwear. Due to past experiences of abuse, some symbols and objects recurred
in most human figure drawings, such as a flower or flower-like figure, which may
be perceived as a substitute for female genitalia, as well as the drawing of a penis
or male genitalia, accompanied by outright verbalizations by the child with
experience of abuse. Exaggerated features, which directly signify concerns with
overly sexualized content were indicated by items like detailed hair and
emphasized crotch area. All in all, these items and figures relate to sexual concerns
as brought about by experiences of abuse (Buck, 1948; Di Leo, 1973; Hammer, 1958;
Ogdon et. al, 1967; Koppitz, 1968; Batongbacal, 2000).

The need to control sexual impulses and concern about sexuality were likewise
identified in the human figure drawings of children with experiences of abuse.
Legs pressed together, omitted lower half of the body, and special attention to the
midbody area suggested these concerns for sexual control (Koppitz, 1968; Urban,
1967; Ogdon et. al, 1967).

To differentiate from typical sexual preoccupation during psychosexual

development (Freud, as cited in Costa, 2002), these results related to sexual
content are most similar to drawings that warrant the need for clinicians to explore
the possibility of sexual abuse. These may reflect only sexual knowledge beyond
expected age-appropriate levels, as an effect of early stimulation of sexual
impulses during perpetrated sexual abuse (Van Hutton, 1994).

E. Poor Affect Regulation

Problems with handling emotions were noted from the human figure drawings
of children with experiences of abuse. Ambiguities in feelings, poor impulse
control, poor self-monitoring skills, anger and hostility concerns, helplessness, self-
blame, hypervigilance, and certain inflexibility are manifestations of such
difficulties.

Anxiety proved to be a prominent interpretive aspect as it was seen in the cases

25
included in the study. In the drawings of children with experiences of abuse, there
appeared to be feelings of restlessness, inner struggle, and fear of impending
danger. A generalized sense of anxiety was suggested by heavy strokes and
repeatedly shaded lines, as observed in the drawings of children with experiences
of abuse (Koppitz, 1968). There was a sense of concern about losing something or
being abandoned, accompanied by anxiousness about capabilities, and underlying
emotions. This sense of losing or inability to maintain permanency was noted in
most children with experiences of abuse (Youngblade & Belsky, 1990; Hjorth &
Harway, 1981; Crittenden & Ainsworth, 1989).

In the human figure drawings of children with experiences of abuse,

helplessness and problems related to gaining freedom from threats were
projected. Exaggerated size of the feet and omitted feet are strong indicators of
such (Buck, 1948; Urban, 1967; Machover, 1951, 1960; Ogdon et. al, 1967). There are
also feelings of pressure from others’ expectations and the outside environment,
which coincide with signs of loss of power. There was also a tendency to inhibit
emotions and hold back when expressing feelings is required. Long and thin necks
are indicative of these (Buck, 1948; Ogdon et. al, 1967; Urban, 1967). Helplessness,
feelings of melancholy, a sense of being alone, and loss of power were identified.
A difficulty in coping with sadness was also identified. These difficulties also had
the concept of being trapped and restrained. Human figure drawings with no feet
indicated such feelings of helplessness (Koppitz, 1968). These were signs of
difficulties in coping, which includes having euphoric and grandiose tendencies as
indicated by big drawings (Ogdon et. al, 1967).

Evident signs of aggression were portrayed by the human figure drawings of

children with experience of abuse. Items connoting anger and underlying feelings
of resentment were observed together with signs of hostile impulses, opposition,
and tension. Tendencies for subsequent reactions as displayed by these drawings
of human figures denote inadequate awareness of the link between inner feelings
and overt behaviors and actions. Crossed eyes, talon- or claw-like fingers, and
reinforced lines are indicators of these (Koppitz, 1968; Urban, 1967; Machover,
1951, 1960). Figures depicting hostile feelings and tendencies were persons
carrying helmets and having emphasized necks, fighting stances, closed fists,
spiked hair, and deep-seated eyes. More often, hostility was a manner of
expressing negative feelings directed toward perpetrators and was identified with
aggressive models at home (Machover, 1951; Mortensen, 1991). These are
considered signs of deficits in self-awareness and self-monitoring skills. In some
drawings, a lack of aggressiveness was also surmised. A tendency to rationalize
anger was identified from the drawings of human figures accompanied by the
desire to avoid feelings of aggression. Emphasized nostrils, talon- or claw-like
fingers, broken or sketch lines, short arms and the omission of the nose are signs

26
of this (Buck, 1948; Ogdon et al, 1967; Machover, 1951, 1960; Koppitz, 1968).

Feelings of self-blame and guilt were connoted by the human figures of children
with experiences of abuse. These are rooted in failure to respond to what has
happened in the past or to even act at all in threatening situations. Some signs
indicated guilt due to failure to act correctly, as in cases that involved stealing.
Hidden hands, cut off hands, cut off arms, and shadings on the arms and hands are
indicative signs (Koppitz, 1968; Machover, 1951, 1960; Buck, 1948; Ogdon et. al,
1967).

Due to experiences of abuse, children projected a lot of suspicion and wariness

in their human figure drawings. There were constant feelings of being in a state of
alertness, being overly cautious, and maintaining a high level of alertness as if
something bad might happen. These signs were indicated by emphasized eyes,
glanced eyes, (which seemingly avoid contact with the eyes of another person) and
side-directed gazes (Koppitz, 1968; Hammer, 1958; Machover, 1951, 1960; Urban,
1967; Ogdon et al., 1967). These indicators were identified to be the impact of the
whole process of disclosure of previous experience of abuse, which have
manifested themselves as needs for constant guarding from threats in the
environment. Abused and maltreated children tend to develop brains that are
attuned to dangers. At the slightest threat, the children will anxiously look for any
signals that indicate further abusive attacks; hence, the tendency to be
overcautious of potential threats (Herman, 1992; Terr, 1990).

II. Resilience Aspects

Despite limitations seen in the different aspects, a sense of resilience is seen in

the human figure drawings of children with experiences of abuse. Resilience is the
process of adapting well in the face of adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats or
significant sources of stress. It is bouncing back from difficult experiences, such as
abuse (APA, 2013). Strengths in cognitive ability, socialization, autonomic
functions, etc. were in fact signs of resilience.

Resilience manifests itself as having the capability to face situations and

challenges in the environment and having inner strength instead of easily giving up
when trying to derive solutions to problems faced. Optimism, relating to an ideal
reality, signs of self-assurance, and minimal signs of trauma and aggression were
likewise found in the human figure drawings, similar to those observed from
abused children in the Philippines (Carandang, 1996).

With the feeling of helplessness brought about by abusive experiences,

27
children with experiences of abuse learn to cope by trying hard to regain the order
over what seems to be chaotic in their lives. In this sense, resilience as manifested
by the drawings of human figures signifies emergent needs and strivings of
children with experiences of abuse parallel to the three broad coping strategies
(Horney, as cited in Boeree, 1997).

A. Moving-Toward Strategy

Given that children with experiences of abuse possess inadequacies about the
self as well as to turn inward, attributing having been subjected to the past painful
experiences to their own persons may be likely. Such is comparable to the broad
coping strategy of Compliance (also known as Moving-Toward or Self-effacing
solution), where needs for self-worth, approval and love are included (Horney, as
cited in Boeree, 1997).

A tendency to relate to an ideal reality than past experiences was found. This
portrays a sense of being very optimistic and strong in facing conflict and difficult
experiences. Strivings for self-worth, love and affection were noted from the
human figure drawings of children with experiences of abuse, as indicated by long
arms (Machover, 1951). Results likewise pointed to a tendency to compensate by
trying to exude high self-esteem due to the lack of positive self-concept, self-worth
and security. Large sized figures may indicate such tendencies (Batongbacal,
2000).

Despite manifestations of sexual abuse, children with experiences of abuse

have also projected signs of adequate sexual development. A significant figure
expressing such was a drawing of a little girl with a rounded middle standing beside
a tall boy, pertaining to positive identification with a mother figure. This is
comparable to the results of previous studies, which indicate the likelihood to draw
signs of strong identification with a maternal figure (Harris, 1963; Machover, 1951;
Urban, 1967).

B. Moving-Against Strategy

Aspects related to the need to attain control and social recognition coincide
with the broad coping strategy of Aggression, which is otherwise known as a
Moving-Against strategy. Tendencies to attain power and dominance may be
neurotic attempts to exact order over disarray caused by experiences of abuse
(Horney, as cited in Boeree, 1997).

28
 Children with experiences of abuse also projected in their drawings of human
figures positive signs of social openness and good development in socialization.
There appeared to be signs of willingness to reach out to others, strong feelings of
identification with peers, and feelings of enjoyment when dealing with others,
meeting new people, and being in the company of a group of people. Facial
expressions, emotions, and moods in human figure drawings are connotative of
these (Koppitz, 1968).

There were likewise signs of masculine strivings and strivings for strength and
dominance. Some drawings were furnished with emphasized muscles, big hands,
signaling the value of physical power (Machover, 1951, 1960; Buck, 1948, Di Leo,
1973; Ogdon et. al, 1967).

C. Moving-Away-From Strategy

Due to the constricting effects of abuse, children with experiences of abuse

projected in their drawings desires to emancipate or free themselves from their
threatening environments. Such is comparable to the broad coping strategy of
Withdrawal or Moving-Away-From, which encapsulates the needs for achievement
and self-sufficiency (Horney, as cited in Boeree, 1997).

The human figure drawings of children with experiences of abuse also

suggested strivings toward independence because of overwhelming imposed
restrictions, restricting environments and being enclosed. Legs that are too long
suggest this (Buck, 1948; Hammer, 1958, Urban, 1967).

There were also signs of strong intellectual strivings and needs for
achievement, learning, and accomplishment. Long arms and a large head depicted
in human figures would imply such intellectual needs (Urban, 1967; Machover, 1951,
1960).

Summary

Human figure drawings of children with experiences of abuse depict several

prominent aspects. These aspects are synthesized under two broad themes:
Helplessness and Resilience.

Aspects included under Helplessness represent limitations, delays, and poor

skills in different life areas of children with experiences of abuse represented as
Self and Bodily Uncertainty, Cognitive Limitation, Social Inhibition, and Sexual

29
Preoccupation. Consequences of abusive experiences related to emotions and
feelings such as Anxiety, Aggression, Restriction, Guilt, and Suspicion were fused
under Poor Affect Regulation. These represent the current states of children with
experiences of abuse.

Meanwhile, emergent needs were found to be aspects of Resilience. These

represent strategies similar to those identified by Horney, namely: Compliance
(moving-toward), Aggression (moving against) and Withdrawal (moving away
from) strategies.

Differences in Interpretive Aspects according to Gender

In almost all of the prominent aspects, similarities were found in the

interpretations of human figure drawings of both male and female children with
experience of abuse. Only minimal differences were noted.

I. Helplessness

A. Self and Bodily Uncertainty

Female children with experiences of abuse were more likely to project bodily
uncertainty and concern for outward appearance. This could be related to an
implied task for girls to master sexual feelings and impulses which are repressed
by a sense of obedience and learning to put aside their own desires and wishes
(Machover, 1951; Mortensen, 1991). Hence, pocketed hands may indeed be a form
of hiding atypical social impulses such as stealing and exhibiting aggressive acts.

Meanwhile, small entities were seen more in the drawings of male children with
experiences of abuse. Feelings of not being accepted, instability, insecurity, and
confusions about the self were seen only in the human figure drawings of males
alongside figures floating on undulating or rippling water, which indicate
uncertainty about the self. In general, male children with experience of abuse had
indeed expressed more conflicts regarding the self than females. These
differences in self-related aspects support the contention that generally, most
conflicts regarding these concepts are found in boys’ drawings more than in those
of girls (Machover 1953, 1960).

30
 B. Cognitive Limitations

It was evident that females projected more limitations in cognitive ability, as

manifested by disproportionate drawings, a lack of detail expected of current age,
and omissions of major body parts such as the nose, mouth, ears and neck, that
would have been expected. They gave an impression of distorted thinking as
displayed by elongated limbs and exaggerated body parts. In several studies, boys
were likewise found to show a better sense of proportion (Goodenough 1926;
Mortensen, 1991; Harris, 1963).

Difficulties in the cognitive area for male children with experiences of abuse
were reflected in their inability to express their perception of the environment
through symbolic-graphic or illustrative manner. These differences support the
existence of a cultural factor embedded in gender. The hypothesized contention,
that girls show more perseverance and are more docile and careful about details
(as cited in Goodenough, 1926 and Mortensen, 1991) is hence, validated.

C. Social Inhibition

Results related to the social aspects showed that males were more likely to
project concerns for outward social appearance. Hindrances including anxiety and
fear amplify difficulties in reaching out to others and to the world. This anxiousness
was very much noted in the human figure drawings of males. Defensiveness and
detachment were likewise identified only in their drawings. This degree of
evasiveness, turning away from others, and defensiveness were mostly attributed
to frequent changes in the perspective of drawings (front-facing drawings to
profile drawings) due to movement, as sometimes verbalized by boys
(Batongbacal, 2000; Koppitz, 1968; Machover, 1960).

On the other hand, controlling social interactions, and stiffness in body posture
were features unique to only females. It was in females that evasion and
withdrawal were rooted in the element of shame. A stifling style of maintaining
relationships with the opposite gender was likewise found from their drawings. As
cited in the work of Garcia (2009), abused children are particularly avoidant, as
seen in the human figure drawings (Crittenden & Ainsworth, 1989).

D. Sexual Preoccupation

Female children with experiences of abuse more frequently featured problems

in their drawings of human figures than males. Sexual preoccupation in the form
31
of big hands, nude and semi-nude figures, elaborate clothing, hair, and crotch area,
which indicated excessive sexuality and other symbols pertaining to female
genitalia were more evident in their drawings. For males, emphasis on the
waistline and male genitalia were more evident. As previous studies have
concluded, the items mentioned related to sexual preoccupation and adding
flowers and designs to human figures are indeed, more ascribed to females than
males (Machover, 1951, 1960; Harris, 1963; Urban, 1967).

E. Poor Affect Regulation

Anxiety related to cognitive ability and interacting with the opposite gender
was found in only human figure drawings of males. This result validated
hypotheses, which stated that children, who have been abused or those who have
not experienced love and cooperation learn to be selfish because they are taught
to trust no one (Adler, 1968). For females, anxiety was anchored on possible sexual
attack and being subjected to novel situations with relatively less control and
meeting new people. Given the tendency for girls to embellish their human figure
drawings, these small details may indeed be the line, which differentiates females
from males (Goodenough, 1926; Mortensen, 1991).

For aggression, males, like those concluded by other studies, had more
prominent signs related to symbols and models in the environment (Machover,
1951; Mortensen, 1991). Males were the only ones to create figures of boys carrying
helmets and having emphasized necks and arms, signifying anger projected toward
perpetrators. Deficits in self-monitoring skills and self-awareness, signs of great
desires to avoid aggression, rationalizations about subsequent anger and the
inability to cope with a hostile environment and presence of aggressive models at
home, as seen by drawings with explicit aggressive features were seen more in
males. On the contrary, the lack of aggression was more ascribed only to females
in their human figure drawings. As hypothesized by studies, an implied task for
girls becomes the mastery of impulses (Machover, 1951; Mortensen, 1991). Females
frequently projected euphoric and grandiose tendencies as signs contrary to
resilience. Emphasized eyes may be signs of this tendency (Urban, 1967; Ogdon et.
al, 1967; Machover, 1951).

Aspects of restriction were more evident in human figure drawings of females,

as they frequently produced drawings of human figures that featured rigidity with
regard to possible sexual attack, stubborn attitude, and refusal to listen to
criticism. Due to feelings of helplessness, attempts to control unpleasant
experiences by wanting to hide or wish to forget traumatic experiences were
evident in only females. These findings validated previous hypotheses that pointed

32
to a concern of subtlety and covert dealings, which may be characterized by
attempts to take hold of the outside immediate environment (Machover, 1951). On
the other hand, males were the only ones to project rigidity and control through
clipped or clinging arms. Males were more likely to exhibit in their drawings of
human figures the excessive need to inhibit and suppress emotions. These findings
support previous studies, which showed that boys tended to direct attention away
from the human figure and toward objects or persons in the environment, giving
off a sense of the lack of contact with feelings (Mortensen, 1991).

Findings on guilt as an aspect in the human figure drawings of children with

experience of abuse revealed that feelings of self-blame were evident in only the
drawings of females. Though pertaining to observed findings in both males and
females, abused adolescents’ drawings likewise indicated introversive tendencies
and ideas of reference (Hjorth & Harway, 1981; Urban 1967; Machover, 1951; Ogdon
et. al., 1967; Hammer, 1958). Meanwhile, feelings of guilt in relation to stealing
behaviors were found only in the drawings of males. Preoccupation with objects
in the environment or outside the self as seen in the human figure drawings of boys
in previous studies directly relates to such a finding (Mortensen, 1991).

Differences in suspicion aspects included the need to guard the self from
possible threats as an impact of disclosing abusive experiences as evident in only
males; whereas, the tendency to be wary and cautious as indicated by glanced eyes
and averted gazes in the human figure drawings of females. At the slightest threat,
children with experiences of abuse will anxiously look for any signals that indicate
further abusive attacks; hence, resulting to the tendency to be overcautious of
potential threats (Herman, 1992; Terr, 1990).

II. Resilience

A. Moving-Toward Strategy

With respect to Moving-Toward strategies, compensatory needs in response to

deprivation of love, care, and nourishment were found more frequently in the
human figure drawings of males. Such is comparable to the broad coping strategy
of Compliance (also known as Moving-Toward) where needs for approval and
others’ love are included (Horney, as cited in Boeree, 1997).

Females, unlike males, have projected signs of adequate sexual development

in their human figure drawings. A significant figure expressing such was a drawing
of a little girl with a rounded middle standing beside a tall boy, pertaining to

33
positive identification with a mother figure. This is comparable to the results of
previous studies, which indicate that females are more likely to draw signs of
strong identification with a maternal figure (Harris, 1963; Machover, 1951; Urban,
1967).

B. Moving-Against Strategy

Females maintained openness, though limited only to familiar and close

individuals in their human figure drawings, whereas males prominently exuded
good development of socialization and strong identification to others. The needs
for social assertion, dominance, to control the environment and social relationships
were noted. As seen in the use of projective drawings in the Philippines, these
results may be a glimpse of abused children’s resilience despite being victimized
(Carandang, 1996).

It was only in the human figure drawings of males that strivings for masculinity,
physical power and strength were valued and appreciated, as suggested by
emphasized muscles. Strivings for strength, power, and control were likewise
found in males. The human figure drawings signify the presence of visible models
of physical prowess for males such as cowboys, spacemen, and gangsters, which
incorporate features such as fighting stances, emphasized muscles, and other
indicators of power (Machover, 1951; Mortensen, 1991).

C. Moving-Away-From Strategy

A strong need for independence in the human figure drawings validates studies
that reveal that males indeed projected more frequently their strivings toward
emancipation and freedom from restrictive environments (Koppitz, 1968;
Mortensen, 1991).

For males, there appeared to be a more pronounced ease in expressing

experiences through illustrative manner, which is indicative of a normal range of
cognitive development. This result coincides with studies that contend that males
have a more developed ability to incorporate spatial relationships in drawings
(Mortensen, 1991). A good sense of proportion, adequacy and ease in expression
in their drawings were more evident in males. When representing the
environment, it was the females that showed adequacy. These were similar to
results in previous studies (Burt 1921, as cited in Mortensen, 1991).

34
 Summary

Female children with experiences of abuse were more likely to project bodily
uncertainty and concern for outward appearance. They projected more limitations
in cognitive ability, as manifested by disproportionate drawings and omissions of
major body parts, giving an impression of distorted thinking. Controlling social
interactions as indicated by stiffness in body posture were also features unique to
only females, rooted in the element of shame. With regard to sexual aspects,
female children with experiences of abuse more frequently featured problems in
their human figures than males. Anxiety in their drawings was anchored on
possible sexual attack, being subjected to novel situations they have no control
over, and meeting new people. Females frequently projected euphoric and
grandiose tendencies coupled with attempts to control unpleasant experiences by
wanting to hide or wish to forget traumatic experiences. Findings on guilt revealed
that feelings of self-blame were as well evident only in their drawings with the
tendency to be wary and cautious.

Male children with experience of abuse had indeed expressed more conflicts
regarding the self than females such as feelings of not being accepted, instability,
insecurity, and confusions about the self. Frequently, their human figure drawings
were presented as small entities. Difficulties in the cognitive area reflected in the
inability to express their perception of the environment through illustrative
manner. Further, males were more likely to project concerns for outward social
appearance with anxiety and fear. Emphasis on the waistline and male genitalia
were more evident in their drawings as expressions of sexual preoccupation.
Anxiety related to cognitive ability and interacting with the opposite gender was
found only in their drawings alongside explicit aggressive features. Males were the
only ones to project rigidity and control portrayed by the excessive need to
suppress emotions. Feelings of guilt in relation to stealing behaviors were found
only in their drawings.

With regard to resilience, females have projected signs of adequate sexual

development and representation of the environment, social openness, and
strivings for social assertion and dominance in their human figure drawings. On
the other hand, compensatory needs in response to deprivation of love, care, and
nourishment were found more frequently in males with strivings for strength,
power, independence, and control. As a sign of resilience, males had a more
pronounced ease in expressing experiences through illustrative manner, as shown
by a good sense of proportion.

35
Differences in Interpretive Aspects according to Type of Abuse

Some interpretive aspects were also present in all three types of abuse. These
represent general tendencies that are expressed by children with experiences of
abuse through their human figure drawings. Thus, it is unnecessary to repeat in
detail the description and interpretation of these differences, which has already
been presented.

I. Helplessness

A. Self and Bodily Uncertainty

Sexually abused children were more likely to project bodily uncertainty,

concern for outward appearance and elements of shame and shyness affecting
self-concept. Stiffness and pocketed hands as signs of insecurity were also more
frequently found in their drawings. These feelings were more likely to be the
impact of the whole process of disclosing the previous experience of sexual abuse.
These forms of distress were likewise surmised from the works of sexually abused
children from other studies (Hibbard et. al., 1980). On the other hand, small entities
were seen more in the drawings of physically abused children. Alongside this were
confusions related to the self. These were similarly apparent in the results of other
studies comparing physically abused and nonabused children (Hjorth & Harway,
1981).

Present only in sexually and physically abused children were figures floating on
undulating or rippling water, which indicate uncertainty about the self. This may be
a form of dissociative symbolism, a tendency to feel disconnected from the body
to avoid being overwhelmed by traumatic experiences (Wickham & West, 2002).

In physically abused and neglected children, feelings of not being accepted

were unique features. This result was in consonance with studies of physically
abused and street children, poor adjustment and insecure tendencies involving
relationships, including a lack of belongingness was identified (Hjorth & Harway,
1981; Aptekar, 1989).

B. Cognitive Limitations

Minimal unique differences in terms of cognitive limitations were found in the

36
human figure drawings of all types of abuse experienced. Both sexually and
physically abused children expressed difficulties in expressing their perceptions in
the environment through illustrative methods. Abused and maltreated children
tend to develop brains focused on dangers, making them more at great risk for
learning difficulties (Herman, 1992; Terr, 1990).

The lack of achievement, inadequacies and apprehensions in handling

intellectual tasks were more prominent in sexually abused and abandoned or
neglected children. In some studies, this was suggested by human figures with
disproportionate heads done by abused children (Blain et. al, 1981).

Anxiety related to cognitive ability was found in only physically abused and
abandoned or neglected children. With brains that are wired to have high levels of
alertness, these children experience much impediments to handling tasks with
much mental effort (Herman, 1992; Terr, 1990).

C. Social Inhibition

Findings related to socialization showed that neglected or abandoned children

were more likely to project concerns for outward social appearance,
defensiveness, and detachment in their drawings. As noted in the work of Garcia
(2009), studies show that children afflicted by neglect are particularly avoidant,
withdrawn, and have greater defensive structures (Crittenden & Ainsworth, 1989;
Yates, Beutler & Crago, 1985; Schornstein & Derr, 1978). Thus, in their drawings,
similar distancing of the self from others and being concerned with outside
appearances would be imminent.

It was in the drawings of sexually abused children that evasion and withdrawal
were rooted in the element of shame. Especially for victims of incest, human figure
drawings made by sexually abused children had indicators of withdrawal
(Schornstein & Derr, 1978). Being reserved, shy, and encountering shame are
impairments in these children’s ability to regulate and understand emotions
(Kendall-Tacket, 2002).

Fear of interacting with the opposite sex was more evident in the human figure
drawings of physically abused and abandoned or neglected children. Street
children in a study done in Columbia in their drawings of human figures often
projected similar signs of unsatisfactory interpersonal relationships (Aptekar,
1989).

37
 D. Sexual Preoccupation

Children with experience of sexual abuse more frequently featured problems

in their human figures with regard to sexual aspects in their human figure
drawings. Sexual preoccupation represented by big hands, nude and semi-nude
figures, and symbols pertaining to female genitalia were more evident in their
drawings. Figures representing being dirtied by previous abusive attacks were
likewise distinct to sexually abused children were. All these figures were found by
numerous studies that had human figure drawings connoting sexualized themes
and sexual preoccupation beyond the normal sexual development. (Sturner &
Rothbaum, 1980; Goodwin, 1982; Hagood, 1992; Kelley, 1984; Koppitz, 1968;
Thomas, 1980; Hibbard et. al., 1980; Hjorth & Harway, 1981; Hibbard, Roghman &
Hoekelman, 1980; Van Hutten, 1994). These were the effects of experiencing
sexual abuse.

Elaborate clothing, hair, and crotch area, which indicated excessive sexuality,
were present in both sexually abused and neglected or abandoned children. These
results suggested that the drawings of sexual themes by children should warrant
the need to explore the possibility of sexual abuse because drawing explicit sexual
features may reflect not only sexual knowledge beyond expected age-appropriate
levels, but also preoccupation with sexually explicit material (Van Hutten, 1994).

Emphasis on the waistline and male genitalia were more evident for both
sexually and physically abused children. Previous studies in the same way showed
the frequent occurrences of human figure drawings with genitalia (Sturner &
Rothbaum, 1980; Goodwin, 1982; Hagood, 1992; Kelley, 1984; Koppitz, 1968).
Sexual anatomy and sexually explicit features in these drawings were often
depicted in great detail (Thomas, 1980; Hibbard et. al., 1980; Hjorth & Harway, 1981;
Hibbard, Roghman & Hoekelman, 1980; Van Hutten, 1994).

E. Poor Affect Regulation

Much of the fear and anxiety presented in the drawings of sexually abused and
abandoned or neglected children were attributed to abandonment. Most
neglected children are classified as anxious and ambivalent (Youngblade & Belsky,
1990). Thus, possible future loss may further magnify projected fears in these
children. Furthermore, sexual abuse impairs children’s ability to understand
emotions and regulate them (Kendall-Tacket, 2002). Thus, ambivalent feelings that
accompany fears are attached even to the concept of being left alone.

Sexually abused children were the only ones to create figures of boys carrying

38
helmets and having emphasized necks and arms, signifying anger projected toward
perpetrators. The lack of aggression was more ascribed only to sexually abused
children in their human figure drawings. Especially for victims of incest, other
studies have noted similar indicators, which included signs of tension, hostility and
aggression (Schornstein & Derr, 1978). The inability to cope with a hostile
environment and presence of aggressive models at home, as seen by drawings
with explicit aggressive features were more evident in the drawings of those
physically abused. The tendency to be competitive accompanied such aggressive
symbols. These results verify that physically abused children are more likely to be
more aggressive (Wodarski et al., 1990). Deficits in self-monitoring skills and self-
awareness and rationalizations about subsequent anger were more ascribed to
abandoned or neglected children. This was similarly seen in the drawings of
Columbian street children, where most of their human figures were of masculine,
aggressive men, as a result of relating with guerillas. Moreover, emotional
problems were likely to be shown in their human figure drawings (Aptekar, 1989).
Signs of great desires to avoid aggression were identified in only physically and
sexually abused children. Supported by the work of Garcia (2009), these children
afflicted exude being avoidant, withdrawn, and having greater defensive
structures even in their drawings (Crittenden & Ainsworth, 1989; Yates, Beutler &
Crago, 1985; Schornstein & Derr, 1978).

In the drawings of sexually abused children, aspects of control were more

evident, as they frequently produced drawings of human figures that featured
rigidity with regard to possible sexual attack, stubborn attitude, and refusal to
listen to criticism. In the same way, a prolonged state of apprehension was found
in the drawings of sexually abused children. This apprehension translates itself as
a tendency for sexually abused children to maintain rigidity about their opinions of
other people (Hibbard et. al., 1980). Rigidity and control through clipped or
clinging arms, and attempts to control unpleasant experiences by wanting to hide
or wish to forget traumatic experiences were evident in only physically abused
children. These results were comparable to those found in a study where human
figure drawings having rigid horizontal position of the arms gave an impression of
poor adjustment and coping (Hjorth & Harway, 1981). Sexually abused and
abandoned or neglected children were more likely to exhibit in their drawings the
tendency to inhibit and suppress emotions. Abandoned and neglected children
frequently projected euphoric and grandiose tendencies as signs contrary to
resilience. These problems with emotional adjustment may be forms of
dissociation. Abused children tend to feel disconnected from their bodies,
including the need to avoid feelings and emotions in relation to being
overwhelmed by the traumatic experience (Wickham & West, 2002).

Feelings of guilt over failure to act correctly to great frustration by a restricting

39
environment was an aspect unique to neglected or abandoned children’s drawings
of human figures. Guilt, as an emotional signs of distress were also found in Human
Figure Drawings gathered from street children in a study done in Columbia
(Aptekar, 1989). Restrictions in the environment as projected by these children
could be in the form of having been deprived from nourishment, love, and care.
Findings on guilt as an aspect in the human figure drawings of children with
experience of abuse revealed that feelings of self-blame were evident in only the
drawings of children who were sexually and physically abused. These findings are
supportive of clinical descriptions of physically abused adolescents as having
introversive tendencies, (Hjorth & Harway, 1981). For sexually abused children,
studies point to regression, even to the point of putting the blame on one’s self as
a derivative of having experienced abuse due to powerlessness (Yates, Beutler &
Crago, 1985). Meanwhile, feelings of guilt in relation to stealing behaviors were
found in those who were physically abused and abandoned or neglected. Studies
relay that physically abused and street children are less compliant and more
impulsive than neglected children, with acting-out behavior and lack of empathy
(Wodarski et al., 1990). In this sense, acting out projected itself in human figure
drawings in the form of stealing. In addition, projected decrease in empathy could
also be a feature of having guilt, as in empathizing with being abandoned or having
lost something.

With respect to suspicion aspects, the need to guard the self from possible
threats in the environment and the tendency to be wary and cautious as indicated
by glanced eyes and averted gazes in the drawings were evident in only sexually
abused children. Sexually abused children are taught to trust no one and feel
suspicious of and isolated from others (Adler, 1968). Post-traumatic symptoms
including hypervigilance are likewise manifested by sexually abused children
(Kendall-Tacket, 2002). Thus, even in their human figure drawings, a heightened
sense of suspicion could be found. On the other hand, guilt was considered as an
impact of disclosing abusive experiences in physically abused children. Intimate
relationships and somehow reliving their experiences are very difficult (Howe,
2005). Thus, an increased sense of vigilance is mostly due to actual verbalization
and sharing experiences with others, as indicated by their human figured drawings.

II. Resilience

A. Moving-Toward Strategy

Compensatory needs in response to deprivation of love, care, and nourishment,

40
feelings of instability, insecurity, and confusions about the self were found in the
drawings of abandoned and neglected children. This is comparable to the broad
coping strategy of Compliance (also known as Moving-Toward) where needs for
approval and others’ love are included (Horney, as cited in Boeree, 1997).

Only sexually abused children had expressed adequate sexual development in

their human figure drawings through a figure of a girl with a rounded middle,
pertaining to positive identification with one’s mother.

B. Moving-Against Strategy

Needs for social assertion and dominance were seen more frequently in the
drawings of sexually abused children. They also maintained openness limited only
to familiar and close individuals. The need for controlling social interactions was a
feature unique to only physically abused children.

Strong identification to other individuals was identified only in those who were
sexually abused and abandoned or neglected.

It was only in the human figure drawings of abandoned or neglected children

that strivings for masculinity, physical power and strength were valued and
appreciated, as suggested by emphasized muscles. In sexually abused children,
difficulties in coping with threatening circumstances were observed. Meanwhile,
strivings for strength, power, and control were found in both sexually abused and
abandoned or neglected children.

C. Moving-Away-From Strategy

The need to maintain a sense of control unpleasant experiences by wanting to

hide or wish to forget traumatic experiences were evident only in the human figure
drawings of physically abused children. As a way of copping, dissociation occurs
more evidently as a defense mechanism. These children tend to feel disconnected
from their bodies to avoid being overwhelmed by the traumatic experience
(Wickham & West, 2002).

Meanwhile, sexually abused and abandoned or neglected exhibited adequacy

and ease in expression in their drawings.

All in all, these represent a glimpse of resilience seen in the human figure
drawings of children with experiences of abuse, as observed by previous studies

41
(Carandang, 1996).

Summary

Sexually abused children were more likely to project bodily uncertainty and
tendency to be wary. It was in their drawings that concern for outward
appearance, evasion and withdrawal were rooted in the element of shame. They
more frequently drew unique figures representing being dirtied by previous
abusive attacks and figures signifying anger projected toward perpetrators. The
lack of aggression was also more ascribed to them coupled with difficulties in
coping with threatening circumstances. Aspects of control were more evident,
featuring rigidity with regard to possible sexual attack, stubborn attitude, and
refusal to listen to criticism alongside a prolonged state of apprehension.

Small entities alongside confusions related to the self were seen more in the
drawings of physically abused children. The inability to cope with a hostile
environment and presence of aggressive models at home, accompanied by the
tendency to be competitive as suggested by explicit aggressive features were
more evident in their drawings. Guilt, rigidity and control, and attempts to control
unpleasant experiences by wanting to hide or wish to forget traumatic experiences
were likewise evident in only physically abused children.

Neglected or abandoned children were more likely to project concerns for

outward social appearance, defensiveness, and detachment in their drawings.
Deficits in self-monitoring skills and self-awareness and rationalizations about
subsequent anger were likewise more ascribed to them. They frequently projected
euphoric and grandiose tendencies as signs coupled with feelings of guilt over
failure to act correctly to great frustration by a restricting environment.

Present only in sexually and physically abused children were figures floating on
undulating or rippling water, indicating uncertainty about the self. They expressed
difficulties in expressing their perceptions in the environment through illustrative
methods and more frequently emphasized the waistline and male genitalia. Signs
of great desires to avoid aggression were more evident in their drawings, alongside
feelings of self-blame.

In physically abused and neglected or abandoned children, anxiety related to

cognitive ability and feelings of not being accepted were unique features. Fear of
interacting with the opposite sex was more evident in their human figure drawings
with feelings of guilt in relation to stealing behaviors.

42
 The lack of achievement, inadequacies, tendency to inhibit and suppress
emotions, feelings of fear attributed to abandonment, and apprehensions in
handling intellectual tasks were more prominent in sexually abused and
abandoned or neglected children. Elaborate clothing, hair, and crotch area, which
indicated excessive sexuality, were more present in their drawings.

With regard to resilience, only sexually abused children had expressed

adequate sexual development through a figure of a girl with a rounded middle,
pertaining to positive identification with one’s mother. Needs for social assertion
and dominance were seen more frequently in their drawings. They maintained
openness to familiar and close individuals. The need for controlling social
interactions to maintain a sense of control unpleasant experiences by wanting to
hide or wish to forget traumatic experiences were features unique to only
physically abused children. Compensatory needs in response to deprivation of
love, care, and nourishment, feelings of instability, insecurity, and confusions about
the self were found in the drawings of abandoned and neglected children. It was
only in their drawings that strivings for masculinity, physical power and strength
were valued and appreciated, as suggested by emphasized muscles. Strong
identification to others and adequacy in expression in their drawings were
identified in only those who were sexually abused and abandoned or neglected
together with strivings for strength, power, and control.

A limitation encountered in this study was the lack of other supportive cases
relevant to child abuse, as attributed to the occurrence of each type with respect
to gender. For example, sexual abuse in males was significantly less prevalent as
compared to females. Moreover, concurrent cases (sexual and physical abuse;
sexual abuse and abandonment or neglect; physical abuse and abandonment or
neglect; and all types of abuse occurring simultaneously) existed. As such, isolating
the interpretations indicative of only one type of abuse was difficult. This creates
a discrepancy when looking into how frequent some interpretive aspects may
occur in each type of abuse or in each gender.

IV. CONCLUSIONS

Through simple human figure drawings, even children such as those who have
encountered traumatic and abusive events in the past are able to put into paper
the facets of their lives that have been overshadowed by post-traumatic symptoms
of child abuse. As a projective test, drawings of human figures are relatively less
invasive methods of uncovering the psychological makeup of children with
experience of abuse. Thus, processing and eventually overcoming issues related
to experiences of abuse are facilitated by such a simple Draw A Person Test, even

43
without the outright verbalizations of concerns such as sexual preoccupation,
anxiety, and posttraumatic symptoms.

Human figure drawings of children with experiences of abuse depict ten

prominent aspects, synthesized under two broad themes: Helplessness and
Resilience. Aspects included under Helplessness represent limitations, delays, and
poor skills in different life areas of children with experiences of abuse represented
as Self and Bodily Uncertainty, Cognitive Limitation, Social Inhibition, and Sexual
Preoccupation. Consequences of abusive experiences related to emotions and
feelings such as Anxiety, Aggression, Restriction, Guilt, and Suspicion were fused
under Poor Affect Regulation. These represent the current states of children with
experiences of abuse via their human figure drawings. Meanwhile, emergent
needs were found to be aspects of Resilience, strategies similar to those identified
by Horney, namely: Compliance (Moving-Toward), Aggression (Moving-Against)
and Withdrawal (Moving- Away-From) strategies. These aspects represent areas
that are commonly experienced but may not be evident in the outright behaviors
and characteristics of children with experiences of abuse. Hence, by the use of
human figure drawings, the Draw A Person test, and other projective tests that
have developed from it are helpful tools in assessing these areas that are much
affected or elicited by experiences of abuse.

Both similarities and differences are present in the manner by which males and
females project interpretive aspects in their drawings.

Aspects were more likely to be inferred from human figure drawings of both
male and female children with experiences of abuse. Similarities like these
represent typical aspects that are relatively less gender-related.

Bodily uncertainty was more evident in females; whereas self-concept was seen
more in males. A lack of aggression in females opposite numerous overt signs of
hostility in males were observed. Grandiose and euphoric tendencies were found
more in females, while emotional suppression was ascribed to males.

Sexual development and social openness were found adequate in females,

while adequacy in expression through illustrations was seen in males together with
strivings for strength and love. Such are examples of aspects that are very much
dependent on gender.

Likewise, similarities and differences were evident in the human figure

drawings of all types of abuse. Again, most aspects were identified in all types of
abuse. This implies that for sexually abused, physically abused, and abandoned or
neglected children, comparable concerns are projected in their human figure

44
drawings.

Similarities identified in the interpretive aspects of human figure drawings

found in two types of abuse such as difficulties in cognitive expression in both
physically and sexually abused children represent overlapping aspects due to
concurrence. Hence, we could say that similar degrees of cognitive limitation may
be found in the drawings of children that have experienced both sexual and
physical abuse, and the same may be true for other combinations of concurrent
types.

Some aspects are unique to a specific type of abuse such as sexual

preoccupation projected in the human figure drawings of sexually abused children,
numerous signs of overt aggression in physically abused children, and euphoric and
grandiose tendencies in neglected and abandoned children. Aspects such as these
imply that some interpretations may exist only in the drawings of either one of the
three types.

V. Recommendations

The results of the study have contributed to the existing knowledge on

projective drawings of the Saint Louis University-Sunflower Children’s Center/Child
and Youth Wellness Center. Thus, there is a necessity to incorporate these results
to future cases in order to further validate and give a more substantial
interpretation of human figure drawings in cases of child abuse.

Furthermore, as a center that aims to produce and publish researches and

studies, the Saint Louis University-Sunflower Children’s Center may use the results
of this study in future endeavors. The interpretive aspects of human figure
drawings may also be studied in other sorts of cases such as Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Trauma, and Autism Spectrum Disorder.

For clinical therapists and psychologists the continual use of this projective test
is highly recommended. Projective drawings are indeed potential sources of
insights that could create the psychological makeup of children, especially those
who have encountered traumatic and abusive experiences in a relatively more
relaxed and less invasive or intrusive method.

For teachers and other professionals working with children, using drawings
could help determine not only children who may have been subjected to abuse, but
also children at risk of difficulties similar to consequences of traumatic
experiences.

45
 In Projective Techniques courses, discussions on the use of human figure
drawings and the Draw A Person Test in relation to Child Abuse and other special
needs topics are recommended in order to boost the importance of using such
projective tests in the clinical setting and in therapy.

For future studies, research to be may be done about human figure drawings
as well as other projective drawings tests (Drawings of a House, House-Tree-Person
drawings, Kinetic Family Drawings, and Kinetic-House-Tree-Person Drawings)
administered to the Philippine population. This will help develop future norms and
standardized projective tests.

Comparison of cases with only one type of abuse against two or three co-
occurring types (sexual and physical abuse occurring simultaneously; sexual abuse
and abandonment or neglect occurring simultaneously; physical abuse and
abandonment or neglect occurring simultaneously; and all types of abuse occurring
simultaneously).

Using more drawings obtained from other areas within and beyond the Luzon
area in future studies may likewise improve and contribute to the initial results of
this study.

Researches using projective drawings of human figures could also utilize age as
a factor when dealing with the different helplessness aspects, (self and bodily
uncertainty, cognitive limitation, social inhibition, sexual preoccupation and poor
emotional regulation).

Corroborating the results of the study with other tests that measure ability such
as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Comprehensive Test of Nonverbal
Intelligence, and other standardized tests could also be done by future researches.
In the same way, norm-based tests measuring anxiety, socialization, autonomic
functions, and other aspects could be utilized in conjunction with human figure
drawings to produce highly reliable and valid results.

Given the advantages of using drawings to process concerns and difficulties of

children with experiences of abuse, creating programs and activities such as art
therapy workshops, which focus on the therapeutic effects of drawing, could also
be done.

46
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 A Guide to Assessing Abuse in Children’s Drawings:
Drawing Features with Possible Significant Interpretations

Drawing Features Possible Interpretations

I. Helplessness
The drawing features below may indicate problems and difficulties representing the child’s
current state

A. Self and Bodily Uncertainty

1. Stick figure/s
2. Shadings on the trunk
3. Transparencies
4. Big Figure
5. Absence of the neck
6. Tiny Figure
7. Shading
8. Reinforced Lines
9. Asymmetry of limbs
Insecurity and self-doubting (Urban, 1967 and Levy, as cited in
Costa, 2002).
Body anxiety; psychosomatic problems (Koppitz, 1966, 1968).
Acute anxiety, conflict, or fear, usually in the areas of sex,
childbirth or bodily mutilation (Koppitz, 1966, 1968).
Expansiveness of self-esteem, immaturity, poor inner control
(Koppitz, 1966, 1968).
Expansive, euphoric or grandiose tendencies (Ogdon et al,
1967).
Immaturity, impulsivity and poor inner control (Koppitz, 1966,
1968).
Insecurity; related to feeling of inadequacy, a shrunken ego,
concern over dealing with the environment (Koppitz, 1966,
1968; Jolles, as cited in Costa, 2002 and Machover, 1951).
It reflects generalized discontentment with feelings of
inferiority, ineffectiveness, inadequacy, and insecurity (Ogdon
et al, 1967).
Extreme shading may indicate self-doubt, self-criticism (Urban,
1967).
Sign of self-assurance (Urban, 1967).
Unimproved pathology-low self esteem, feelings of inferiority
(Batongbacal, 2000)
Physical inadequacy and unbalanced appearance of self-
concept, possibly with sex role confusion (Ogdon et al, 1967).

B. Cognitive Limitations
Common in drawings of children under age 7 and 6; frequent
1. Poor Integration of parts in aggressive children, those who have poor school
performance (Koppitz, 1966, 1968).
Intense feelings of intellectual inadequacy (Koppitz, 1966,
2. Tiny head
1968; Urban, 1967 and Machover, 1951).
3. Transparencies Normal for small children (Machover, 1951 and Urban, 1967).
4. Omitted nose, eyes,
Similar to what is expected of younger children (Koppitz, 1966,
mouth, ears, neck, and other
1968).
body parts.
54

5. No body
6. Short arms
7. Asymmetry of limbs
8. Stick figure/s
9. Collars, tie, necklaces, etc
Normal in drawings of very young children (Koppitz, 1966,
1968).
Sign of poor adjustment and poor school achievement
(Koppitz, 1966, 1968 and Ogdon et al, 1967).
Lack of ambition (Machover, 1951; Urban, 1967; Buck, 1948 and
Ogdon et al, 1967)
Related with poor coordination children with special cognitive
needs (Koppitz, 1966, 1968).
Intellectually guarding (Urban, 1967 and Levy, as cited in Costa,
2002).
Concern over intellectual mastery (Urban, 1967 and Machover,
1951).

C. Social Inhibition
Withdrawal related to concern over dealing with the
environment (Koppitz, 1966, 1968; Jolles, as cited in Costa,
1. Tiny Figure 2002 and Machover, 1951).
Excessive defensiveness with low self-esteem (Ogdon et al,
1967).
2. Stiffness/Rigidity in Reluctance to reach out to others coupled with feelings of
posture social inadequacy (Koppitz, 1966, 1968, Batongbacal, 2000)
3. Broken lines or Sketch Lack of assertiveness (Machover, 1951); anxiety, timidity,
lines withdrawal as primary defense (Urban, 1967).
Introversive self-absorbed tendency; low interest in perceiving
their environment; low perception of self in relation to
4. Vacant eyes
environment; communication difficulty (Hammer, 1958;
Machover, 1951; Urban, 1967 and Ogdon et al, 1967).
Difficulty in reaching out towards others; poor interpersonal
5. Arms clinging
relationship (Koppitz, 1966, 1968).
Excessive need for security (Urban, 1967; Machover, 1951 and
6. Feet-too big
Ogdon et al, 1967).
Aggressive reaching out into the environment (Koppitz, 1966,
1968).
7. Long arms
Related to love and affection (Machover, 1951 and Jolles, as
cited in Costa, 2002).
8. Stick figure Evasion (Urban, 1967 and Levy, as cited in Costa, 2002).
9. Glanced eyes Social difficulties (Costa, 2002).

D. Sexual Preoccupation
1. Big Hands Acting-out behavior involving the hands (Koppitz, 1966, 1968).
Concern over intellectual mastery over physiological needs
2. Collars, tie, necklaces, etc.
and sexual impulses (Urban, 1967 and Machover, 1951).
3. Special attention to the Emphasis on sexual control (Urban, 1967)

55
midbody area
4. Detailed crotch
5. Hands near crotch
6. Nudity
7. Phallic symbol
8. Flower or circled object in Overt sexual interest; in females, substitution of the genitals
the body
9. Hair emphasized
10. Legs pressed together
11. Lower half of the body
Sexual disturbance and “blocked sexuality” (Machover, 1951).
omitted
E. Poor Emotional Regulation (Anxiety, Aggression, Restriction, Guilt, Suspicion)
1. Broken lines or Sketch
Anxiety and rigid control of impulses (Urban, 1967).
lines
2. Reinforced lines
3. Shading
4. Shading feet
5. Legs cut off
6. Long and thin neck
8. Big figure
9. Talon like fingers
10. Crossed eyes
Extreme control of sexuality perhaps because of guilt feelings
or sense of impending loss of sexual control (Ogdon et al,
1967).
Sexual interest (Batongbacal, 2000)
Sexual interest (Batongbacal, 2000).
Preoccupation with sex (Urban, 1967).
Preoccupation with body processes, including body
development (Machover, 1951 and Urban, 1967).
Sexual preoccupation; fear of impotence (Costa, 2002).
(Costa, 2002).
Excessive sexuality (Urban, 1967),
Severe anxiety about sexuality (Jolles, as cited in Costa, 2002).
Virility conflict with imminent possibility of moving into
delinquent sexuality (Machover, 1951)
Sexual preoccupation (Buck, 1948; Di Leo, 1983; Hammer, 1958
and Ogdon et al, 1967).
Rigid attempt to control sexual impulses or a possible sexual
attack (imaginary or real) by others (Koppitz, 1966, 1968;
Machover, 1951 and Urban, 1967).
Overtly hostile impulses (Urban, 1967)
Sign of tension and hostility (Jolles, as cited in Costa, 2002).
Manifestation of anxiety; degree of shading is related to the
intensity of the anxiety within the child (Koppitz, 1966, 1968).
Anxieties in relation to safety and control; possible aggressive
and assaultive tendencies (Hammer, 1958, Machover, 1951,
Urban, 1967, Ogdon et al, 1967).
Lack of autonomy (Buck, 1948 and Ogdon et al, 1967).
Separation of intellectual ideas from emotions and feelings
which contributes to the difficulty in controlling basic drives
and impulses (Buck, 1948, Urban, 1967, Ogdon et al, 1967)
Aggressive and acting-out tendencies, expansive, euphoric or
grandiose tendencies (Ogdon et al, 1967).
Poor inner control (Koppitz, 1966, 1968).
Considerable hostile feelings (Jolles, as cited in Costa, 2002).
Overt aggression (Machover, 1951).
Trying to control anger (Buck, 1948 and Ogdon et al, 1967).
Hostiliyt towards others; reflection of rebellion and anger
56

11. Spiked hair, helmets
12. Neck- overemphasized
13. No nose
14. Emphasized nostrils
15. Short arms
16. Hands cut off
17. Hidden Hands
18. Hands not well defined
19. Hands in the pocket
20. Shading arms
21. Shading hands
22. Eyes emphasized
23. Glanced eyes
24. Stick figure
25. Absence of the neck
26. Special attention to the Guilt feelings or sense of impending loss of sexual control
midbody area (Ogdon et al, 1967).
(Koppitz, 1966, 1968).
Expressing negative feelings directed toward perpetrators and
identification with aggressive models at home (Machover,
1951, Mortensen, 1991).
Stubborn attitude and possible rigidity (Urban, 1967). Possible
difficulty in dealing with impulses (Gurvitz, as cited in Costa,
2002).
Lack of overt aggressiveness (Koppitz, 1966, 1968).
Primitive aggression and excessive control of anger (Urban,
1967).
Lack of aggressiveness and perhaps leadership; Associated
with the tendency to inhibit one’s impulse (Koppitz, 1966,
1968).
Feelings of weakness and giving in to life (Jolles, as cited in
Costa, 2002).
Guilt over failure to act correctly or the inability to act at all
(Koppitz, 1966, 1968).
Conflicts and guilt feelings for manual activity (Di Leo, 1983;
Machover, 1951 and Ogdon et al, 1967).
Aggression and possibly furtive outbursts of aggression
(Urban, 1967; Machover, 1951 and Jolles, as cited in Costa,
2002).
Unwillingness to deal with situation (Machover, 1951).
Anxieties related to some actual or imaginary activity involving
the arms (Koppitz, 1966, 1968).
Guilt feelings for aggressive impulses or masturbatory activity
(Machover, 1951).
Frequent in children who steal; related to some actual or
imaginary activity involving hands (Koppitz, 1966, 1968).
Guilt over a real or fantasized action: masturbation, assault or
theft (Jolles, as cited in Costa, 2002; Buck, 1948; Koppitz, 1966,
1968; Machover, 1951 and Ogdon et al, 1967).
Sign of hostility and aggression; in girls, exhibitionistic trends
(Urban, 1967).
Suspiciousness, ideas of reference or other paranoid
characteristics, perhaps with aggressive acting-out
tendencies, especially if eyes are dark, menacing, or piercing
(Hammer, 1958; Machover, 1951; Urban, 1967 and Ogdon et al,
1967).
Suspiciousness; related with guilt feelings.
Rigidity (Urban, 1967 and Levy, as cited in Costa, 2002).
Impulsivity and poor inner control (Koppitz, 1966, 1968).
57
II. Resilience
The drawing features below may represent the child’s strengths in coping and their emergent
needs.

A. Moving-Toward Strategy
Ambition for achievement or for acquisition, including striving
1. Long arms for love and affection (Machover, 1951 and Jolles, as cited in
Costa, 2002).
Tendency to compensate by trying to exude high self-esteem
2. Big figure due to the lack of positive self-concept, self-worth and security
(Batongbacal, 2000)
Positive identification with a mother figure; comparable to the
3. A girl with a rounded results of previous studies, which indicate the likelihood to
middle draw signs of strong identification with a maternal figure
(Harris, 1963, Machover, 1951, Urban, 1967).
Need for security and strong need for firm foundation of
4. Feet too big support (Urban, 1967, Machover, 1951, Ogdon et al, 1967).

B. Moving-Against Strategy
1. Facial expressions, Positive sign of social openness, and empathy (Koppitz, 1966,
emotions, moods 1968).
Striving for power and control, sign of self-assurance (Urban,
2. Reinforced lines
1967).
Masculine strivings; strivings for strength and dominance
3. Emphasized muscles
(Machover, 1951, Buck, 1948, Di Leo, 1983, Ogdon et. al)
Striving for strength or possibly compensating for weakness
4. Big hands
(Machover, 1951)
Compensatory drive or reaction formation towards physical
6. Long and thin neck power or aggressive tendencies (Machover, 1951 and Urban,
1967).

C. Moving-Away-From Strategy
Sstrong need or striving for autonomy and aggression (Buck,
1. Legs too long 1948, Hammer, 1958, Jolles, as cited in Costa, 2002 and Urban,
1967).
Ambition for achievement or for acquisition, including striving
2. Long arms for love and affection (Machover, 1951 and Jolles, as cited in
Costa, 2002).
3. Large head Strong intellectual strivings (Urban, 1967)

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