Noether’s Theorem Explained

Chris Wymant
September 23, 2010

(Repeated indices are summed over throughout.) First of all we derive

Noether’s Theorem in the usual way, with careful explanation. Consider a
Lagrangian density L that is a function of a set of fields {φi }. The action is the
integral over spacetime of the Lagrangian density:
Z
S = d4 x L

Therefore if we shift the fields in such a way that L changes by a total derivative,
the divergence theorem of vector calculus (Gauss’ theorem) tells us that S will
change by a surface term:
Z
µ
δL = ∂µ X ⇒ δS = dAµ X µ
B

where dA is the infinitesimal area vector on the boundary B of the region

of spacetime we are considering – normally this is all spacetime. The usual
assumption in physics is that the value of each of our fields decreases toward
zero sufficiently rapidly that their integral over the ‘boundary of all spacetime’
(obviously to be understood as a limit) vanishes, in other words that surface
terms vanish. This means that δS = 0, i.e. the action is invariant under this
transformation; and since the equations of motion are derived from extremising
S, the equations of motion are also invariant. This is what we call a symmetry
of the system: a transformation that leaves things unchanged, c.f. swapping left
and right for a left-right symmetrical object.
In the case that L depends only on the fields and their first derivatives
(which is virtually always the case in physics), an infinitesimal shift in the fields
induces a change in the Lagrangian density
∂L ∂L
δL = δφi + δ ∂µ φi
∂φi ∂(∂µ φi )
   
∂L ∂L ∂L
= δφi + ∂µ δφi − ∂µ δφi
∂φi ∂(∂µ φi ) ∂(∂µ φi )
    
∂L ∂L ∂L
= − ∂µ δφi + ∂µ δφi
∂φi ∂(∂µ φi ) ∂(∂µ φi )

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 Here is a good place for a quick detour to explain the terms on- and off-shell.
Saying that we are on-shell means that the fields {φi } are a set of functions (of
spacetime) which obey the equations of motion and extremise the action. This
is the case for physical fields, in our universe with its law ‘the action should be
extremal’. However, we are are still at liberty to consider the case of the {φi }
being any arbitrary set of functions, not satisfying the equations of motion, with
a corresponding non-extremal action. This situation is referred to as off-shell.
Return to the equation above. On-shell, the contents of the square brackets
vanish (by definition – these are the equations of motion) and we are left with a
total derivative expression for δL, which also must happen by definition, because
S is extremal. So we haven’t learned anything new yet. But now focus on
the particular case of the shift in the fields being an infinitesimal symmetry
transformation. A key point to note is that whilst for an arbitrary shift in the
fields δL is only a total derivative on-shell, for a symmetry transformation this
is also true off-shell (recall that we changed the fields in such a way as to cause
δL = ∂µ X µ without reference to the equations of motion). Equating our two
expressions for the on-shell δL gives
 
µ ∂L
∂µ X = ∂µ δφi
∂(∂µ φi )
Note that this does not imply equality between X µ and the contents of the
brackets, just between their four-divergences. Alternatively:
∂L
∂µ J µ = 0, with J µ ≡ δφi − X µ
∂(∂µ φi )
J µ is said to be the conserved current associated with this symmetry. Note
that one can add or multiply by any constant without affecting the vanishing
four-divergence of J µ , leaving some freedom in its definition (for example, the
J µ defined precisely as above is manifestly infinitesimal; if the transformation
has a single infinitesimal parameter, division by this will render J µ finite). The
associated conserved charge is defined in any given frame of reference by
Z
Q ≡ d3 x J 0

Its conservation follows easily from its definition. Note that whilst J µ is Lorentz
d
covariant, Q has no nice Lorentz transformation properties, just like dt ; it is
dQ
the combination dt that is Lorentz invariant. Noether’s theorem (finally!) is
a statement of the existence of the conserved current and charge we have de-
scribed, for any continuous/infinitesimal symmetry.
For symmetry transformations with multiple degrees of freedom, i.e. multi-
ple parameters, it is not difficult to see that there will be one conserved current
for each. This collection of conserved currents will assemble into a higher rank
Lorentz tensor if the parameters of the transformation can themselves be col-
lected into a Lorentz covariant object. For example the energy-momentum ten-
sor (see any other source on the subject) is the collection of conserved currents

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arising from the symmetry of physical fields with respect to a constant shift in
any of the four directions in spacetime. Calling such a shift ν , one finds J µ to
be proportional to  (as should be expected), contracted with a rank-two tensor:
J µ = ν T µν . Since  is not spacetime dependent, it follows that ν ∂µ T µν = 0,
and since this is a symmetry for arbitrary , we must have ∂µ T µν = 0. The
Lorentz invariance and covariance of 0 and ∂µ respectively imply that T µν really
is a rank-two Lorentz tensor, as the notation suggests.