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Rothenbuhler, E.W. and Peters, J.D. (1997) Defining Phonography PDF
Rothenbuhler, E.W. and Peters, J.D. (1997) Defining Phonography PDF
... none
Gives motion to perfection more serene
Than yours, out of our imperfections wrought ...
-Wallace Stevens, "To the One of Fictive Music"
242
Defining Phonography 243
1. Pre..phonography
Like most things social, it is not clear that the phonograph caused any
thing at all. But it does appear in retrospect that it allowed a number of
interesting developments. The phonograph helped change our relation
ship with music: music no longer required a live performer. Music took on
a life of its own, independent of composers, musicians, or audiences.
Music, in short, became an object. The record, as Adorno put it, "is the
first means of musical presentation that can be possessed as a thing."S This
is not to say that music became a text, which is something far older,
thanks to various notational systems. The phonograph inscribes not the
spirit of music but its body, its acoustic being in time. Phonography cap
tures not the code but the act, not the script but the voice, not the score
but the performance. Phonography and film attack the monopoly once
held by printing: "the storage of serial data."6 After Scott, eros, Edison,
Bell and Tainter, and Berliner, sound no longer vanished into thin air} It
could be caught on tiny concentric grooves on cylinders or disks. As Edi
son supposedly said, "Speech has become immortal."
Many of the implications of the phonographic transformation are
insightfully discussed in Eisenberg's The Recording Angel, and we will only
mention some here.8 The phonograph meant we could own music-not
sheet music, but music itself. Rather than going to hear music often, we could
go to buy it often-and play it at home often. The phonograph allowed
repeated listening for more people than the privileged scholar or aesthete.
Anyone who wanted to, within reasonable means, could study music in per
formance and thus alter his or her own perceptions of it. Or, one could forget
about the music as music and rather pursue pride of ownership via extensive
collections or elaborate equipment. There is something about phonography,
as we shall see, that invites collecting---something missing in digitally
recorded music. It is no accident, Adorno noted, that stamps, photographs,
and records are all kept in those "herbaria of artificial life" called albums.9
244 The Musical Quarterly
Finally, the phonograph made the very idea of "live" music think
able, thitherto largely a redundancy. Though wind chimes and echoes are
ancient and the romantics loved the Aeolian harp for its apparently spon
taneous music, the phonograph marks the decisive separation between
musical performance and human labor. Music became disembodied,16 The
phonograph is indifferent to the physical presence of composer, performer,
or audience. Edison boasted of its ability to reproduce sound waves "with
all their original characteristics at will, without the presence or consent of
the original source, and after the lapse of any period of time."l? It would
be hard to find a clearer statement of the founding dreams of phonogra
phy: fidelity, manipulability, distantiation, and the overcoming of death.
There was something unsettling about the phonograph to early audi
ences, especially its ability to capture voices and sounds no longer tied
to the human body or to the organic cycle of birth and death. Once
recorded, music belongs to a spirit world of sorts. It is fixed in a state of
suspended animation. The voices and music of the dead or distant can be
revived at will and without their presence or permission. More work needs
to be done on the strong link between spiritualism, psychical research, the
Victorian cult of mourning, and the reception of late-nineteenth-century
media technologies. Nipper, obedient to "his master's voice," was often
painted as if standing atop a coffin, clearly fitting the Victorian iconogra
phy of the loyal dog mourning his master's death. The phonograph speaks
from "the other side," as if in a seance. Its uncanniness consists in its abil
ity to suppress absence, to span the chasm between source and addressee
that death and distance once seemed to make impossible.l 8
maps of imaginary worlds. Indeed, the idea that we buy music when we
buy a CD is a holdover from phonography; actually, there is no music
there.
By contrast, the phonograph record and the analog magnetic tape do
contain physical traces of the music. At a crude level this is visible with
the naked eye in the grooves of the record and can be seen with a micro,
scope on a magnetic tape if it is treated with a special fluid. The hills and
valleys of those grooves are physical analogs of the vibrations of the
music. They were cut into the master disc and then pressed into the vinyl
under the rule of cause and effect in a physical world-not, as is the case
with digital recording and CD playback, the rule of Sony and Phillips in
an institutional world. 2o
When we buy a record we buy music, and when we buy a CD we buy
data. If that key claim is true, then the end of the age of phonography will
be marked by the spread of attitudes and practices that take advantage of
that difference. If the age of phonography began with the realization of an
unprecedented convenience of music-within economic limits, anyone
could have it at their command-it was also marked by a continued atti,
tude toward music as an object of the environment, something external to
the self and its doings (for most of us, who have learned to act as con,
sumers and not producers). We buy music, bring it home, and play it. It is
made available to us, but as a preserved object; it has a given nature, inde,
pendent of our experience of it. These ideas are encoded as value stan,
dards in the culture of high fidelity so that the goal is to reproduce the
music as it really was, unchanged by recording and playback.
Today we can spot in these value standards the historicist dream of
accurate reproduction of lost moments, the positivist (or modernist) pro'
ject of fidelity to the real, a hierarchical separation between production
and enjoyment, and the metaphysics of presence.2 1 In contrast to the high,
fidelity vision of phonography, thinking of digital recording media as stor,
ing data rather than music makes it possible to enter into the musical
process, to intervene in its playback, to participate in the creation of what
it is one has gotten when one buys a CD. So digital technology would seem
to invite a participatory stance that analog inhibits. There are some hints
that these attitudes are present and growing; some of them began to appear
prior to the ready availability of digital recording and editing systems.
The attitude that recorded music is something available to be manip,
ulated, to be used in the creation of a new text, was present in the age of
phonography in the mixing and scratching of the hip,hop DJ.22 These
techniques have been pushed to a new level, though, with digital sam,
pling technologies. Digital samplers allow one musician to control the
recorded sounds of many, or to create whole songs out of bits and pieces
Defining Phonograph, 247
sampled from other songs and the sounds of everyday life. But even the
most dedicated samplers treat their samples most of the time as samples of
sounds, not as numeric data per se. In other words, the interpretation
scheme applied to the encoded numbers is the decoding half of the same
industry convention applied to the sounds in the encoding process. They
treat their sampling machines more or less the same way they would treat
an analog magnetic tape recorder. The sampling machine is wonderfully
more convenient and flexible, but still its basic purpose is to capture
sounds that can be played back later. (The old maxim of media history
recurs: the content of a new medium is a previous medium.) The real
breakthrough will come when the data that represent the "recorded"
sound are manipulated as data, in the numerical domain, to later produce
something else other than an analog of the original sound.
Computer-based audio editing software invites thinking that is closer
to this pOSSibility of distinctly "digital" attitudes toward recorded sound.
These programs are designed for the micromanipulation of sound, and in
addition to being miraculously quick and convenient analogs of tradi
tional tape recording, mixing, and editing systems, they invite fiddling
with pitch, duration, amplitude, filtering, synthesis, mixing, and so on.
The software works by manipulating the digital code as data, while the
user works with visual displays of waveforms, a musical score, or conven
tional analog recording studio equipment (such as a visual display of a
mixer). Much cheaper and more widely advertised and distributed than
only a few years ago, this type of software is no longer unfamiliar among
people working, or playing, in audio fields. Indeed, it has become a regular
tool, and toy, for radio, audio, and film students in our own university. But
this is still professional equipment, not yet a device for living-room enter
tainment analogous to the phonograph. 23
A move in the direction of listener co-creation of music is present in
stereo components that adjust amplitude, frequency balance, and phase
relations in the digital domain. The first ones did not do much more than
could be done with the ordinary electromechanical controls common to
many other stereo components. A few more sophisticated components
allow tailoring of the frequency balance of particular speakers to particular
rooms. Designed to produce further fidelity, there were many more ways to
get these components set up wrong than right. They did not sell particu
larly well, and few new ones are coming to market. Industrial noise con
trol-where fidelity is an enemy rather than an aesthetic-appears to be
the profitable area of application for this type of digital audio processing.
Whether the current generation is successful or not, audio playback
equipment with digital controls provides an important example for our
argument. No matter how similar appearing, they do what they do in a
248 The Musical Quarterl,
fundamentally different way than the electrical circuitry of the last sev
enty or so years. Electromechanical controls, such as the volume, balance,
and tone controls on ordinary stereo receivers, work by manipulating an
electrical signal that is an analog of the waveform vibrations of the music
itself. The electricity passing through an ordinary amplifier has a shape in
time that is physically similar to the movements in time of vibrating musi
cal instruments and stereo speakers. The electromechanical controls of
analog equipment alter that wave shape. But manipulation of volume,
balance, tone, and so on in the digital domain works on data as data.
From this point we could imagine a far more radical manipulation of the
"original" data, making it more upbeat or less, transposing the song into a
minor key, pulling the pitch down so we could more comfortably sing
along, perhaps even adding some strings in the background. Certainly it
would be possible to use the data to generate accompanying graphics for
television or even to create a synesthetic surround-experience. The Wag
nerian dream of a Gesamtkunstwerk seems not far off; imagine what poem
of ecstasy a latter-day Scriabin could write with digital technologies. 24
Another early development of digital thinking is the production of
CD-ROMs by musicians and audio artists. This depends on the same
recording and storage technology as the audio CD but uses the software
manipulability of the desktop computer rather than the dedicated func
tioning of the living-room CD player. Though the use of CD-ROM as an
artistic medium may be increasingly common, it has not yet attracted a
large popular audience in any form other than video games.
The newest consumer digital format, DVD, just entering the market
as this article goes to press, confirms the hold of phonographic thinking
into the digital era. Using new laser technology to read data at finer levels
of resolution, the DVD features enormous storage capacity. This capacity
could be used in a variety of ways, including the encoding of software that
would allow a living-room device to operate an audio equivalent of a
hypertext CD-ROM, allow users to manipulate the sound at whim, or
produce multimedia experiences from audio data. Perhaps in the future
the technology will be used in these ways and more. But for now the DVD
will be used to fit movies onto a CD-sized disk, and the closest we come to
living-room interaction with the data of digitally recorded music is the
occasional inclusion of a hidden track on CDs by alternative-rock bands.
As yet, most people do not think of CDs as data storage devices and
are not interested in manipulating the data to produce anything other
than an analog of the original recorded sound. The social and economic
value of CDs is based on their working as if they were analogs of recorded
music. We buy them because we want to play back music, not because we
want to play with data. Audiophiles criticize CDs and CD players for
Defining Phonograph"} 249
3.S~bol1nheory
will use this one or close approximations and no others. Business demands
social convention because it is a social practice. But setting aside the
complications of mass production for profit, phonography is a natural phe
nomenon. Within the range of social convention, nature rules.
On the other hand, of course, digital recording is not all arbitrary
convention. The ones and zeroes are caused to be recorded by ordinary
physical means. The complex waveforms of music are first broken down
into and then rebuilt up from simpler combinations of sine waves, not
because Sony and Phillips decided it would be so but because mathemati
cians imagined the possibility and proved within the conventions of
mathematics that it could work, because Fourier analysis and the Nyquist
sampling theorem demonstrate conformity with prevalent patterns of
nature and culture, and because engineers were able to devise circuits that
did it. But at its heart, digital recording is as fundamentally arbitrary as
analog recording is fundamentally natural. The representation of a given
complex waveform by a given set of sine waves may result because Fourier
analysis shows it to be the one and only set of sine waves that will ade
quately do so. But the representation of those sine waves by a certain digi
tal code is because Sony and Phillips agreed to do it that way. In this case,
within the range of natural possibility, social convention rules..It is not
nature's stylus that writes the music. The phonograph's script may be
squiggly, but it is difficult to forge. The ones and zeroes of the Phillips
Sony convention, in contrast, are only copies without originals.
When Sony and Phillips decided to cooperate in the development of
the CD, with the plan of setting an industry standard, they had to coordi
nate what had previously been two different sets of corporate goals. Sony
had had much success with miniaturization and enjoyed a high-tech pub
lic image. Phillips was heavily invested in the music business as well as
hardware, and that was important for their corporate image as well as
their pocketbook. Sony wanted the CD to be small enough to fit in the
standard-sized cutout for in-dash car stereos. Phillips wanted the CD to
hold the full length of any available recording of Beethoven's Ninth-the
longest among standard-repertoire symphonies. While twenty-bit systems
were the standard for professional digital recording, the consumer CD for
mat was set at sixteen bits. Why? So that a ninety-minute recording could
fit on a twelve-centimeter disc using then available laser technology.
This oft-repeated story may not be true in every detail, but it makes
the important point that decisions had to be made at some point about
the size of the CD, the bit rate of the format, and the music capacity of
the CD. Any two of the decisions will determine the third and any of the
three could be made by any criterion. Yet the new CD technology was
promoted a~ offering "perfect sound forever"~ven though the people
Defining Phonograph, 251
promoting it knew that the format was not as good as that of the other
equipment they manufactured for professional audio. More insidiously,
these same companies offered a line of consumer CD players, some of
which they said sounded better than others. Better than perfect? Of
course, they were right; some of them did sound better than others
because the p~rfect-s6und-foreverline was a lie. But some magazines
picked up on the promotion and advised consumers not to buy more
expensive CD players because, they assured us without having listened to
them all, they all sound more or less alike anyway. Over the years CD
players have improved tremendously, as has engineering knowledge for
recording and mastering sound for CDs. This history of performance
improvements represents the same kind of experientialleaming that has
produced improvements in phonograph technology over the last century.
But the improvements in CD technology remain limited to the original
decisions about the format. The upper limit on improvement is not per
fection, but maximum efficiency within the possibilities of the sixteen-bit
system.
As further evidence of the arbitrariness of digital recording and play
back technology, consider MD and OCC, the more recent bit-reduced for
mats. The MD, or mini-disc, is a Sony system that allows digital recording
and playback on a disc the size of small computer disks. It is a further step
in miniaturization and allows home recording, both feature~ that Sony's
experience shows are valuable to consumers. The OCC, or digital compact
cassette, is a Phillips system that allows digital recording and playback on a
cassette tape of the familiar size. This allows OCC home recording
machines to be backwards compatible, working with analog cassettes as
well. Backwards compatibility is always a good thing when selling new
technology, and Phillips, as the inventor of the compact cassette-its for
mal name-was sensitive to just how ubiquitous that medium is. But how
do they fit digital recordings on the smaller media ofMD and OCC? By
throwing away some of the data. 26 Using psychoacoustic studies of auditory
masking, computers are programmed to decide which of the data points are
not necessary because, in the presence of the others occurring at the same
time, they represent musical frequencies that would not be audible to aver
age listeners. Crudely put, it is sort of like deciding that since few can hear
the oboe anyway, the oboist should be left out of the orchestra. But rather
than dealing with whole instruments, these data reduction systems deal
with specific data points representing specific frequency-amplitudes that
are part of the complex synthesis that is the sound of the musical perfor
mance.
Of course engineering and manufacturing decisions had to be made
.in the history of phonography that are in important ways similar to these
252 The Musical QuaTteTf:y
stories about the history of the CD. The size and speed of the record and
size and shape of the stylus determine the bandwidth of response and
length of recording for records just as size, bit rate, and laser technology
do for digital. The now standard RIM equalization curve is an arbi
trary method for increasing the bandwidth capacity of the grooves-it
decreases the amplitude of bass frequencies and increases that of high fre
quencies during record mastering to decrease the range of wiggle size in
the groove. This frequency-amplitude adjustment is then reversed in
record playback. Prior to that standardization, different companies used
different equalizations. Different companies and mastering engineers still
work for different sounds. Different media and playback systems have dif
ferent ranges of frequency response.
But all of these issues in analog recording are matters of determining
the margins of bandwidth or of overall frequency balance within the band
width. In no case in analog recording can we go into the signal, the way we
can with digital data, and decide that some of it is not necessary or that
some of it should be recoded to represent something it did not before. We
can filter the signal and we can shape it and it will sound like it has been
filtered and shaped. But we cannot divide it up and rearrange the bits. The
manipulability characteristic of digital recording and playback spells both
the dream of democratic co-creation and the nightmare of lost nature. As
in Benjamin's analysis of technical reproducibility, we here encounter both
new possibilities for audience engagement and the loss of an aura)?
grooves as the physics of the situation allow. Digital sound is, of course,
best created by good equipment in a good room, but the first step is recon~
structing an analog signal from the digital data. This is done with hard
ware and software circuits following the Sony-Phillips conventions and
can only do that for which the convention was designed. The upper limit
of fidelity in an analog system is perfection, while the upper limit of
fidelity in a digital system is the Sony~Phillips convention.
Whether consciously grasped or not, it is the possibility of perfection
that motivates the values of the audiophile. Since in real life it is so
improbable, and our own stereo systems are so obviously far from it,
fidelity operates as a transcendent value. In a nutshell, this is the structure
of religion: a set of practices on earth, associated with ideas about the cos
mos, that bring us into contact with the transcendent. For the audiophile
the endless hours of listening and tweaking and comparing and talking
and worrying both prepare for and occasionally bring him or her into con~
tact with the transcendent; it is a moment of fidelity when the equipment
disappears and the pure music flows through. When evetything is right,
the hair stands on end. For those who believe, it is a religious experience.
The point is not that the religious experience of music depends on expen~
sive audio equipment, but that the audiophile's attention to equipment
has the structure of a religiOUS attitude.2S The equipment and the audio
phile's fussing over it is to the religious experience of music as Catholic
ritual is to Christianity: not necessaty, but one of the routes.
Whether religion or not, the ideas on which the culture of fidelity is
based can only be founded logically on an indexical medium. The index
that is the record groove holds forth the possibility of oneness between
the transcription and the playback devices. What further sustains the
religious attitude is the faith that on the other side of the transcription
device is something natural, mysterious, cosmic, and beyond the control
of human devices. (Schopenhauer nominates music as our only bridge
between the worlds of noumena and phenomena.) The religious circle is
closed when the psyche of the listener and the stereo are tuned just right.
The medium disappears; so does the ego. In that moment, there is the
possibility of a communion that reaches all the way back to the music's
source of inspiration. We break through to the other side.
It is also possible, of course, for a good CD player to make listeners'
hair stand on end. Yet some of the most experienced audio critics, with
access to the finest equipment, say it has never happened for them.2 9 Of
course, it is possible to ignore, or transcend if you like, the limits of equip~
ment. Those who love music must do so if they are to think of the stereo
as worthy of music at all. But the logic of the medium is such that the CD
is not nearly so well suited to religious attitudes as the phonograph. The
254 The Musical Qw;mer1':Y
possibilities of the medium and by the logic of the embedded sign systems.
To a large extent, the CD player continues the practical possibilities of
the phonograph. It also adds a whole family of possibilities yet to be taken
advantage of, due to the nature of the CD as a data storage device. Yet the
CD player and the phonograph diverge sharply at the level of the logics of
their sign systems. The phonograph is an indexical tracing system, hold
ing out the hope of perfection and union with something not-here, not
now. It has a logical correspondence with the values of high fidelity.
which aim to replicate the original musical event. The CD is a symbolic
measurement system, holding out technique, convention, and conve
nience as its highest goals. It is logically at odds with the values of high
fidelity. The logic of engineering aside, the phonograph is as if designed
for the pursuit of transcendence; the CD is as if designed for what it was,
the pursuit of convenience and profit.
Notes
The first draft of this paper was written while Rothenbuhler was Scholar-in-Residence at
the Center for the Advanced Study of Telecommunication (CAST) at Ohio State Uni
versity, January through March 1992. He thanks the codirectors of the center, Jane Fraser
and Thorn McCain, and also Bruce Gronbeck for negotiating a leave from Iowa. An ear
lier version appears as CAST Working Paper 1992-01. A later version was presented at
the Conference on Refiguring the Human Sciences: New Practices of Inquiry, at the Uni
versity of Iowa, June 1995, and received an illuminating response from Rick Altman.
Peters thanks Michael Raine, Mark Sandberg, and Jim Lastra for helpful suggestions.
1. We do not distinguish between Edison's phonograph (which used cylinders) and
Berliner's gramophone (which used discs). A term such as gramophony would, technically,
be more apt. We use phonography as an umbrella term for a family of historically evolving
techniques of sound recording that involve analog inscription on a mechanically rotating
medium (wax, copper, vinyl, tape, etc.).
2. G. W. F. Hegel, Elements of the Philosophy of Right, trans. H. B. Nisbet (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1991),23.
3. "Analog Comer," Stereophile (July 1995): 45ff; and Edward Rothstein, "Past Is Pres
ent, and the Sound Is Classic," New York Times, 22 Oct. 1995, sec. 2, pp. 1,40.
4. Laura Dearborn, The Good Sound (New York: William Morrow, 1987), is a good
source and example: Stereophi/e and Absolute Sound are the major journals of audiophilia.
Relevant historical analysis is provided by Joseph O'Connell, "The Fine-Tuning of a
Golden-Ear: High-End Audio and the Evolutionary Model of Technology," Technolo~ and
Culture 33 (1992): 1-37, and Keir Keightley, "'Tum it Down!,' She Shrieked: Gender,
Domestic Space, and High Fidelity, 1948-59," Popular Music 15 (1996): 149-77.
5. T. W. Adorno, "The Form of the Phonograph Record," trans. Thomas Y. Levin,
October 55 (Winter 1990): 56--61.
6. Friedrich A. Kittler, Discourse Networks: 1800/1900, trans. M. Metteer (Stanford:
Stanford University Press, 1990),245.
7. On the history of phonographic technique, see Michael Chanan, Repeated Takes: A Short
History of Recording and Its Effects an Music (New York: Verso, 1995), 2~36; Andre Millard, Amer
icaan Record: A History of Recorded Sound (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 17-36;
Walter L Welch and Leah Brodbeck Stenzel Burt, From Tmfoil to Stereo: The Acoustic Years of the
Recording Industry, 1877-1929 (Gainesville: University Press ofFlorida, 1994); and Jacques Perri
ault, Memoires de l'ombre et du san: Une archeo/ogie de l'audioWuel (Paris: Aammarion, 1981).
8. Evan Eisenberg, The Recording Angel: The Experience of Music from Aristotle to Zappa
(New York: Penguin, 1987). See also Chanan, and Dave Laing, "A Voice without a Face:
Popular Music and the Phonograph in the 1890's," Popular Music 10 (1991): 1-9.
9. Adorno,58.
10. Paddy Scannell and David Cardiff, A Social History of British Broadcasting, vol. 1
(Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991),221.
11. Perriault, 201.
262 The Musical Quarterlj
12. These contrasts are most important for listening to orchestra, choir, and band music;
for singers and players of handheld instruments as well as body percussion, music has
always been ponable.
13. Satie and Hindemith anticipated this development. See also Joseph Lanza, ElaJator
Music: A SUlTeal History afM_, Eas,-Listening, and Ocher Moodsong (New York: St.
Manins, 1994).
14. Raymond Williams, Television: Technology and Cultural Fonn (New York: Schocken,
1974).
15. Max Weber, "The History of the Piano," in Max Weber: Selections in Transla£ion, ed.
W. G. Runciman (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978),378-82.
16. James Lastra, "Inscriptions and Simulations: Representing Sound, 178~1900," paper
given at Sound Research Seminar, Dept. of Communication Studies, University of Iowa,
21 Apr. 1995, usefully discusses forms of "autographic" sound production before phonogra
phy. Es War Einma! ... Spieldosen- und Drehorgelkli1nge, Claves Records, 1989, CD 50-815,
provides a variety of examples.
17. Thomas A. Edison, ''The Phonograph and Its Future," North American Review 126
(May-June 1878): 527-36, at 530.
18. Mark Bennion Sandberg, "Missing Persons: Spectacle and Nanative in Late Nine
teenth-Century Scandinavia" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Berkeley, 1991).
19. The waveforms are in their tum related to the more complex waveforms constituting
music by the mathematical transformations of Fourier analysis and the engineering appli
cation of Nyquist's theorem. For overviews of digital recording and CD technologies, see
Ken C. Pohlmann, The Compact Disc: A Handbook afTheory and Use (Madison, Wis.: A-R
Editions, 1989), and John Strawn, ed., Digital Audio Engineering: An Anthology (Los Altos,
Calif.: William Kaufmann, 1985).
20. Sony and Phillips are the two companies that independently developed much of the
technology of digital recording and compact discs and then took the lead in establishing
an industry convention for equipment compatibility. The panicipation of Matsushita was
key; the rest of the industry followed their lead.
21. The rhetoric of fidelity followed the phonograph from the beginning: see Emily
Thompson, "Machines, Music, and the Quest for Fidelity: Marketing the Edison Phono
graph in America, 1877-1925," Musical Quarterb 79 (1995): 131-71. Edison, 528, pro
vides a good example of such rhetoric.
22. A 1916 advenisement for the "AeQlian-Vocalian" phonograph boasts that it "is a
true musical instrument--an instrument to control, to play, an instrument which anyone
may use to exercise the natural instinct for musical expression with which everyone is
gifted to some degree." The basis of this claim? The volume control. Thanks to Mark
Sandberg for finding and proViding a copy of this ad.
23. For what it is wonh, our local observations are that filmmakers are freest in their
manipulation of sound, happy to tum a recording of ocean waves into a sound to accom
pany pictures of a thunderstorm, for example. The uses of film throughout its history, of
course, have required more manipulation and been less subject to an aesthetic of fidelity
than have the uses of audio recording. Most of the students working in radio and audio use
the software as if it were a magically convenient piece of analog recording gear, capable of
instantaneous and minutely precise edits.
Defining Phonographoy 263
24. The psychedelic light shows of the 19605 depended on either an electromechanical
system using analogs of the sound to drive the lights or a human operator using metaphor,
simile, trope, and other rhetorical devices, as well as accident and inspiration.
25. These three views are expressed, respectively, in Nicholas Negroponte, Being Digital
(New York, Knopf, 1995); Herbert Schiller, Information I~quality: The Deepening Social
Crisis in America (New York: Routledge, 1996); and Friedrich A. Kittler, Grammophon,
Film, Toypewrirer (Berlin: Brinkmann und Bose, 1985).
26. Digital code puts immensely more demands on the bandwidth of a storage medium
than do the analog waves of conventional recording, so the same music that fits on a com
pact cassette as a recorded analog will not begin to fit on it when recorded digitally.
27. Walter Benjamin, "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction," trans.
Harry Zohn in IUuminations (New York: Schocken, 1968), 217-51.
28. The fundamental stance toward the sacred, said Levi-Strauss, is one of microadjust
ment (microperhluation): everything must be just right and in place. The Savage Mind
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), 10.
29. See, for example, Dearborn, and "Analog Comer." This claim is common in equip
ment reviews and essays in Srereophile, Absolute Sound, and other such journals, though
other critics defend the quality of recent CDs and CD players. No one defends the quality
of the first couple of generations of CDs and players.
30. Walter Benjamin, "Theses on the Philosophy of History," trans. Harry Zohn, in IUu
minations (New York: Schocken, 1968),253--64.
31. James R Lastra, "Reading, Writing, and Representing Sound," in Sound Theory/Sound
Practice, ed. Rick Altman (New York: Routledge, 1992),65-86.
32. T. W. Adorno, "The Radio Symphony: An Experiment in Theory," in Radio
Research, 1941, ed. Paul R Lazarsfeld and Frank N. Stanton (New York: Duell, Sloan, and
Pearce, 1942), 110-39.
33. Alan M. Turing, "Computing Machinery and Intelligence," Mind 59 (Oct. 1950):
433-60. Though this test was developed to discern the difference between artificial and
human intelligence, a precursor is the Edison-sponsored "tone tests" inviting auditors to
discern human from phonographic vocalists; see Thompson.
34. Kittler, Grammophon.
35. Wayne Koestenbaum, The Queen's Throar: Opera, Homosexuality, and Ute Moystery of
Desire (New York: Vintage, 1993).
36. Roman Jakobson, "The Metaphoric and Metonymic Poles," in Critical Theory Since
Plato, ed. Hazard Adams, (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1971), 1113-16.
37. Carlo Ginzburg, "Clues: Roots of an Evidential Paradigm," trans. John and Anne C.
Tedeschi, in Moyrhs, Emblems, Clues (London: Hutchinson Radius, 1990),96-125,200-14.
38. CD players try to reread obscured data from damaged CDs. The result is either refusal
to play at all, a rapidly repeating, distorted sound, or one of a variety of unpleasant com
puter noises.
39. Walter Benjamin, "Unpacking My Library," trans. Harry Zohn, in IUuminations (New
York: Schocken, 1968).
264 The Musical Quarterl,
40. See Goldmine, various issues. Bootleg CDs, however, do command considerably
higher than normal prices-perhaps in time their circulation will become limited and
their value will escalate.
41. Paul Ricoeur, "The Hermeneutics of Testimony," Anglican Theological Review 61, no.
4 (Oct. 1979): 435-.-Q1.