Contents

Section 1: General Microbiology

1. Historical Development of Microbiology 3
Introduction and scope 3
Importance and relevance of microorganisms 3
The discovery of microorganisms 4
Scientific development of microbiology 4
Nobel prizes awarded for research in microbiology 7

Section 2: Immunology
2. Microscopy and Morphology of Bacteria 8
Microscopy 8
Morphology of bacteria 9
Arrangement of bacterial cells 10
Anatomy of the bacterial cell 11
Bacterial cell components 11
Cell envelope and its appendages 11
Cell interior 14
L-forms of bacteria (Cell-wall-defective organisms) 16
3. Physiology of Bacteria 17
Principles of bacterial growth 17
Bacterial growth curve 17
4. Culture Media and Culture Methods 19
Classification of media 19
Culture methods 21
5. Sterilization and Disinfection 24
Applications of sterilization and disinfection 24
Methods of sterilization and disinfection 24
Mechanisms of antimicrobial action 28
6. Infection and Asepsis 31
Microorganisms and host 31
Infection 31
Modes of transmission of infection 32
Factors predisposing to microbial pathogenicity 32
Types of infectious diseases 33
Asepsis 33
7. Immunity 37
Immunity 37
8. Antigens 40
Antigens 40
9. Antibodies—Immunoglobulins 42
Antibody structure 42
Immunoglobulin classes 42
Role of different immunoglobulin classes 45
10. The Complement System 46
Complement 46
Biological effects of complement 48
11. Antigen-Antibody Reactions 49
General characteristics of antigen-antibody reactions 49
Serological reactions 49
Types of antigen and antibody reactions 49
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12. Structures and Functions of the Immune System 59

Types of immune response 59
Organs and tissues of the immune system 59
Major histocompatibility complex 61
13. Immune Response 62
Type of immune response 62
Humoral immunity 62
Production of antibodies 62
Cell-mediated immune responses 63
Cytokines 64
Theories of immune response 64
14. Hypersensitivity Reactions 65
Hypersensitivity 65
Gell and Coombs classification 65
15. Autoimmunity 70
Mechanisms of autoimmunity 70
Classification of autoimmune diseases 70

Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology

16. Staphylococcus73
Staphylococcus aureus 73
Antigenic structure of Staphylococcus aureus 74
Coagulase-negative staphylococci 76
Micrococci 77
17. Streptococcus and Enterococcus79
Streptococcus pyogenes 80
Other streptococci pathogenic for humans 82
Enterococcus 83
Viridans streptococci 83
18. Pneumococcus85
Morphology 85
Cultural characteristics 85
Biochemical reactions 85
Resistance 86
Antigenic structure 86
19. Neisseria and Moraxella 88
Neisseria meningitidis 88
Neisseria gonorrhoeae (Gonococcus) 90
20. Corynebacterium93
Corynebacterium 93
Corynebacterium diphtheriae 93
Diphtheroids 96
21. Bacillus98
Bacillus anthracis 98
Anthracoid bacilli 99
Bacillus cereus 100
22. Clostridium101
Clostridium perfringens (Clostridium welchii) 101
Clostridium tetani 102
Clostridium botulinum 104
Clostridium difficile 105
23. Nonsporing Anaerobes 106
24. Mycobacterium tuberculosis108
Mycobacterium tuberculosis 108
Koch phenomenon 110
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25. Mycobacterium leprae112

Mycobacterium leprae 112
26. Nontuberculous Mycobacteria 114
Pathogenesis 114
Laboratory diagnosis 115
27. Actinomycetes: Actinomyces, Nocardia 116
Actinomyces 116
Nocardia 117
28. Enterobacteriaceae: Escherichia, Klebsiella, Proteus and other Genera 118
Characteristics of the family enterobacteriaceae 118
Classification of enterobacteriaceae 118
Escherichia coli 118
Edwardsiella 120
Citrobacter 120
Klebsiella 120
Enterobacter 121
Hafnia 121
Serratia 121
Tribe Proteeae: Proteus, Morganella and Providencia 121
Proteus (Proteus bacilli) 121
Morganella 122
Providencia 122
Erwinia 122
29. Shigella 123
Morphology 123
Cultural characteristics 123
Antigenic structure 123
Classification 123
Pathogenic mechanisms 124
Pathogenicity 124
Laboratory diagnosis 124
Treatment 124
30. Enterobacteriaceae III—Salmonella 125
Salmonella 125
Salmonella gastroenteritis 128
31. Vibrio129
Vibrio cholerae 129
Halophilic vibrios 132
32. Campylobacter and Helicobacter 133
Campylobacter 133
Helicobacter 134
33. Pseudomonas, Stenotrophomonas and Burkholderia 136
Pseudomonas aeruginosa 136
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia 137
Burkholderia cepacia 137
Burkholderia mallei 137
Burkholderia pseudomallei 137
34. Legionella138
Legionella pneumophila 138
35. Yersinia, Pasteurella and Francisella 139
Yersinia pestis 139
Yersiniosis 140
36. Haemophilus141
Haemophilus influenzae 141
Haemophillus ducreyi 143
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37. Bordetella144
Bordetella pertussis 144
38. Brucella146
Morphology 146
Cultural characteristics 146
Biochemical reactions 146
Pathogenesis 146
Laboratory diagnosis 146
Prophylaxis 147
Treatment 147
39. Spirochetes 148
Treponema 148
Non-venereal treponematoses 152
Non-pathogenic treponemes 152
Borrelia 152
Leptospira 153
40. Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma 156
Classification 156
Morphology 156
Cultural characteristics 156
Pathogenicity 157
Laboratory diagnosis 157
Treatment 158
41. Miscellaneous Bacteria 159
Listeria monocytogenes 159
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae 160
Alcaligenes faecalis 160
Chromobacterium violaceum 160
Flavobacterium meningosepticum 160
Donovania granulomatis (Calymmatobacterium granulomatis or Klebsiella granulomatis) 160
Acinetobacter (Mima polymorpha; Bacterium anitratum) 160
Rat bite fever (Streptobacillus moniliformis and Spirillum minus) 161
Gardnerella vaginalis 161
42. Rickettsiaceae, Bartonellaceae and Coxiella 162
Classification 162
Genus Rickettsia 162
Genus Orientia 162
Genus Ehrlichia 164
Genus Coxiella: Q fever 164
Bartonella 164
43. Chlamydia and Chlamydophila 166
Classification 166
Chlamydia 166
Chlamydophila 167
Laboratory diagnosis of Chlamydia infections 167

Section 4: Virology
44. General Properties of Viruses 171
Main properties of viruses 171
Morphology of viruses 171
Cultivation of viruses 172
Tissue culture 173
Detection of virus growth in cell culture 173
Classification of viruses 174
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45. Laboratory Diagnosis, Prophylaxis and Chemotherapy of Viral Diseases 175

Laboratory diagnosis of viral infections 175
Immunoprophylaxis of viral diseases 175
Chemoprophylaxis and chemotherapy of virus diseases 175
46. DNA Viruses 177
Poxviruses 177
Herpesviruses 178
Varicella-zoster virus 179
Cytomegalovirus 180
Epstein-Barr virus 180
Adenoviruses 181
Papovaviruses 182
Papillomaviruses 182
Polyomaviruses 182
Parvovirus 182
Hepatitis B virus 182
47. Hepatitis Viruses 183
Type A hepatitis (HAV)—infectious hepatitis 183
Hepatitis B virus (Serum hepatitis) 184
Hepatitis type C 186
Type D (Delta) hepatitis 186
Hepatitis E virus 187
Hepatitis G virus 187
NON-A, NON-B hepatitis 187
48. RNA Viruses 188
Picornaviruses 188
Orthomyxovirus 189
Paramyxoviruses 190
Rhabdoviruses 191
Arboviruses 193
Alphavirus 193
Flavivirus 193
Rubella (German measles) 194
Rotaviruses 194
49. Retroviruses: Human Immunodeficiency Virus 196
Retroviruses 196
Human immunodeficiency virus 196

Section 5: Medical Mycology

50. General Properties, Classification and Laboratory Diagnosis of Fungi 203
Differences of fungi from bacteria 203
General properties of fungi 203
Classification of fungi 203
Laboratory diagnosis 203
Mycoses (Fungus infections) 204
51. Superficial, Cutaneous and Subcutaneous Mycoses 205
Superficial mycoses 205
Cutaneous mycoses 205
Subcutaneous mycoses 205
Rhinosporidiosis 206
52. Systemic Mycoses 208
Systemic mycoses 208
53. Opportunistic Mycoses 211
Opportunistic fungi 211
Causative fungal agents 211
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Yeast and yeast-like fungi 211

Cryptococcosis 212
Aspergillosis 213
Mucormycoses (zygomycosis, systemic phycomycosis) 213
Pneumocystosis 214

Section 6: Medical Parasitology

54. Protozoology 217
Classification of parasites 217
Protozoa 217
Flagellates 220
Trichomonas 222
Hemoflagellates 222
Leishmania donovani 222
Sporozoa 224
55. Helminthology 229
Cestodes 229
Taenia saginata 229
Taenia solium 230
Genus Echinococcus 232
Nematodes 234
Ancylostoma duodenale 236
Necator americanus 238
Enterobius vermicularis 239
Wuchereria bancrofti 240
Trematodes 242

Section 7: Miscellaneous
56. Infective Syndrome 245
Meningitis 245
Urinary tract infections 246
Sore throat 246
Diarrhea 246
Dysentery 247
Food poisoning 247
Sexually transmitted diseases 248
Pyrexia of unknown origin 248
57. Laboratory Control of Antimicrobial Therapy 250
Antibiotic sensitivity tests 250
58. Normal Microbial Flora of the Human Body 252
Normal flora of the skin 252
Normal flora of the conjunctiva 252
Normal flora of the nose, nasopharynx and accessory sinuses 252
Normal flora of the mouth 252
Normal flora of the upper respiratory tract 252
Normal flora of the gastrointestinal tract 253
Normal flora of the genitourinary tract 253
59. Hospital-acquired Infection 254
Sources of infections 254
Microorganisms causing hospital infection 254
Common hospital-acquired infection 255
Diagnosis and control of hospital infection 255
Infection control policy 255
Prevention and control 256
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60. Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 257

Antimicrobial agent 257
Antibiotic 257
Chemotherapeutic agents 257
Antibacterial agents 257
Mechanisms of action of antibacterial drugs 257
Resistance to antimicrobial drugs 259
61. Immunoprophylaxis 260
Immunizing agents 260
Immunization 260
Individual immunization 261
62. Hospital Waste Management 263
Universal precautions 263
Definition of biomedical waste 263
Categories of biomedical waste 263
Treatment and disposal technologies for health-care waste 264
63. Vehicles, Vectors and Rodents 266
Vehicles and vectors 266
Vehicle-borne 266
Vector-borne 266
Rodents 266
64. Standard Precautions in Health Care 268
Applications of standard precautions 268

Section 8: Diagnostic Medical Microbiology

65. Diagnostic Procedures in Clinical Microbiology 273
Specimens 273
66. Staining Methods 276
Staining methods 277

Index 283